OTHER TOOLS TO CONSIDER

The use to be made of other sampling tools needs to be decided upon. How much use will be made of GPS? What type of receiver will be needed? Is GPR called for? How much or how will remote sensing and GIS be used? If these tools are to be used, what computer software will be needed and what computer system will be used to collect and store the data?

A word of caution would be that some of these applications use large amounts of computer storage space. When deciding on a computer, both RAM and hard disk storage should be maximized, thus RAM of 512 MB and an 80-GB hard drive are the minimum recommended. Removable storage for presentations and backup must also be provided.

Either a CD or DVD recorder will be best suited to this task. Because CDs are

inexpensive (less than apiece), CD-R (not CD-RW) CDs are recommended. These are record-only, so they make a permanent record of the work done and presentations made.

3.15.1. GPS

The use of GPS for locating sampling sites in the field is highly recommended, and in many situations will be essential. Sample sites can readily be located even if other markers are lost or destroyed. A GPS receiver can be set up to locate preselected sample sites in a field, and will not only tell the person sampling when he or she is at the correct location but how to get from that site to the next. In this way relatively unskilled personnel can be used in sampling. The movement of water and other components of interest can be followed by noting their change in position. The rate of movement can also be obtained from the data, either directly, allowing the receiving instrument to do the calculation, or indirectly, by noting the change of distance and the time. More discussion about this use will be given in Chapter 11.

Decisions as to the type of receiving units needed are made at this point. Such questions as the sophistication needed and whether a handheld or vehicle-mounted unit are to be used must be answered. The equipment, including any software needed, should be bought, and operators or persons doing the sampling should be trained in their use [12].

Knowing the position of an airplane or boat far from landing or shore, or a sampling site in fields that are hundreds or thousands of hectares in size to a precision of ±15 meters is sufficient. When sampling a field of 1 ha, however, knowing a sampling site to

±15 meters is not good enough. There are two ways to improve the accuracy. The first is to use position averaging. A receiver capable of position averaging takes many readings while stationary and averages them. In this way the position to ±3 meters can be obtained. This may be sufficient for many sampling situations. Two other ways to obtain more precise positions are to use either a wide area augmentation system (WAAS) or a differential GPS (DGPS)-capable receiver.

The WAAS methodology uses ground stations to correct signals received from satellites, and a corrected signal is then broadcast by satellites. When a receiver capable of accessing the WAAS system uses this information the variability in the accuracy of a site position is less than ±3 meters. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and the Department of Transportation (DOT) are developing this system, which is available without charge to any GPS unit capable of receiving the signal and making use of it. The WAAS is limited to North America and to areas that do not have obstructions that interfere with the signal.

The second way is to use DGPS. It is similar to WAAS in that it uses corrected signals.

A receiver capable of DGPS is necessary. The use of DPGS can increase the accuracy to

±2 cm. Obtaining DGPS accuracy using civilian GPS receivers however, requires that a DGPS site be within range. The DGPS site is an accurately known location that broadcasts position correction information to GPS units. This information can be used in real time or after the fact to find the exact location. Real time would be preferable when the exact place in the field needs to be sampled several times. Postprocessing, finding the location after taking the sample, and returning to the field office, can also be done and is

less expensive. If taking a sample from close to a previously sampled site is sufficient, postsampling DGPS is sufficient. With this capability sampling sites can be determined with exceptional accuracy.

Global positioning systems and equipment are constantly being upgraded and improved, thus when deciding on a GPS receiving unit to use, all the latest advancements in this technology should be investigated, along with best estimates of where the technology will be in the foreseeable future.

3.15.2. Ground-Penetrating Radar

Ground-penetrating radar is called for when the field history indicates that something might be buried in the field or when the field has been traversed by armed forces. The field history is particularly important in determining if something dangerous, such as explosives, might be buried in the area. Ground-penetrating radar is also indicated if there is a likelihood that there are buried tanks, cables, pipelines, or drainage tiles. A hole 1 meter in diameter and 1½ meter deep was found in a field in which a drainage tile had broken and soil had been washed in. (Such a situation is called a blowout, even though soil has been eroded into the tile.) This type of field condition can be hard to see until one is nearly in it. It is thus extremely dangerous for personnel and equipment. Ground-penetrating radar can show where such blowouts are developing. It can also tell where drainage tiles are so that they can be avoided during sampling.

Ground-penetrating radar could also be used if the area is suspected of being an abandoned village or city [13]. In this case it would help determine areas under which tunnels and caves are located, and thus needs special attention when sampling. Tunnels and caves can collapse during sampling and trap and even kill personnel, and they thus represent a hazard to sampling personnel and equipment.

3.15.3. Remote Sensing

Remote sensing in the sense of pictures taken from airplanes or satellites can be valuable in locating underground features. These are often visible as differences in either the type or the growth of vegetation. Such pictures can help to determine the sampling pattern that will be the most useful in a particular field. It can also be useful in showing the differences in the field before and after the sampling and remediation activities [14].

There is a great wealth of remote sensing information available from the U.S.

government. Much of this comes from NASA’s Earth Observing System (EOS). There is also an Earth Resources Observation Systems (EROS) data center, which specializes in land processes. Other areas of the environment are covered by other organizations. All these organizations and their data are brought together in the Distributed Active Archive Center (DAAC). Much of this information is free or available at a nominal cost [14–17].

3.15.4. GIS

Will a GIS system be used and how will it be used? It is a powerful system that can be very helpful in relating data from different sources. Water movement through soil

combined with topography, soil type, and contaminant concentration can be combined on one map of the field. This combined picture produces an informative map of the area [18]. The most common computer software used for GIS is called Arc View. There is other software that will do the same things, and all should be investigated before deciding on a system to use. Note that even if you do not intend to start your own GIS you may need some or all of the software to view and work with GIS produced by local, state, and national governments.

3.16. MODELING

Data collected during sampling, or obtained by analysis of samples or from other sources will be useful in building a model of the field and how it will react in the future. We can think of this as a model of the field before sampling is started. It can also be a dynamic model that will allow calculation of the expected future characteristics of the field. These models can be very effective in explaining what is happening, in deciding where to sample, what to analyze a sample for, and what type of follow-up sampling will be needed.

Modeling requires a model. This can be a simple physical model or a complex computer simulation. A physical model can provide information about many aspects of the field but will have limited predictive capability. A complex computer simulation can be used to predict the course of the work and will also allow changes in the inputs to explore various situations that may occur in the future. It will also allow changes in the model as more data become available.

Modeling is another component of the sampling plan that needs to be explored at this time.

3.17. PERMITTING

In many instances it will be necessary to have permits for a sampling and remediation plan. These will generally not be needed when sampling farm fields for such things as plant nutrients. Sampling for toxic or dangerous materials or other situations may require permits, however. Permits can be of many different kinds; earth disturbance, erosion and sedimentation control, water obstruction and encroachment, and various permits associated with landfills are a few examples of activities that may require a permit.

Permitting is a state activity, thus different states require different permits. One state may require a permit for an activity while another does not. It is best to go to the state or local Environmental Protection Agency office and check to see what may be needed in this regard.

3.18. RESOURCES

Commercial and governmental sources of the equipment, supplies, computer software,

and so on, mentioned in this chapter are given in Appendix B. Many times the place to start the search for companies is at their Web site.

3.19. CONCLUSIONS

Once all the above information is obtained and all the decisions are made it is still not time to start sampling. The needed equipment must be purchased and brought to the field office. A laboratory and storage area must be prepared. Sample handling and transportation procedures need to be written down, and a chain of custody protocol developed and appropriate procedures for its implementation decided upon. With the above information a detailed safety plan for sampling the field can be prepared. No sampling can begin until all the safety precautions and equipment have been obtained and everyone knows how to use them.

At this point a preliminary sampling plan can be put together. It should include plans for transact sampling and detailed sampling. (See Chapter 5.) It is good to keep in mind that during most transect sampling too few samples are taken. For this reason one should err on the side of too many samples during transect or preliminary sampling.

QUESTIONS

1. Describe the characteristics of a project notebook.

2. What types of information can be obtained by walking around the outside of a field in relationship to the sampling to be done?

3. Make a list of the types of information that one should obtain about a field when preparing a summary of its history.

4. What two soil characteristics may have a pronounced effect on the type of sampler used in sampling a field?

5. What three basic types of samplers are there? Explain where each might be used most effectively.

6. What two pieces of safety equipment are most important to have in the field and at the sampling site?

7. What kinds of statistical tests of data will be needed in analyzing sampling and analytical results?

8. Explain why GPS is essential in obtaining accurate and repeatable sampling results.

9. Explain the following abbreviations. (Do not hesitate to use other chapters in your

explanation.)

10. Describe the characteristics of a field office, laboratory, and storage area. Why is it a good idea to have the sample storage area separate from other rooms?

11. What advantages do DOQQs have over other types of photographs or maps?

REFERENCES

1. Kanare HM. Writing the Laboratory Notebook. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, 1985.

2. Palmer RC. The Bar Code Book: Reading, Printing, and Specification of Bar Code Symbols. 2nd ed. Peterborough, NH: Helmers, 1991.

3. National Mapping Information—Digital Orthophoto Program. United States Geological Survey. http://www.usgs.gov/. Look for DOQQ.

4. Ramos B, Miller S, Korfmacher K. Implementation of a geographic information system in the chemistry laboratory: An exercise in integrating environmental analysis and assessment. J Chem Ed 2003; 80(1):50–53.

5. MrSID GeoViewer. Lizardtech software. http://www.lizardtech.com/download/.

6. Wagner G, Desaules A, Huntau H, Theocharopoulos, S, Quevauviller P.

Harmonisation and quality assurance in pre-analytical steps of soil contamination studies—Conclusions and recommendations of the CEEM soil project. Sci Total Environ 2001; 264:103–117.

7. The Use of Historical Data in Natural Hazard Assessments. Glade T, Albini P, Francés F, eds. Boston: Kluwer Academic, 2001.

8. Huang CC, O’Connell M. Recent land-use and soil erosion history within a small catchment in Connemara, Western Ireland: Evidence for lake sediments and documentary sources. CANTENA 2000; 41:293–335.

9. Sastre J, Vidal M, Rauret G, Sauras T. A soil sampling strategy for mapping trace element concentrations in a test area. Sci Total Environ 2001; 264:141–152.

10. Fisher MM, Brenner M, Reddy KR. A simple, inexpensive piston corer for collecting undisturbed sediment/water interface profiles. J Paleolim 1992; 7:157–161.

11. Reynolds EM, Randle Q. Pocket Guide to Safety Essentials. Washington, DC:

National Safety Council, 2002.

12. Letham L. GPS Made Easy. 12th ed. Seattle: Mountaineers, 2001.

13. Conyers LB, Goodman D. Ground-Penetrating Radar: An Introduction for Archaeologists. New York: Rowman & Littlefield, 1997.

14. Lunetta RS, Elvidge CD. Remote Sensing Change Detection: Environmental Monitoring Methods and Applications. Chelsea: Ann Arbor Press, 1998.

15. Earth Observing System. NASA—Goddard Space Flight Center.

http://eos.gsfc.nasa.gov/.

16. Earth Resource Observation Systems (EROS) Data Center. USGS.

http://edcwww.cr.usgs.gov/.

17. GSFC Earth Sciences (GES) Distributed Active Archive Center. NASA, http://xtreme.gsfc.nasa.gov/.

18. Korte GB. The GIS Book. 5th ed. Albany, NY: OnWord Press, 2001.

4 Safety

A safe working environment is not an accident; it requires thought and work. Safety is good from human, business, and economic perspectives. To realize these benefits a number of things need to be done. First, safety information and physical resources are identified or found. The types of fields to be sampled must be identified, along with the type and concentration of the contaminants they contain. Once this is known, personnel protection can be planned. Additionally, off-field and environmental protection must be considered. When this is all brought together, a safety plan including the use of a chemical hygiene plan (CHP), material safety data sheets (MSDS), and other resources such as the Merck Index can be incorporated.

Safety can be, and often is, viewed as an unwanted expense. In reality it always results in enormous savings. One key worker not doing his or her job for half a day can cause serious delays in completing a sampling exercise. Often an accident happening to only one worker will involve other workers as they help care for or evacuate the injured person. In this case the work output of several persons is adversely affected. Add to this the cost of transportation and medical treatment, and the expense can be quite a burden.

Even if everything is covered by insurance, repeated use of the coverage will result in the increasing cost of insurance. From all ways of assessing accidents they are always costly. This is a cost that need not be borne if personnel observe proper safety procedures and precautions while on the job.

With all this said, “Who actually suffers when an accident occurs? The answer is always the injured worker. The company suffers because of the lost work time, the need to replace the worker, the increase in insurance costs. But, truly, in the end the only one who really suffers is the injured worker. They suffer due to the injury itself, the recovery time, the possible loss of a limb, the loss of wages, the suffering the family has to endure, and the possible loss of the job. For this reason workers need to always use the proper personal protective equipment (PPE) because they are the most important reason to protect themselves from possible injury” [S.Ullom, Ullon Safety Resources, Inc., personal communication. (See Appendix B.)]

Field sampling is not a leisure time activity.

Safety must be practiced at all times.

Safety equipment must be used.

Clothing must be appropriate to the hazard.