Triangulation

As noted earlier, a research project can implement either qualitative or quantitative methods, or a mixed (triangulated) method. Triangulation is therefore defined as the use of a combination of methods to study the same phenomenon (Hussein, 2009). Denzin, (1970) classified the triangulation in social research into four types. (See Table.4.7).

The logic of using triangulation is based on the principle that no single method ever adequately solves the problem of rival explanations (Patton, 2002). This is because each method reveals different aspects of empirical reality, and no method is superior to the other (Walker, 2005).

Types of Triangulation Occur when; Data

Triangulation

Data is collected in different contexts and settings at different times

Investigator/ research Triangulation

More than one researcher investigates and may have different knowledge and experience on the same situation

Theory Triangulation

A number of different or competing theories are used whilst examining data

Methodological Triangulation

Involves the use of multiple methods in data collection, analysis within or across the issues in an attempt to decrease the weakness and biases of each method and increase validity by reducing the weakness of one method with the strength of the other method. For example, involves the use of multiple qualitative and/or quantitative methods to study the ICT implementation in education

Table 4.7: Types of triangulation and when can occur (Denzin, 1970)

This study has utilised two of the Denzin’s (1970) types of triangulations, namely data and methodological triangulations. Data triangulation was applied in this study where data is collected from different settings/contexts (schools and Ministry of Education). Methodological

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triangulation on the other hand was applied in this study by the triangulating evidences from two data collection techniques (interviews and survey).

Here, methodological triangulation according to Saunders et al. (2012) has different purposes. Two of those purposes were facilitation and evidence triangulation. Facilitation occurs when one data collection technique or strategy is aided by another data collection technique or strategy. In this study, the outcome of the interviews has aided the building of the questionnaires. This is to say that evidences collected from the interviews have helped to construct the questionnaires’ items.

Triangulation according to Saunders et al. (2012) occurs when evidence from more than one data collection technique are corroborated to promote the trustworthiness of the study findings. In this study, the triangulation occurred when the study strived to accumulate and corroborate findings from the interview and the questionnaire to enhance the collected evidences and produce trustworthy conclusions/solutions (See chapter 7 and 8).

It is worth mentioning that given that the study has used a mixed methods design, many authors have addressed the order by which the data collection techniques can be conducted in triangulation (Caracelli and Greene, 1997; Creswell and Plano Clark 2007; Tashakkori and Teddlie, 2003; Mertens 2005). They all agreed on two approaches with insignificant differences of types of order categorised under each approach. These approaches are parallel approach and sequential approach. Parallel approach means that more than one data collection technique is used in the study, and each data collection technique is conducted separately and independent of the other data collection techniques, then eventually results are triangulated. In the sequential case data collection techniques are related and one data collection technique aids another data collection technique.

In the latter case, data collection techniques cannot be conducted independently and one data collection technique’s results affects another. This is the case in this study; the study used the mixed method design in its sequential form, and results from the interviews informed the construction of the questionnaire’s items.

Therefore, the questionnaire as a data collection technique is dependent on the interview. A summary of the study techniques, purpose and source of data in relation to the study objectives is demonstrated in the table (4.8) below.

115 Table 4.8: A Summary of the study techniques, purpose and source of data in relation to its objectives

Technique Purpose Data source Relation to the study objectives

Interviews Obtain detailed information ICT Directors

To examine the role and responsibilities of the Ministry of Education towards ICT

 To define factors that affect ICT implementation (negatively/positively) in Saudi secondary schools

Headmaster

To examine the role and responsibilities of the school headmaster towards ICT

 To define factors that affect ICT implementation (negatively/positively) in Saudi secondary schools

Teachers

To examine the role and responsibilities of the school teachers towards ICT

 To define factors that affect ICT implementation (negatively/positively) in Saudi secondary schools

Students

 To examine the current situation of Saudi secondary schools from the students’ perspectives

To define factors that affect ICT implementation (negatively/positively) in Saudi secondary schools Headmaster’s survey Obtain data from a large sample Headmaster

To examine the role and responsibilities of the school headmaster towards ICT

 To define factors that affect ICT implementation (negatively/positively)in Saudi secondary schools Teachers’ survey Obtain data from a large sample Teachers

 To examine the implementation of ICT tools from the teachers’ perspectives.

 To define factors that affect ICT implementation (negatively/positively)in Saudi secondary schools Students’ survey Obtain data from a large sample Students

To examine the current situation of Saudi secondary schools from the students’ perspectives

To define factors that affect ICT implementation (negatively/positively) in Saudi secondary schools