Theory of Planned Behaviour

The Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) (Ajzen, 1985) is universally accepted as a powerful model of behaviour, and has been used to measure entrepreneurial intentions (McEachan, Conner, Taylor & Lawton, 2011:97). Ajzen (1985) first published the TPB in 1985 and this theory has been successfully used in different disciplines. According to the TPB, every action in human behaviour is planned (Ajzen, 1985:11; Ajzen, 2017b). The TPB measures the intentions of the individual to enact behaviour, and in the case of this study, intentions to participate in entrepreneurial behaviour such as to start a business. The TPB extends the

Theory of Reasoned Action by adding the variable of behaviour control (Ajzen, 2017a:1).

The TPB, according to Ajzen (2017a:1) and as shown in Figure 3.4, identifies that there are three kinds of antecedents that influence human behaviour, namely:

a. Behavioural beliefs or expected values are describe as attitude towards the behaviour and are the results of behaviour, and produce a positive or adverse attitude towards the behaviour.

b. Normative beliefs, which are describe as subjective norm, constitute views about the normative anticipations of others and a consequence from apparent social pressure.

c. Control beliefs are describe as perceived behavioural control, which are determined by the degree of control the individual believes he or she possesses to enact the behaviour.

Figure 3.4: Theory of Planned Behaviour Source: Ajzen (2017a)

Behavioural and normative beliefs are variables that influence the apparent attractiveness to execute a specific behaviour (Krueger, et al; 2000:416). The antecedent of behaviour, perceived behavioural control, alludes to the perceptions of the individual of situational capability or self-efficacy. The three antecedents of behavioural intention as described by the TPB are described as follows:

a. Personal Attitude (attitude towards behaviour): Personal attitude is the extent to which a person has a favourable or unfavourable assessment towards a particular behaviour. The individual can experience the behaviour as positive or negative which will influence their attitude towards the specific behaviour. Ajzen (1991:188) describes attitude as the view an individual has towards the behaviour in question, being favourable or unfavourable. Attitude involves the process of deliberation to conclude to perform a specific behaviour. Personal attitude and self-efficacy were found to be a main factor explaining entrepreneurial intentions in a study by Liñán, et al; (2011b:205). These findings were in line with previous studies (Kolverreid, 1996; Tkachev & Kolvereid, 1999; Krueger, et al; 2000; Autio, et al; 2001; Liñán & Chen, 2009). The construct on measuring self-efficacy deliberates on the attractiveness of the individual to engage certain kinds of behaviour. It is important to look at attitude as Souitaris, Zerbinati and Al-Laham (2007:567) found that attitude increased students’ intention because of participation in entrepreneurship programmes. It would be of importance to investigate the role of attitude in the industrial designer as a predictor of entrepreneurial intent.

b. Perceived social norms (subjective norms): Perceived social norms (or subjective norms) refer to an individual’s belief whether peers think he or she should engage in the behaviour. Social norms also include habitual codes of conduct in a group of people. Perceived social norm measures the perceived social pressure by the individual to act, or not to act on entrepreneurial activities. Studies by Ajzen (1991), Autio, Keeley, Klofsten, Parker and Hay (2001) and Liñán, et al; (2011b:203) have found that perceived norms were not significant. However, because there is no entrepreneurial intent study on TDD students in South Africa, the researcher decided to include and test perceived social norms in the suggested research model. It would be significant to

determine whether industrial design students in this study are influenced by peers, role models, parents and/or successful entrepreneurs.

c. Self-efficacy (Perceived behavioural control): As stated earlier (section 3.4.4), the TPB is an extension of the Theory of Reasoned Action (Ajzen, 1985), introducing the factor of perceived behavioural control (PBC) to account for behaviours over which people have incomplete control. This factor accounts for situations where non-motivational factors play a role in attitude translating into action (Ajzen, 1991:183), acknowledging that the resources and opportunities available to a person must to some extent dictate the likelihood of behavioural achievement. Specifically, perceived behavioural control refers to the perceived ease or difficulty of performing the behaviour (Ajzen, 2017a). Perceived behavioural control involves judgements concerning individuals’ capability to perform a given behaviour, the extent to which they have the requisite resources and the belief that they can overcome the obstacles they may encounter (Ajzen, 2002:677).

Perceived behavioural control is very similar to Bandura’s (1997) conception of self-efficacy as it reflects an individual’s personal judgement of their ability to perform a prospective behaviour (Ajzen, 2017b). Consequently, Ajzen (1991) incorporated self-efficacy and controllability items into intention measures to improve behaviour prediction. Perceived self-efficacy is defined by Bandura (1994:2) as people’s beliefs about their capabilities to produce designated levels of performance that exercise influence over events that affect their lives.

Self-efficacy is related to the individual perceiving a definite performance outcome, or the extent to which an individual is competent to execute certain behaviour (Krueger, et al; 2000:418; Schlaegel & Koenig, 2014:317; Ajzen, 2017a:1). Self- efficacy is how the individual perceives the easiness or complexity to execute a specific behaviour – namely to start a business (Urban, 2010a:133). Several studies have found a positive relationship between self-efficacy and the actual start-up of a business (Markham, Balkin & Baron, 2002:149; Zhao, Seibert & Hills, 2005).

Self-efficacy beliefs determine how people think, motivate themselves, and how they behave. An individual with a positive self-perception and attitude will have a higher intention to perform. If a person has control over a process, for example to start a business, the intention will be carried out when the opportunity arises (Autio, et al; 2001:145). Entrepreneurs have a high belief in being able to achieve what they set out to achieve (Baron, 2012:101). The TDD student is creative and this creates openness to experiences, engaging in two or more tasks at the same time, and capacity beliefs that lead to higher self-efficacy (Farmer & Tierney, 2017:34).