THEORY INTO PRACTICE Implication for coaches

Two general approaches of sport expertise development have been presented in this chapter.

The deliberate practice framework emphasizes skill learning but gives little attention to the psycho-social context in which this learning occurs throughout development. On the other hand, the DMSP considers the physical and psycho-social costs associated with expertise development in sport.

Coaching within the deliberate practice framework

A coach whose only focus is to improve an athlete’s current performance level will most often do so by maximizing deliberate practice time in training. Such a coach will focus on structured drills and activities with well-defined learning goals, provide regular feedback for skill improvement, and create ample opportunities for repetition. Within the deliberate practice framework, training activities are carefully monitored by coaches, and coaches’

interventions are aimed at correcting errors and improving athletes’ performance.

It is important to acknowledge the importance of deliberate practice and well-designed training sessions in the acquisition of sport skills; however, an over-emphasis on deliberate practice during childhood can lead to sport attrition, burn-out, injuries, decreased enjoyment and poor health. Coaches need to be aware that many children will not respond positively to a primary focus on skill acquisition, early selection of players for more competitive teams, year-round training in one sport, and a lack of opportunities to play and experiment with other sports. Coaching within this framework creates a sport context that constrains children’s natural need for physical play and experimentation with various sports.

Sport is one of the rare activities of childhood that is inherently enjoyable while requiring concentration and effort. By encouraging early specialization and deliberate practice during childhood, coaches are imposing an adult model of sport on children; the enjoyment and experimentation associated with physical play and diverse sport participation are often neglected in order to increase training effectiveness and improve sport specific skills. In turn, children’s perceptions of sport are altered, and young sport participants may be deterred from further involvement in sport at a recreational or elite level.

One could argue that participation in a large amount of deliberate practice at a young age could be done in concert with involvement in other sports and deliberate play.

However, for a coach, this suggestion could be difficult to implement, considering the three tenets of the deliberate practice framework (i.e., that elite athletes specialize in their main sport earlier, start deliberate practice earlier, and accumulate more deliberate practice hours 1111

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throughout their careers than non-elite athletes). These propositions leave little room for youth sport coaches to encourage their athletes to get involved in other sports and deliberate play activities.

Coaches of sports where early specialization and an emphasis on deliberate practice at a young age are the norm owing to an early peak performance age, such as women’s figure skating and gymnastics, should take into consideration the possible costs of this type of training during childhood. Athletes who must engage in long hours of practice at younger ages in order to reach peak performance before puberty do not have opportunities to take part in other sports and deliberate play due to time and energy constraints. This type of environment creates high performance expectations from coaches, parents, and the athletes themselves.

It is crucial that coaches of young elite-level athletes are sensitive to the psycho-social costs and health risks of high amounts of deliberate practice in childhood and implement appropriate support systems to minimize these costs.

Coaching within the developmental model of sport participation

In this chapter, we presented the DMSP as an alternative model of expertise development.

The DMSP suggests various amounts of sampling, deliberate play, and deliberate practice at different stages of children’s development. Specifically, the model suggests the importance of physical training and psycho-social resources being in line with the needs of children at various stages of development, so that children experience positive outcomes and stay involved in sport throughout development.

Contrary to Ericsson et al.’s suggestion that 10,000 hours of deliberate practice are necessary to achieve expertise in any domain, the DMSP suggests that expert performance in sports where peak performance generally occurs after the age of 20 can be achieved with 3,000–4,000 hours of sport-specific training (i.e., deliberate practice). The DMSP instead suggests that 10,000 hours of total involvement in sport (taking into account involvement throughout development in deliberate play, other sports, and organized competitions) is a better measure of expertise in sport.

Based on studies of expert athletes in sports where peak performance occurs during young adulthood (e.g. basketball, field hockey, ice hockey, and triathlon), it is possible to suggest general guidelines for percentages of time that athletes should spend in deliberate practice and deliberate play/other sporting activities during the sampling, specializing, and investment years. The data in Table 2.1 are based on an athlete who reaches peak performance during adulthood and thus would aim to accumulate approximately 10,000 hours of experience in deliberate practice, deliberate play, and other sporting activities by that age. Obviously, demands will vary between sports owing to differing peak performance ages and numerous other factors; however, the ratios suggested in Table 2.1 can serve as a general guideline for coaches wishing to develop athletes’ skills while still being conscious of physical and psycho-social training costs.

Past research suggests that approximately fifty per cent of athletes’ total time in sport be spent in deliberate practice activities, and the other fifty per cent be spent in deliberate play activities and other sporting activities. From a coaching perspective it is most important to see the progression from more hours of deliberate play during childhood to more hours of

deliberate practice during adolescence and young adulthood, and from involvement in two to four seasonal sports during childhood and early adolescence to investment in year-round training in one sport beginning late in adolescence. As previously mentioned, these figures vary according to sports. For example, Ironman triathletes will generally reach their peak performance level at an older age than ice hockey players and consequently, may spend more time doing other sports during childhood. As a result, it is difficult to suggest an average number of hours per week throughout development for involvement in deliberate practice, deliberate play, and other sports; however, as a general rule, the ratio of deliberate play/other sports to deliberate practice should be 80:20 during the sampling years, 50:50 during the specializing years, and 20:80 during the investment years. Table 2.1 serves primarily to highlight the importance of recognizing and respecting the different ratios of play to practice activities throughout the development of a committed athlete.

Coaching in the sampling years

Coaches should recognize that children’s motivation to stay involved in sport either at a recreational or elite level is largely influenced by their experiences in the sampling years.

The main goal of coaches during this period should be to focus their programs on intrinsically motivating behaviors (i.e., deliberate play and involvement in several sports) instead of externally controlled activities (i.e., deliberate practice). A supportive environment should be created to allow children to be involved in plenty of deliberate play and other sports.

Because children don’t understand competition and sport performances the same way adults do, coaches should not emphasize performance through deliberate practice or over-organize competition during the sampling years.

Coaches should avoid the tendency to ‘over-coach’ in the sampling years. One way to achieve this is by encouraging multisport involvement and avoiding an emphasis on year-round training in one sport. Specifically, the sampling years should focus on deliberate play activities without the pedagogical intervention of a coach or other adult (e.g. parent) that interrupts children’s participation (e.g. providing instruction or correcting errors). The sampling years should also include a small number of deliberate practice activities that are not necessarily focused on only one sport. For example, a young athlete may be involved in baseball in the 1111

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Table 2.1 Suggested percentage of time and number of sporting activities during the sampling, specializing, and investment years

Stage of Deliberate play/ Deliberate practice: Involvement in participation other sport activities: % total involvement other sports:

% total involvement no. of sports

Sampling 80 20 3–4

(age 6–12)

Specializing 50 50 2–3

(age 13–15)

Investment 20 80 1–2

(age 16–22)

summer, soccer in the spring, and hockey in the winter, and receive deliberate practice training in these three sports during their different seasons. One objective of deliberate practice activities during the sampling years is for children to learn fundamental movement skills that can potentially be transferred across sports. However, the main focus of the sampling years should be to let children experiment with various ways of executing sport skills in various contexts through deliberate play and fun involvement in several sports.

The ultimate goal of coaches in the sampling years is to nurture children’s intrinsic motivation for sport. Coaching techniques such as teaching games for understanding (see the book by Griffin and Butler in the reading list at the end of this chapter for more information) should be used with young children to create an environment of fun in organized sport.

Furthermore, by encouraging deliberate play and the sampling of various sports, coaches can promote the development of self-regulation, decision-making skills, and feelings of competence and connectedness. These important skills and feelings are essential to the development of future self-determined expert and recreational athletes.

Coaching in the specializing years

Athletes in the specializing years make an informed decision about increasing their involvement in one sport and committing to train more seriously in this sport. During this transitional stage toward expertise, youth need to be nurtured and encouraged to get involved in sporting activities that may be perceived as less inherently enjoyable (i.e., deliberate practice) but are important in their development toward elite sport performance. A more equal balance of deliberate practice and deliberate play is suggested during the specializing years. It is important from a coaching perspective to ensure a balance between amounts of intrinsically motivating activities (i.e., deliberate play and other sporting activities) and performance-oriented sport-specific activities (i.e., deliberate practice) during the specializing years. This balance allows children to stay motivated while learning important sport-specific skills that move them toward the next level of elite sport performance.

Coaching in the investment years

During the investment years, athletes make a definite commitment to training and performance. Most hours of sport participation should be invested in sport-specific deliberate practice at this stage. Coaches should also try to make sure that athletes are involved in a small amount of deliberate play activities. The deliberate play activities during the investment years are to remind athletes of the intrinsic enjoyment that results from sport participation.

Coaches could also encourage their athletes to participate in another sport in the off-season for relaxation or cross-training purposes. Although competition is not the most important activity to improve performance in all sports, competitive situations are critical for the development of perceptual and decision-making skills, skill execution, and physical fitness in many sports. Coaches in the investment years should promote competitive situations that are likely to have a direct effect on the athlete’s progress toward elite performance.

One of the coach’s primary goals during the investment years should be to provide physical and social resources to overcome the effort and motivational constraints associated with

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deliberate practice. The effectiveness of a coach during the investment years lies in his or her specific knowledge of the sport and the way he or she transmits that knowledge in training and in competition. Therefore, sport-specific knowledge and communication skills are important assets at this level of coaching. Further, a coach’s commitment to establishing structured and competitive training sessions should be in line with athletes’ levels of investment. By demonstrating enthusiasm in training and fostering a training environ-ment that nurtures athletes’ learning and motivation, coaches create a positive training environment, as illustrated in this quotation from an international-level rower:

I think a coach that is willing to be in training at 5:30 in the morning and always be there is a big motivator for an athlete. It makes a big difference compared to a coach that sort of comes out maybe three or four times a week and doesn’t really like coaching. . . I think if you see a coach that is willing to do everything that you are doing, it just makes that much more drive. I mean you have to be down at practice because there is someone waiting for you. . . It’s nice to have a coach that’s as fully motivated as you.

In sum, effective coaching during the investment years is dependent upon a coach’s ability to set goals, to organize an optimal learning environment, and to relate personally to their athletes.

CONCLUSION

Although the deliberate practice framework provides the most evident model of expertise development, it does not consider physical and psycho-social costs to young athletes. In contrast, the DMSP provides a framework of elite performance and healthy development by looking beyond accumulated hours of deliberate practice. Although not all the outcomes of the DMSP have been directly tested, a growing body of literature supports its tenets.

Concerted effort is required from coaches, physical education teachers, and parents to ensure that children follow healthy developmental sport paths, and stay involved in sport at either an elite or recreational level throughout development.

COACH’S CORNER Eddie Jones

Coaching Consultant, Saracens Rugby Club

My experience of coaching rugby for the last 20 years or so has meant that I have seen many generations of players emerge. In my opinion, I think our current crop of players are generally not as skilled as previous generations. Obviously there are many reasons for this

situation, including the amount of competition from other sports to secure the best talent.

However, I think the lack of deliberate play, as the authors put it, is a key factor. Similarly, I think specializing too early is also limiting the skill development of our younger generation in team sports.

Thinking back to my own playing days, it was not uncommon for me and many others to play an organized cricket match where I would have my bat in the morning, then take off to play in a rugby trial game and then come back to field for my cricket team in the afternoon. As a result I was always thinking about the sports I was involved in.

Whether I was aware of it or not I was probably transferring things I learnt from one sport to the other. When coaching I can clearly pick out those players who have played a variety of sports growing up relative to those that have predominantly specialized in rugby.

A key difference is that those who have played lots of sports are usually more tactically astute.

How much play and practice?

I think it’s critical that it’s play before practice and not the other way around. As detailed in the chapter, if you play a sport for a period of time you start to develop a motivation to want to play it better, which then directs you down the path of more specific practice.

This passion for self-improvement is not forced on you from the coach but is something developed by the player owing to their experiences. This process makes sense to me, rather than starting out with specific practice and perhaps never really developing a passion for the game.

I agree with what the authors propose regarding the progression from play to practice.

Primary school children should be exposed to more play and less formal practice. Then as they get to secondary school at around 12–13 years of age, a format of two specific practice sessions and two play sessions could occur. Finally, as they hit 15–16 years of age they would then be training and playing competitive games regularly. The play element would still exist outside of the formal training and competition times owing to the internal motivation the players have developed to want to get better at their sport.

In Australia, our summer–winter program of sports provides an excellent framework to play a number of sports and strike a good balance between play and practice. For me, as I mentioned before, it was cricket and rugby. Summer meant playing cricket. Usually there would be lots of deliberate play after school with others in the neighborhood, and then there would be club or school training to attend and a game to play on the weekend. This would continue for four or five months. Then winter would arrive and rugby would commence, and we would play touch footy in school physical education and at every lunch break. In addition to the deliberate play we would attend club training and again play a weekend game. In thinking back, I think the fact that the seasons meant switching from one sport to another meant I never got bored with the one sport and was always happy to play and practice as much as possible.

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The modern era

Contrast this to the modern generation. From what I’m told, many school children don’t play any sports during recess or lunch breaks. On occasion even if the boys want to play sport, the schools, for policy (insurance) reasons, ban games such as touch rugby or British Bulldogs (a physical tag game).

Similarly, as the students get older and need to be exposed to more competitive play, the school calendar for organized competition is very brief. School rugby teams may play seven matches a school season. Hence they train, train, train, with only a little competition and deliberate play. Incidentally much of this training is based around winning the inter-school competition, meaning players are locked into playing positions and roles based on their current playing status (mainly decided by their physical stature). Although they may win the school ‘A Grade’ competition, this approach stifles their overall skill development, producing players with a limited set of skills.

Providing enough competitive play as players get to 16 years of age or older is still a problem we have in rugby in Australia. We need to have our players contextualize what it is they are learning in training into a game format. Unfortunately our players train more than they play. I see the benefits of playing more competitive games in other sports.

Australian cricketers travel to England for the Australian winter to compete in the county cricket competition. Although the competition may not be as testing as the Australian equivalent, the sheer volume of competitive play allows the players to get valuable repetition in a game context.

Creativity is another area where I have seen a decline in modern-day players. I consider the lack of deliberate play to be one of the reasons for this decline. Play fosters inquisitiveness to learn and develop new skills. For instance, ‘how can I bend this pass around that tree, or how can I dodge my mate from next door when playing one-on-one rugby in a narrow

Creativity is another area where I have seen a decline in modern-day players. I consider the lack of deliberate play to be one of the reasons for this decline. Play fosters inquisitiveness to learn and develop new skills. For instance, ‘how can I bend this pass around that tree, or how can I dodge my mate from next door when playing one-on-one rugby in a narrow