Thesis scope

The research reported encompasses the process for development of a model of a NRM system but does not include translation of that model into an operational system. Existing software tools have been used to capture the model and intended operations, including the use of standard modelling languages - Unified Modeling Language (UML) and Systems Modeling Language (SysML). The same process could be used to guide development of a domain specific language specifically for managing within the environment domain, but such an exercise is beyond the scope of the current research.

1.4

Thesis structure

The structure of this dissertation is depicted in Figure 1.1 as an activity diagram from the Unified Modeling Language (OMG, 2010b), and is based on a technique adopted by Flint (2006). Each chapter in the dissertation is represented as an activity (grey rounded box), with the directed arrows between them representing the flow of ideas and results of the research. Objects on the diagram (white square boxes) represent contributions made by the research.

There are three Parts to the dissertation, as represented by the vertical partitions of the activity diagram in Figure 1.1. An outline of each Part and Chapter thereof follows.

1.4.1

Part I – Introduction

Part I comprises four chapters. Chapter 1 is the current chapter, which provides an overview of the dissertation and identifies the cross-disciplinary nature of the research. The importance of adequate and effective nature reserve management is established in Chapter 2 - Background.

Figure 1.1 - Activity diagram representing the structure and flow of ideas and results throughout the dissertation

The other two key disciplines encompassed, and there relationships to nature reserves, are established in Chapter 3 – Management and Chapter 4 – Modelling.

1.4.2

Part II – Contribution

Part II comprises two chapters. Chapter 5 is based on a survey of managers of nature reserves in Australia, with emphasis on current reserve management practices and tools used. Chapter 6 details the development of a model for the NRM system using the preferred modelling approach established in Chapter 4.

1.4.3

Part III – Discussion and conclusion

There are two chapters forming Part III. Chapter 7 comprises two case studies in which the developed model for the NRM system is tested as a proof-of-concept. Chapter 8 is a summary of the research, outcomes and contributions, leading to proposals for further research towards creation of an operational model of the NRM system.

1.5

Summary of contribution

The research made public through this dissertation provides contributions to knowledge as follows:

• a nature reserve management (NRM) system model based on adoption of a

systems approach, via use of an architecture framework, for better management of nature reserves;

• evidence, from a survey undertaken, of the limited adoption of management approaches and tools in nature reserve management, and that nature reserve stakeholders are not recognised as including non-humans;

• the survey questionnaire and data (Appendix E) to enable replication or comparison with other survey results

o the current survey indirectly provides data on four of the features of Australia’s National Reserve System Strategy (National Reserve System Task Group, 2009) but with only one sample point no conclusions can be drawn;

• demonstration of the use of the selected architecture framework in a completely different context (non-defence) to its original development context (defence); and

• three practical constructs created as part of development of the NRM system

model that can be used more widely to assist in applying the selected architecture framework

1) to more easily identify operational rules - a matrix comprising rule type (dichotomous (Yes/No) and number (value) specific) by constraint type (mission, operation and business) (section 7.3.5.3.6), 2) for the identification of management data - a matrix comprising

‘information required’ and ‘information generated’ by each performer in the model (section 7.3.5.3.9), and

3) to aid in comprehending the interconnections between model elements and determining which views should be modelled for a particular nature reserve – a matrix cross-referencing generic nature reserve management functions with each of the viewpoints of the selected architecture framework (section 6.7)

! with such cross-referencing of management functions with architecture viewpoints having applicability across any management environment

Chapter 2

Background

Humanity is slowly reaching a consensus that the human species occupies a commons called planet Earth for which all of us bear collective responsibility. …. All humanity must join in a mutual effort to ensure the survival of a healthy Earth. … A little leadership at the highest level could go a long way toward forestalling the day when the bell tolls requiem for nature.

John Terborgh (2004, p xiii)

Contents

2.1 Introduction ... 11 2.2 Frame of reference ... 11 2.2.1 Nomenclature ... 12 2.3 Management of nature reserves – a problem ... 13 2.3.1 Maintaining diversity via protected areas ... 14 2.3.2 Protected areas and climate change ... 15 2.3.3 Protected areas and health benefits ... 16 2.3.4 Natural resource management and livelihoods ... 16 2.3.5 Disjoint between management and research ... 17 2.3.6 A ‘Wicked Problem’ ... 18 2.3.7 Privately managed reserves ... 19 2.3.8 Inadequate management skills ... 20 2.3.9 Finding a way forward ... 21 2.4 Management of nature reserves – a systems modelling approach ... 21

2.4.1 Systems and modelling ... 21 2.4.2 What is meant by ‘model’ ... 23 2.4.3 What is not meant by ‘model’ ... 24 2.4.4 Summary of systems modelling approach to the management of nature reserves ... 25 2.5 Understanding the management of nature reserves ... 25 2.5.1 Meaning of management (Step 1) ... 25 2.5.2 Survey (Step 2) ... 26 2.5.3 Modelling (Step 3) ... 26 2.5.4 Application of model (Step 4) ... 27 2.6 Summary ... 28

2 Background

2.1

Introduction

To set the scene for this research, a frame of reference for examining the management of nature reserves is defined in section 2.2, and in section 2.3 a basis is established for claiming there is a problem with the management of nature reserves, and that a systems modelling approach may provide a way forward. Normally, scientific modelling is used as the basis for environment management activity. Why a systems modelling approach is preferred is outlined in section 2.4. Section 2.5 details the approach taken for the research, providing explanations for the chapters on management (Chapter 3), modelling (Chapter 4), results of a survey of nature reserve managers (Chapter 5), creation of the model of the NRM system (Chapter 6), with proof-of-concept of the model via two case studies in Chapter 7.

2.2

Frame of reference

In the context of the management of nature reserves, the nature reserves being considered are those encapsulated by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) definition of a protected area:

A nature reserve, or protected area, is “a clearly defined geographical space, recognised, dedicated and managed, through legal or other effective means, to achieve long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values” (Dudley, 2008, p.8). According to the IUCN in 2010, existing protected areas are then managed “for their present and future conservation values, in a dynamic environment, under climate change” (Dudley et al 2010, p.93). Exactly what conservation means in the IUCN context of ‘conservation values’ is unclear, although conservation is usually interpreted as being to conserve, protect and restore. Herein, conservation is defined as “preservation, protection, or restoration of the natural environment, natural ecosystems, vegetation, and wildlife” (Oxford Online Dictionary). Whether or not any of conservation, preservation, protection or restoration, is used in relation to the management of protected areas, is not within the purview of this research. In a similar vein, whether natural resources in protected areas should or should not be accessible by indigenous peoples or for commercial activities is not an issue for this research. The recognition that these aspects impact on protected areas is important

only to the extent of understanding how they need to be taken into account in the managementof nature reservesand the intended model of the NRM system.

Protection of the environment operates at international, national, regional and local levels, and involves statutory and non-statutory bodies as well as private organisations and individuals. Management can therefore be at:

• an international level through international treaties (e.g. in respect of the preservation of species that migrate between countries or live in the oceans not included within national boundaries),

• the national level by a country’s government (e.g. establishment and maintenance of National parks, terrestrial or marine),

• a region or state/province level by the second tier of government within a country (e.g. State parks and forests or reserves), and

• the local level by the third tier of government or by individuals (e.g. Council reserve or private property set aside for conservation) or other environment- related organisations that may be managed and/or maintained by volunteers. At whatever the level a nature reserve is managed, the influences on the reserve are not just local. Potentially significant non-local influences include:

• climate change;

• extreme events, such as volcanic eruptions and the consequent dispersal of volcanic ash clouds around planet Earth; and

• the outcomes of the ability to easily transport material and people around the globe, such as, oil spills, destruction of ecological systems (e.g. islands invaded by rats from passing ships) and the rapid spread of diseases.

Hence, in order to more fully appreciate and comprehend the NRM system, a frame of reference that encompasses all of the above and any other potential influences should be set.

2.2.1

Nomenclature

IUCN classified protected areas frequently include one of the following terms in their name: reserve, nature reserve, national monument, park and wilderness. Herein, ‘nature reserve’ and ‘protected area’ have been adopted as equivalent generic terms for protected areas; however, when a referenced author has used a particular term, e.g. national park, then that term has been used when citing that author’s work. A list of all such terms used and their meanings is provided in the Glossary.