The Theory of Work Adjustment

Within Dawis and Lofquist’s (1984) Theory of Work Adjustment, quality of working life is conceptualised as “the quality of the relationship between employees and the total working environment” (Davis, 1983, p. 80). The work environment requires that certain activities be performed, and the individual brings expertise and knowledge to perform the required activities. Central to the theory is the notion that the interaction between employer and employee involves reciprocity, a process where the employee receives compensation for work performance and the employer provides certain preferred conditions, such as a safe and comfortable place to work. In order for the interaction between the individual employee and the work environment to be maintained, the two parties must continue to meet each other’s requirements. Within the theory, the degree to which the requirements of both are satisfied is referred to as ‘correspondence’ (Dawis & Lofquist, 1984, p. 9). Success, or a lack of success, in fulfilling needs, interests and values results in satisfaction or dissatisfaction for either the individual employee or the work environment (employer), or for both parties. Dissatisfaction results in efforts to make adjustments to improve satisfaction (Hesketh & Dawis, 1991).

According to the theory, adjustment involves four components: flexibility, activeness, reactiveness and perseverance (Dawis & Lofquist, 1984; Hesketh & Dawis, 1991). Flexibility is the degree of tolerance that both employees and employers have for mismatches between abilities and ability requirements, or between needs, interests and values. Activeness refers to a mode of adjustment that involves seeking to change the other party. For example, this could relate to an

employee requesting more staff in a work environment. It could also relate to the employer asking an employee to change behaviour, for example to stop being late for work. Reactiveness refers to a reactive mode of adjustment that involves the individual, or the organisation, voluntarily making a change to facilitate an improvement in degree of correspondence and satisfaction. For example, this could relate to a nurse reorganising her own work tasks, or the hospital management improving the lighting in a work environment. Perseverance, the final of the four components of adjustment, refers to the length of time that the employee or the employer continues trying to make adjustments to improve levels of satisfaction (Hesketh & Dawis, 1991).

According to the theory, successful work adjustment is indicated by mutual satisfaction: satisfaction of the employee with work, and the satisfaction of the employing organisation with the employee. Mutual satisfaction results in tenure, defined as the state in which an employee remains in the job, and tenure is the principal indicator of successful work adjustment (Dawis & Lofquist, 1984). In regard to the employee, a sense of personal wellbeing, including mental wellbeing, and satisfaction with work are the key components that contribute to continuing tenure (Hesketh & Dawis, 1991).

This study was conceptualised in accordance with the essence of the Theory of Work Adjustment, which is that continued interaction between an individual employee and a particular work environment is dependent upon the employee being in an environment that is compatible with his or her interests, values, needs, temperament

and goals (Hesketh & Dawis, 1991). The two key concepts of particular relevance to this study are that employee satisfaction and tenure are directly related to the extent to which an individual’s needs and requirements are filled by the work they do, and the extent to which an individual’s abilities and personal values are compatible with those of the workplace (Dawis & Lofquist, 1984; Sharf, 2002).

3.3.1 The six value dimensions

Human values are explained as a set of stable, general beliefs about what is desirable that emerge from society’s norms and the individual’s core psychological needs and sense of self (Feather, 1988, 1992). Work values have to do with what people consider good or bad at work. They are motivating factors because they govern what people seek, or seek to avoid, in their work in order to gain an acceptable quality of working life. According to Johns and Saks (2005), many values are established early in life and people tend to be attracted to certain occupations because they match their personal values. For example, individuals may be attracted to police work or nursing work for altruistic reasons, because they desire to do work that is of benefit to others. Others may be more attracted to an occupation that offers high status or large financial reward. Meeting altruistic values by fulfilling a need to help others is a common reason for individuals, males and females, choosing a career in nursing (Beck, 2000; Miers, Rickaby, & Pollard, 2006; Thorpe & Loo, 2003), and can be a more compelling value than large financial reward (Bozell, 2001; Buchanan & Considine, 2002).

Within the Theory of Work Adjustment, personal values are linked to the aspects of work that people experience as appealing and rewarding, and they are presented as a cluster of six value dimensions, one of which is altruism. The other five are achievement, comfort, status, safety and autonomy. Each value dimension is linked with a group of work related needs. The value of altruism is linked to helping others, working within one’s own moral beliefs and ethical code, and harmony with co- workers. The value of achievement is linked to the need for feedback from others, opportunities for professional growth and advancement, and the importance of using one’s abilities and feeling a sense of accomplishment. The value of comfort is linked to diverse aspects of work that minimise stress and include variety, adequate pay, job security, and physical aspects of the work environment. The value of status is linked to the need for recognition of effort and expertise, respect from others and opportunities for advancement. The value of safety is linked to the need for non- hazardous conditions, orderliness and predictability, competent co-workers and protective workplace policies and practices. The value of autonomy is linked with the need for freedom to express creativity, control and responsibility (Dawis, 2002; Dawis & Lofquist, 1984; Hesketh & Dawis, 1991; Hesketh & Westbrook, 1991; Sharf, 2002).

In accordance with the Theory of Work Adjustment, active and reactive modes of adjustment are important in helping individual employees ensure their personal needs and work values are fulfilled at least to a minimum acceptable level of satisfaction. In effect, these modes of adjustment are a form of problem solving. If, after efforts at adjustment, a problem or multiple problems continue, satisfaction, and therefore

quality of working life, may drop below a threshold of minimum acceptability (Hesketh & Dawis, 1991). This increases the potential for employees to terminate their tenure with the employing organisation, and possibly with their chosen profession.

In summary, the Theory of Work Adjustment was selected as the theoretical framework to underpin this study because the wide-ranging ‘needs and values’ perspective allowed for a broad, encompassing approach to investigate the complex phenomena that can impact upon the quality of nurses’ working life. The theory provided a broad framework that allowed exploration of the phenomena through quantitative and qualitative research methods. It was therefore compatible with the pragmatist viewpoint, which was the philosophical stance on which the choice of a mixed method approach to this study was based.