Training load specificity

1.2.2. Training load specificity

As can be seen in Figure 1.3, training load specificity is characterized by the transfer of training results from one task (auxiliary exercise) to another task (main exercise). Normally, coaches employ a wide repertory of exercises, most of which can be divided into two groups:

- exercises to improve motor abilities (strength, endurance etc.) and - exercises to improve technical skills.

Of course, these exercises can be combined in order to improve the interaction between motor abilities and technical skills. In any case, the usefulness of each exercise depends on how it affects the main (competitive) exercise. In other words, motor ability transfer and the transfer of technical skills from the exercises to the competitive exercise determine how useful these auxiliary exercises are.

Two important features of training transfer are of particular interest:

- the transfer of technical skills is much more restricted than the transfer of motor abilities;

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- both are very dependent on athletes’ qualifications. Low- and medium-level athletes are more sensitive to any kind of exercise, including non-specific ones, while training transfer among high-performance athletes is strongly limited to the specificity of auxiliary exercises.

Let us consider the transfer of motor abilities and technical skills separately.

Transfer of motor abilities. This transfer mode forms the base for the use of general and specific fitness exercises in any sport. Motor ability transfer is much higher in lower level athletes, who are much more sensitive to any kind of physical exercise.

The higher the athletes’ level, the lower is their sensitivity to non-specific exercises.

Moreover, some exercises can have a negative effect on athletes' sport-specific preparedness. This is what makes the assessment of motor ability transfer so important.

Training transfer can be assessed by comparing the gains achieved in the main and auxiliary exercises. The precise quantitative method of this comparison is

described by Zatsiorsky (1995). Table 1.5 presents the qualitative approach to identifying different types of training transfer based on the relationship between the main and auxiliary exercises.

19 Table 1.5

Several types of training transfer with reference to motor ability transfer

Type of training transfer

Relationship between the main and auxiliary exercises

Example from sports practice High positive

transfer

Gain in the auxiliary exercise causes a proportional (or near proportional) gain in the main exercise

Gain in double-leg standing long jump causes

proportional gain in take-off force in the swimming race start

Low or medium positive transfer

Gain in the auxiliary exercise causes a relatively small or medium gain in the main exercise

Gain in maximal strength in the bench-press has a noticeable effect on discus throw results

No transfer Gain in the auxiliary exercise does not affect the main exercise results

Gain in maximal strength in the bench-press does not affect trunk strength endurance

Negative transfer Gain in the auxiliary exercise causes a decrease in the main exercise

Gain of maximal strength in the bench-press causes a decrease in maximum velocity in swimming

It is worth noting that the repertory of exercises of high-performance athletes contains not only exercises with positive transfer of training effects but also exercises without any immediate influence on performance. The various exercises performed for warming up, cooling down, and active recovery, form necessary and useful parts of the training program despite the absence of immediate positive transfer. Several exercises with negative transfer of training results can be used if special precautions are taken to prevent their harmful effect.

For instance, maximum strength exercises negatively affect the flexibility of the corresponding joints as a result of which, range of motion and the entire

performance can be impaired. This side effect of maximum strength exercises should be taken into account when designing the training program. Appropriate stretching and flexibility exercises should be included to counter the negative effects. An

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example of positive motor ability transfer can be taken from the practice of top-level Danish soccer players.

Case study. Three groups of soccer players performed various types of strength training three times a week during three off-season months. The first group performed quadriceps exercises with high resistance and low speed (HR-group);

the second group performed the same exercises with low resistance and higher speed (LR-group); the third group performed soccer-specific kicking exercises with resistance on a pulley machine (Kick-group). Basic strength of the quadriceps muscles was evaluated in high resistance movement while specific strength was evaluated by measuring ball velocity after a kick.

The training program resulted in a remarkable increase in basic strength and a negligible gain in kick performance in the HR-group, a slight increase in basic strength and a modest gain in kick velocity in the LR-group, and no basic strength gains but the greatest improvement in kick performance in the Kick-group (Figure 1.4). Thus, the high resistance strength training improved players' basic strength but didn’t provide positive transfer of this quality to soccer-specific strength. Low resistance and high speed strength exercises enabled this transfer to a certain extent. Finally, specific kicking exercises didn’t affect basic strength, but thanks to high positive transfer, brought about great improvement in kicking performance (Bangsbo, 1994).

21 0

5 10 15 20 25 30

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Gain of the ball velocity,%

Gain of the basic strength,% HR-group

LR-group Kick-group

Figure 1.4. Strength gains after three months of fitness training for soccer

players: Y axis - basic quadriceps strength,

X axis -soccer- specific strength evaluated by ball velocity after the kick (adapted from Bangsbo, 1994)

Transfer of technical skills. The principal factor limiting technical skill transfer is the neuro-muscular specificity of each sport-specific technique. To maximize positive skill transfer, the exercise should be closely matched to sport-specific coordination demands. This is why a relatively small circle of exercises provides positive transfer (i.e. positive effects) for movement technique improvement. Table 1.6 presents generalized situations in which positive and negative skill transfer occurs.

22 Table 1.6

Several types of skill transfer in regard to exercising

Type of technical skill transfer

Typical approaches and/or exercises

Example from sport practice High positive

transfer

Accentuation of a certain technical element or detail within the whole movement pattern

Maximal stride rate

facilitation during downhill running

Accentuation of the “elbow up” arm position when working on a swim stroke Low or medium

positive transfer

Simulation of sport-specific movements and technical elements on specially designed training machines and/or devices

Simulation of the javelin throw on an indoor inertia device

Simulation of figure skating jumps in a gym with

additional support and assistance

No transfer Any exercises not similar to the main exercise in terms of neuro-muscular coordination

Bench press and bench row exercises performed by runners, rowers, swimmers etc.

Negative transfer Drills similar in several kinematic characteristics but very different in neuro-muscular coordination

Throwing an excessively weighted javelin or discus Paddling in a canoe with excessive boat resistance

The general rule of positive transfer is to employ exercises highly similar to the main exercise in terms of neuro-muscular coordination. Usually these exercises can be designed by specifically modifying or accentuating some technical detail, element and/or sport specific demand. One of the suitable approaches in making such modifications is to artificially lighten or weight the main exercise. This is particularly popular in creating what are called velocity assisted and velocity resisted exercises that facilitate greater movement velocity or, contrarily, require the application of greater effort in the usual motor task (see Maglischo, 1992).

The designing of original training devices and specially modified exercises is traditionally assigned to coaches and sport scientists. Very often these innovations are

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intended to stimulate specific motor abilities within a sport-specific coordination structure. Usually the problem is to get the desirable effect without diminishing the movement technique.

For example, weighting the javelin allows athletes to obtain higher force but can destroy movement technique if the javelin weight is excessive. On the other hand, positive skill transfer is achieved by any kind of movement facilitators that artificially simplify, but do not distort technique. The rowing training machine “Concept”, for instance, allows athletes to develop sport specific muscle endurance when the motor task is substantially simplified (no interaction with water, standard work conditions) with the same coordination.

Athletes’ preparation contains a wide spectrum of exercises that improve muscle capability and do not affect technical skill. This refers to all fitness exercises performed on non-sport specific training machines. Because they have no neuro-muscular similarity to the main competitive exercise, these exercises have no skill transfer and, therefore, are neutral in terms of movement technique. Another type of exercise may be similar to the competitive exercise except for serious discrepancies that have been inserted in the neuro-coordination movement pattern. Negative skill transfer is a very probable outcome of such drills. For instance, extensive paddling in a canoe or kayak with excessive boat resistance can stimulate specific strength endurance but impinges dramatically on movement technique.

Inquisitive readers looking for more detailed information on transfer of motor and technical abilities are referred to a recent book by Bondarchuk (2007) where both theoretical and practical findings are presented.