This section details the strategies used when analyzing the data. In total 32 respondents were interviewed retrospectively and prospectively, thus a total of 64 interviews were conducted. In designing the sample variables of age, ethnicity and gender were taken into account and all respondents were from the Sparkbrook area of Birmingham. In terms of ethnicity all respondents were Pakistani and Kashmiri and had been born in UK. I wanted to focus on Pakistani Kashmiri respondents because
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the majority of Muslims from Birmingham are of these ethnicities (ONS, 2004). In terms of the research population including a wider diversity of Muslims this would have meant having to situate these identities and thus possibly diluting the experiences of Pakistani Kashmiri Muslims. I therefore favored depth over generalizibility and felt that although the research does focus on Pakistani Kashmiri Muslims respondents it can also contribute to our understanding of non Pakistani Kashmiri British Muslims. It was also for this reason that I decided not analyze the data according to the variables of age, class and gender. Therefore, due to wanting to explore depth I only analyzed the data according to the pre 9/11 and post 9/11 comparison. And further, using a multitude of comparisons was beyond the scope of a PhD because the word limit would have restrained the depth that needed to be conveyed for each comparison.
Punch (2005) states how a study can be a combination of determined and undetermined research11. This research was determined in the sense that research
questions and a theoretical standpoint - cosmopolitanism and citizenship - were applied to the empirical data. However, although the research questions were used to guide the research, the data collection questions, those asked in the interview remained neutral. The data collection questions were neutral because they did not introduce concepts from these theoretical perspectives. For example, respondents were asked questions such as ‘What do you think of the police?’ Rather than questions which reflected the theoretical perspectives and introduced concepts such as equality, justice and human rights through asking specific questions relating to these concepts. When analyzing the data concepts such as justice still had to emerge from the data and further it was through analyzing the data that I was able to describe what justice meant and the meaning of this concept for respondents. Therefore, I used a reflexive
11 Determined research is where research questions and a theoretical standpoint are applied to
empirical data and undetermined research is where research questions and theory emerge from the empirical data.
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approach to analysis which was informed by some strands of grounded theory, as is now explained.
Grounded theory is commonly interpreted and understood as an approach whereby research questions and concepts emerge from the empirical data, literature is examined after interviews have been conducted and theory emerges from the data. However, this is only one version of the approach and it is due to grounded theory being adaptable that it was not systematically used but rather the analysis of data was informed by a reflexive use of grounded theory. Grounded theory was created by Glaser and Strauss in the 1960s and ‘according to earlier writings of grounded theory, grounded theory is an approach where there is no preconceived hypothesis’ (Glaser and Strauss, 1967 cited in Allan 2003, p.2). Hunter and Hari et al. (2005, p.57) argue that grounded theory has evolved and become less rigid in its use with researchers increasingly adapting grounded theory to ‘suit the nature of the research problem’. I used a reflexive approach to analysis which was informed by aspects of grounded theory and this section explains how the analysis was reflexive.
Punch (2005) states in traditional research, literature is reviewed as part of planning and developing research questions but in grounded theory literature is delayed until data has been collected so that the researcher has no preconceived ideas. The evolution of grounded theory and emergence of different interpretations means that literature is increasingly being used prior to data collection. In 1990 Strauss and Corbin ‘advocated reviewing the literature early in the study for several reasons’ (Strauss and Corbin 1990 cited in McGhee and Marland, 2007, p.4). The first reason is that through a review of literature, researchers know what the focus of research should be as literature stimulates questions and the review of literature also provides justification for the research. As Hutchinson (1993 cited in McGhee and Marland,
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2007, p.7) states ‘the purpose of this initial review is to increase awareness of the existing knowledge base, and also to identify gaps’. I conducted a literature review prior to the interviews being conducted and this assisted in helping me to develop research questions through identifying research areas, such as the impact of the ‘war on terror’ on Muslims’ Islamic identities that had not been explored. Further, a literature review also acted as a justification for the research and I was able to formulate research questions which benefitted me through providing me with focus and clarity.
Secondly, Strauss and Corbin (1990 cited in McGhee and Marland, 2007, p.4) state a literature review helps researchers ‘to avoid conceptual and methodological pitfalls’ and to be ‘open minded’ but not ‘empty headed’. Gunning (2007a, p.363) argues that regardless of the increase of interest amongst scholars in terrorism studies, there is a ‘continuing dearth of primary research data’. Conducting a literature review revealed how over-theorized research into terrorism and the ‘war on terror’ is. The lack of research into this area influenced my decision to gain data on the ‘subaltern counter publics’ of British Muslims in relation to the ‘war on terror’. I tried to remain ‘open minded’ but felt that using an approach which could contribute to the state centric ‘war on terror’ through not placing respondents’ perceptions of the state in a discourse beyond the state would be ‘empty headed’. Gunning (2007a, p.367) states ‘terrorism studies’ tends to accept uncritically the framing of the ‘terrorism problem’ by the state’. According to Gunning (2007a, p.376) a critical approach would move
‘beyond the state as the sole legitimate referent…. to the wider notion of human security and an analysis of how ‘terrorism’ and counter-
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terrorism affect the security of all… including such concerns as social justice, inequality, ‘structural violence’, culture and discrimination’.
The literature proved to be insightful in identifying a theoretical approach which would assist me in using wider discourses whereby respondents’ voices would not be marginalized or interpreted according to state discourses. Further, through using cosmopolitanism and citizenship my eyes were open to the data in a way which considered much more salient forms of harm, belonging and unity. Cosmopolitanism and citizenship were used as they both emphasize notions such as justice and the responsibility of the state to citizens and therefore do not use the state as the definer of harm. However, as previously stated a reflexive approach was used therefore to take the concept of justice, it still had to emerge from the data to be included in the data analysis. The following quote from a respondent shows how concepts such as justice and the responsibility of the state to citizens were present in the data.
I think the police have been trained to be harsh and target the Muslim community and I have a story, I have seen it and people say to me, you can’t fight the system, keep your head down and do what you have been told to do, but I say fight the system where is the justice? The police are now encouraged to detain someone just because they might be a terrorist. If they haven’t found anything they are not going to but what are they putting that family through, the community through, and I feel that if they haven’t found anything that is just going to make the community angry and frustrated, and more and more against the police and I think if they did have something they aren’t going to say
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anything and the police say come forward we are your friends, tell us, but they won’t tell the police.
Other researchers have identified theoretical standpoints/theories prior to analyzing the data and used these when analyzing the data. For example, Plummer and Young 2010, p.317) advocate that ‘assuming a feminist perspective in grounded theory research can promote social change’ and Alvarez (2001) analyzed data from his study using determined theoretical orientations and perspectives, but the data was still grounded because the themes emerged from the data. Hesse (1980, p.247 cited Punch 2005) argues research should be used to emancipate oppressed groups and it should be based on explicit ideologies, through the abandonment of value-neutral social science. Therefore, where the aim of the research is to promote social change or reveal the lived experiences of minorities or majorities theoretical standpoints/theories can be used in conjunction with the data. They are used as a way of revealing and as in my case opening the eyes of researcher to try and gain narratives that reflect the reality of respondents’ lived experiences.
This is closely related to the third reason for conducting a literature review, it ‘stimulates theoretical sensitivity’ (Strauss & Corbin 1990 cited in McGhee and Marland, 2007, p.4). Theoretical sensitivity is about developing insight into data, being able to give the data meaning, understanding the data and understanding which data is significant. Through conducting a literature review and using cosmopolitanism and citizenship, which as the literature chapters demonstrate highlight the importance of subjectivity, I was able to understand which data was significant. Further, these perspectives allowed me to understand how the state and the police could impact on citizens’ identities and feelings of belonging and loyalty. Thus, I was much better
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positioned to identify these themes from the data. For example, to use the quote by a respondent below theoretical sensitivity allowed me to understand how due to the states foreign policy since the ‘war on terror’ the respondents British identity had been impacted.
I think they have shamed our country because I believe I am part of this country. I think we had real respect around the world, we had high standards people saw this country as a country with morals and standards and it didn’t matter who you were when you came to England you became equal to everyone else so for me the government has lost all that. The best thing in the world was to be able to say I’m British, when you went to Pakistani you were proud to say I’m British and now I feel really tainted by it and I don’t think the people in the government not only don’t represent our views but they don’t understand my issues and my community.
I opened up the possibilities of interpretation through deeply questioning the data and started labelling the data. For example, the process of labelling is about simplifying the data, so I labelled all data which was about a visible Islamic identity with this label. For example the following quote since the respondent refers to signifiers of Islamic identity.
Anyone with a beard or a hijab is seen as a threat which is just not true and it’s about stereotyping. The government has created a divide, before we were seen as Asian people but now we are seen as Muslims.
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I then collated all the data to which this label had been applied. The dominant themes / labels identified were related to the theoretical perspectives of citizenship and cosmopolitanism. When writing the data chapters the dominant themes respondents talked about became the sub headings in the data chapters and when respondents talked about aspects of these themes they were included under the sub headings in the data chapter. For example, one dominant theme was the meaning of Islam and how it is different from other identities. This theme became a sub heading in the data chapter and when respondents explained the reasons for an Islamic identity being different, these sub themes were included under the main theme, so reason like an Islamic identity being a personal identity, an Islamic identity being a spiritual identity etc. Through analyzing in this way the data, the conclusions and findings of the research have emerged directly from respondents.
CONCLUSION
This chapter has demonstrated how the research was carried out. Practical issues such as the relationship between the theoretical perspectives and the research design have been discussed, as well as the use of interviews. However, although this chapter explored practical issues, such as interview questions attention was also paid to identities, emotions and subjectivity.
Many of the themes mentioned those of insider / outsider position, reflexivity, ethic and subjectivities were discussed and shown to be related to emotions. I conducted research on a topic which was sensitive and to not care about the research, or those involved would have been hard. Therefore, although a huge part of research was the practicalities of how the aims relate to the theoretical perspectives and the
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research strategies and further, the ethical guidelines that have to be followed in order to gain ethical approval, where research involves personal experiences and understanding identities it is important that a duty of care include considerations of emotions.
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