Transit Oriented Developments
D. TOD in Perth
Western Australia’s history of metropolitan planning starts with the Stephenson-Hepburn plan in 1955, followed by the Corridor Plan in 1970, Metropolitan in 1990 and then Network City in 2004 (Curtis, 2009). While the intention of the 1955 plan, the corridor plan in 1970 and Metropolitan in 1990 were land use and transport integration, they eventuated in a series of self-contained employment and residential communities in close proximity to the city centre (the 1955 plan) with regional corridors and centres at the periphery (1970, 1990) (Curtis, 2009).
As a result, Perth today is a low density suburban city region along the Indian Ocean coastline (130 km) (Curtis, 2009) with a predicted population of 2.30 million by the end of June 2018 (Population Australia, 2018). The latest planning strategy for metropolitan Perth, Network City (25 year planning strategy), is different to earlier plans; it focuses on a connected network of activity centres in current built-up areas, addressing community demand for public transport (Curtis, 2009, p.43).
The Network City plan comprises three elements (Curtis, 2009, p. 43):
Activity corridors: centred on a main arterial road or railway line with catchment area of 400m on either side.
Activity centres: are developed at intervals along the activity corridor with a concentration of small scale employment, services and medium to high density housing within walking distance of the transit node.
Transport corridors: are paired with one or more activity corridors as a fast-moving route for inter-urban travel.
Network City planning policy aimed to integrate land use and transit in one of the most important public transport investments in the last decade in Perth Metropolitan Area. The investment involved the building of a 72-km railway line to serve Perth’s southern suburbs (operational from December 2007) which travels in part along the central median strip of a freeway and in part along its own dedicated reserve (Figure 5.15) (Curtis, 2008)24.
24It was a challenging practice to design a transport system to compete with the car (Curtis, 2008, p.286).
Figure 5.15: Greater Perth Metropolitan Area (source, Curtis, 2008, p.286)
The first 33 km of its 72 km length, was placed within the central reservation of the freeway, similar to the northern suburbs’ model of transit. The transit interchange model, promoted by railway planners rather than spatial or land use planners (Curtis, 2008), resulted in the integration of feeder bus and rail, and the provision of large park-and-ride sites around these stations rather than the integration of denser areas within walking catchment of stations (Curtis, 2008, p.290).
TOD models based on the integration of car and bus with train stations rather than integration of land uses with train stations, limit the commitment to land use development (Dittmar & Ohland, 2004; Rodriguez & Targa, 2004) and
therefore limit the ability of people to access areas of mixed land use and its activities, in one trip (Curtis, 2008). Curtis (2008, p.298) criticises the railway planners’ approach of creating transit interchanges that result in isolated transport hubs and low residential density areas beyond walking distance of railway stations.
Canning Bridge is the transit interchange TOD type (Figure, 5.16).
Cannington, the other case study is similar to Murdoch and Cockburn TOD type (Figure 5.13). It is a hybrid TOD, as it has a district shopping centre, a secondary college and Department of Community Development within its catchment area. Wellard is a TOD of the type based on walking, rather than transit interchange.
Bull Creek Transit interchange Station in 100-metre freeway reserve Figure 5.16: Perth-Mandurah railway, status of TOD in new station precincts (Curtis, 2008, p.296)
After implementation of the Network City planning policy, Directions 2031 Spatial Framework was published as an attempt to adapt isolated railway stations to the concept of an integrated activity centre, creating a significant challenge to planners. The Directions 2031 Spatial Framework for Perth and Peel was released for public comment in June 2009 and published by the Western Australian Planning Commission and endorsed by the minister in August 2010 (Directions 2031, 2010). It is a strategy to deliver Transit Oriented Developments as a solution to cope with expected future housing demand and population growth, mainly by increasing density around train stations.
In addition, the WA Planning Commission published state planning Policy 4.2, identifying Activity Centres for Perth and Peel Regions (Figure 5.17). In the document, the Activity Centres hierarchy was categorised into seven groups:
1. Capital city (such as Perth CBD, East Perth, West Perth and Northbridge)
2. Strategic metropolitan centres (such as Cannington, Joondalup) 3. Secondary centres (such as Subiaco, Cockburn)
4. District centres (such as Canning Bridge, West Leederville) 5. Specialised centres (such as Curtin/Bentley, Perth airport) 6. Neighbourhood Centres (such as Wellard)
7. Local centres (any centre with a shop-retail floor space under 1500 m2)
Further, Activity Centre characteristics were outlined in the following table (Figure 5.18) from the WA Planning Commission Gazette, indicating minimum gross residential density and gross desirable density for each
hierarchy.
Figure 5.18: Activity Centres population density and gross density targets (Government Gazette, 2010)
The author has calculated the required net residential density range (density target, R code) for four activity centre categories based on document in Figure 5.18:
Strategic metropolitan centres: R 90 to R 135
Secondary centres: R 75 to R 105
District centres: R 60 to R 90
Neighbourhood centres: R 45 to R 75
Based on Alexander’s (1993) density analysis, density targets of four Activity Centre categories in Perth can be achieved through medium residential density housing rather than high density (apartments). Alexander et. al.
(1988) tested the relationship between densities and dwelling types. He explored the relationship between different density measures and other variables such as site coverage and floor area ratio. Ninety-nine abstract site layouts for four dwelling types were designed. These four were single family detached housing, row or terrace housing; low-rise garden apartments; and high-rise apartments. Alexander (1993) suggested row housing and low-rise garden apartments share the middle densities, with maximum R145 and R111 respectively.
Therefore, it is evident that for most Activity Centres in Perth metropolitan area the designated densities within catchment areas can be achieved without any strong push for high-rise apartments, which has the potential for causing strong community opposition. However, the land availability issue usually results in proposals for high-rise dwellings in order to achieve greater density, which may be in conflict with community preference, creating a decision making process environment that has the potential for community opposition. Usually projects with an intense increase in density-heights create community opposition (Churchman, 1999; Ainsworth, 2005). This issue is most relevant in areas where TODs proposals include high density to
be viable. There are studies that show that apartments (more than 4 storeys) are not popular and people are in favour of medium-rise density in the Perth context (DOP, 2013).
Summary of the chapter:
It is concluded that increasing density is a key element in achieving TOD objectives (especially high density), a plan usually undermined by community opposition. Various reasons were given as causes of the opposition, including the reasons concerning the physical quality of a development such as privacy and noise, to social qualities such as the social diversity of new residents. Further, it was argued that gaining community support for TOD implementation needs community education, extensive and genuine community engagement.
TOD typologies in relation to dwelling types were used to indicate that density targets greater than R45 encourage high density (apartment style) developments that are usually not preferred by the community and are likely to be resisted. Therefore, the following case study chapters investigate community preference in regard to physical qualities of built form and social qualities of a dense neighbourhood in order to further understand the causes of opposition.