The unit shaft resistancefsfor driven piles can be estimated asfs¼ α cu(total stress method) or fs¼ β σ0v (effective stress method), where α ¼ adhesion factor and β ¼ Ks tan δ with Ks and δ being the lateral earth pressure coefficient and the interfacial friction angle, respectively, at the soil-pile interface. The correlations forfsof driven piles are summarized in Table3.20. The unit skin friction correla-tions for the bored piles are given in Table3.21. Correlations for the end bearing capacity of the pile tipfbare given in Table3.22.
Table 3.20 Relationships for the unit skin frictionfsin driven piles
Soil Type Equation Remarks References
Clay fs¼ αcu α ¼ 1.0 (cu 25 kN/m2) Length factor applies forL/d> 50
Semple & Rigden δ/φ depends on interface materials (range 0.5–1.0);
K/Kodepends on installation method (range 0.5–2.0)
Ko¼ coefficient of earth pressure at rest, and is a function ofOCR
Stas and Kulhawy
Table 3.21 Relationships for the unit skin frictionfsin bored piles
Soil type Equation Remarks References
Clay fs¼ αcu α ¼ 0.45 (London clay) Skempton
(1959) α ¼ 0.7 times value for driven
displace-ment pile
whereF¼ 0.7 (compression) & 0.5 (tension)
Table 3.22 Relationships for the end bearing capacity
Soil type Equation Remarks References
Clay fb¼ Nccub Nc¼ 9 for L/D 3 Nqrelated toφ0, relative density and mean
effective stress
Felming et al. (1985) Nqfrom cavity expansion theory, as a
func-tion ofφ0and volume compressibility
Vesic (1972) Nqdetermined for reduced value ofφ0
(e.g. 18)
1. For silica and calcareous sands, the above expressions apply for driven piles only
2. Typical limiting valuesfblimrange from l0 MN/m2to 15 MN/m2for silica sand, and 3–5 MN/m2 for calcareous sand; the latter value depends on soil compressibility
References
Allen TM, Bathurst RJ, Holtz RD, Lee WF, Walters D (2004) New method for prediction of loads in steel reinforced soil walls. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng ASCE 130(11):1109–1120 Alpan I (1967) The empirical evaluation of the coefficient K0and K0R. Soils Found 7(1):31–40 American Petroleum Institute (1984) Recommended practice for planning, designing and
constructing fixed offshore platforms,API RP2A, 15th edn. American Petroleum Institute, Washington, DC
AS 4678-2002 Earth retaining structures, Australian Standard
Azzouz AS, Krizek RJ, Corotis RB (1976) Regression analysis of soil compressibility. Soils Found 16(2):19–29
Balasubramaniam AS, Brenner RP (1981) Chapter 7: Consolidation and settlement of soft clay. In:
Brand EW, Brenner RP (eds) Soft clay engineering. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 481–566 Berezantzev VG, Khristoforov VS, Golubkov VN (1961) Load bearing capacity and deformation
of piled foundations. In: Proceedings of 5th international conference on soil mechanics and foundation engineering, Paris, 2, pp 11–15
Bjerrum L, Simons NE (1960) Comparison of shear strength characteristics of normally consol-idated clays. In: Proceedings of research conference on the shear strength of cohesive soils, ASCE, Boulder, Colorado, pp 711–726
Bolton MD (1986) The strength and dilatancy of sands. Geotechnique 36(1):65–78 Bowles JE (1988) Foundation analysis and design, 4th edn. McGraw-Hill, New York
Brooker EW, Ireland HO (1965) Earth pressures at rest related to stress history. Can Geotech J 2(1):1–15
BS 8002 (1994) Code of practice for earth retaining structures. British Standards Institution, London
Burland JB (1973) Shaft friction of piles in clay – a simple fundamental approach. Ground Eng 6(3):30–42
Burmister DM (1949) Principles and techniques of soil identification. In: Proceedings of annual highway research board meeting, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 29, pp 402–433
Canadian Geotechnical Society (1992) Canadian foundation engineering manual, 3rd edn, 511 pp Carman PC (1938) The determination of the specific surfaces of powders. J Soc Chem Ind Trans
57:225
Carman PC (1956) Flow of gases through porous media. Butterworths Scientific Publications, London
Carrier WD III (2003) Good bye Hazen; Hello, Kozeny-Carman. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng ASCE 129(11):1054–1056
Carrier WD III, Beckman JF (1984) Correlations between index tests and the properties of remolded clays. Geotechnique 34(2):211–228
Castellanos BA,. Brandon TL (2013) A comparison between the shear strength measured with direct shear and triaxial devices on undisturbed and remolded soils. In: Proceedings of the 18th international conference on soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering, Paris, 1, pp 317–320 Chapuis RP (2004) Predicting the saturated hydraulic conductivity of sand and gravel using
effective diameter and void ratio. Can Geotech J 41(5):787–795
Cozzolino VM (1961) Statistical forecasting of compression index. In: Proceedings of the 5th ICSMFE, Paris, pp 51–53
Craig RF (2004) Craig’s soil mechanics, 7th edn. Spon Press/Taylor and Francis Group, London Datta M, Gulhati SK, Rao GV (1980) An appraisal of the existing practise of determining the axial load capacity of deep penetration piles in calcareous sands. In: Proceedings of 12th annual OTC, Houston Paper OTC 3867, pp 119–130
Djoenaidi WJ (1985) A compendium of soil properties and correlations, MEngSc thesis, Univer-sity of Sydney, Australia
Duncan JM, Buchignani AL (1976) An engineering manual for settlement studies, Geotechnical Engineering Report, Department of Civil Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, USA, 94 p
Dutt RN, Ingram WB (1984) Jackup rig siting in calcareous soils. In: Proceedings of 16th annual OTC, Houston Paper OTC 4840, 541–548
European Committee for Standardisation (1994) Eurocode 7: geotechnical design – Part 1, Brussels
Elnaggar MA, Krizek RJ (1970) Statistical approximation for consolidation settlement. Highway research record, no. 323, HRB, pp 87–96
Fleming WGK, Weltman AJ, Randolph MF, Elson WK (1985) Piling engineering. Surrey University Press/Wiley, Glasgow/New York
Goldberg GD, Lovell CW, Miles RD (1979) Use of geotechnical data bank, Transportation Research Record, No. 702, TRB, pp 140–146
Graham J, Crooks JHA, Bell AL (1983) Time effects on the stress-strain behavior of natural soft clays. Geotechnique 33(3):327–340
Hara A, Ohata T, Niwa M (1971) Shear modulus and shear strength of cohesive soils. Soils Found 14(3):1–12
Hazen A (1911) Discussion on “Dams on sand foundations”. Trans ASCE 73:199 Hazen A (1930) “Water supply” American civil engineers handbook. Wiley, New York Holtz RD, Kovacs WD (1981) An introduction to geotechnical engineering. Prentice-Hall,
Engle-wood Cliffs
Hough BK (1957) Basic soils engineering. The Ronald Press Co., New York
Jaky J (1948) Pressures in silos. In: Proceedings of 2nd ICSMFE, Rotterdam, Holland, 1, pp 103–107
Jamiolkowski M, Ladd CC, Germaine JT, Lancellotta R (1985) New developments in field and laboratory testing of soils. In: Proceedings of the 11th international conference on soil mechanics and foundation engineering, San Francisco, 1, pp 57–154
Kenney TC (1959) Discussion of “Geotechnical properties of glacial lake clays,” by T.H. Wu.
J Soil Mech Found Div ASCE 85(SM3):67–79
Kezdi A (1972) Stability of rigid structures. In: Proceedings of 5th ECSMFE, Madrid, 2, pp 105–130
Koppula SD (1981) Statistical evaluation of compression index. Geotech Test J ASTM 4(2):68–73 Kozeny J (1927) ueber kapillareLeitung des Wassers im Boden, Wien, Akad Wiss 136(2a):271 Kraft LM, Lyons CG (1974) State-of-the art: ultimate axial capacity of grouted piles. In:
Pro-ceedings of 6th annual OTC, Houston, pp 487–503
Kulhawy FH, Mayne PW (1990) Manual on estimating soil properties for foundation design, Report EL-6800, Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto, California, USA
Ladd CC, Foott R, Ishihara K, Schlosser F, Poulos HG (1977) Stress-deformation and strength characteristics. In: Proceedings of 9th ICSMFE, Tokyo, 2, pp 421–494
Lambe TW, Whitman RV (1979) Soil mechanics SI version. Wiley, New York, 553 p Leonards GA (1962) Foundation engineering. McGraw-Hill, New York
Lo YKT, Lovell CW (1982) Prediction of soil properties from simple indices, Transportation Research record, No. 873, Overconsolidated clays: Shales, TRB, pp 43–49
Massarsch KR (1979) Lateral earth pressure in normally consolidated clay. In: Proceedings of the 7th ECSMFE, Brighton, England, 2, pp 245–250
Mayne PW (1985) Stress anisotropy effects on clay strength. J Geotech Eng ASCE 111(3):
356–366
Mayne PW, Kulhawy FH (1982) K0-OCR relationships in soils. J Geotech Eng Div ASCE 108 (GT6):851–872
McClelland B (1974) Design of deep penetration piles for ocean structures. J Geotech Eng ASCE 100(GT 7):705–747
Mesri G (1973) Coefficient of secondary compression. J Soil Mech Found Div ASCE 99(SM1):123–137
Mesri G (1989) A reevaluation of su(mob) 0.22 σ0pusing laboratory shear tests. Can Geotech J 26(1):162–164
Mesri G, Godlewski PM (1977) Time and stress compressibility interrelationship. J Geotech Eng Div ASCE 103(GT5):417–430
Mesri G, Olsen RE (1971) Mechanisms controlling the permeability of clays. Clay Clay Miner 19:151–158
Mesri G, Lo DOK Feng TW (1994) Settlement of embankments on soft clays. In: Proceedings of settlement’94, ASCE specialty conference, Geotechnical Special Publication No. 40, 1, pp 8–56
Meyerhof GG (1976) Bearing capacity and settlement of pile foundations. J Geotech Eng ASC 102(GT3):195–228
Mitchell JK (1976) Fundamentals of soil behavior. Wiley, New York
Nishida Y (1956) A brief note on compression index of soil. J Soil Mech Found Div, ASCE, 82 (SM3):1027-1 to 1027-14
Peck RB, Hanson WE, Thornburn TH (1974) Foundation engineering, 2nd edn. Wiley, New York Poulos HG (1988) The mechanics of calcareous sediments. Jaeger Memorial Lecture, 5th
Australia-New Zealand Geomechanics Conference, pp 8–41
Poulos HG (1989) Pile behavior – theory and application. Geotechnique 39(3):365–415 Rendon-Herrero O (1980) Universal compression index equation. J Geotech Eng Div ASCE
106(GT11):1179–1200
Salgado R (2008) The engineering of foundation. McGraw Hill, New York, 882 p
Schanz T, Vermeer PA (1996) Angles of friction and dilatancy of sand. Geotechnique 46(1):145–151
Schmertmann JH (1978) Guidelines for cone penetration test performance and design, Report FHWA-TS-78-209. U.S. Dept of Transportation, Washington, 145 pp
Schmertmann JH, Hartman JP, Brown PR (1978) Improved strain influence factor diagrams.
J Geotech Eng Div ASCE 104(8):1131–1135
Semple RM, Rigden WJ (1984) Shaft capacity of driven piles in clay, Analysis and design of pile foundations, ASCE, pp 59–79
Skempton AW (1944) Notes on the compressibility of clays. Q J Geol Soc Lond 100:119–135 Skempton AW (1954) The pore pressure coefficients A and B. Geotechnique 4:143–147 Skempton AW (1957) Discussion on “The planning and design of the new Hong Kong airport”.
Proc Inst Civil Eng Lond 7:305–307
Skempton AW (1959) Cast-in-situ bored piles in London clay. Geotechnique 9(4):153–173 Skempton AW (1986) Standard penetration test procedures and the effects in sands of overburden
pressure, relative density, particle size, ageing and overconsolidation. Geotechnique 36(3):
425–447
Skempton AW, Northey RD (1952) The sensitivity of clays. Geotechnique 3:30–53
Sorensen KK, Okkels N (2013) Correlation between drained shear strength and plasticity index of undisturbed overconsolidated clays. In: Proceedings of the 18th international conference on soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering, Paris, Presses des Ponts, 1, pp 423–428 Sridharan A, Nagaraj HB (2000) Compressibility behavior of remoulded fine grained soils and
correlations with index properties. Can Geotech J 37(3):712–722
Stas CV, Kulhawy FH (1984) Critical evaluation of design methods for foundations under axial uplift and compression loading, Report for EPRI, No. EL-3771, Cornell University
Szechy K, Varga L (1978) Foundation engineering – soil exploration and spread foundations.
Akademiai Kiado, Budapest, 508 p
Taylor DW (1948) Fundamentals of soil mechanics. Wiley, New York, 700 pp Terzaghi K, Peck R (1948) Soil mechanics in engineering practice. Wiley, New York Terzaghi K, Peck R (1967) Soil mechanics in engineering practice, 2nd edn. Wiley, New York Tezaghi K, Peck RB, Mesri G (1996) Soil mechanics in engineering practice, 3rd edn. Wiley,
New York
Tokimatsu K, Seed HB (1987) Evaluation of settlements in sands due to earthquake shaking.
J Geotech Eng ASCE 113(8):861–878
USACE (1990) Engineering and design – settlement analysis, EM1110-1-1904, Department of the Army, US Army Corps of Engineers
US Air Force (1983) Soils and geology procedures for foundation design of buildings and other structures, Air Force Manual AFM pp 88–3 Chapter 7 (Also U.S. Army Technical Manual 5-818-1), Departments of the Army and Air Force, Washington, DC
U.S.Army (1994) Settlement analysis, Technical Engineering and Design Guides, ASCE U.S. Navy (1971) Soil mechanics, foundations and earth structures, NAVFAC Design manual
DM-7, Washington, DC
U.S. Navy (1982) Soil mechanics – design manual 7.1, Department of the Navy, Naval Facilities Engineering Command, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC
Vesic AS (1972) Expansion of cavities in infinite soil mass. J Soil Mech Found Div ASCE 98:265–290
Winterkorn HF, Fang H-Y (1975) Foundation engineering handbook. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York
Wood DM (1983) Index properties and critical state soil mechanics. In: Proceedings of the symposium on recent developments in laboratory and field tests and analysis of geotechnical problems, Asian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, pp 301–309
Wroth CP (1984) The interpretation of in situ soil tests. Geotechnique 34(4):449–489
Wroth CP, Houlsby GT (1985) Soil mechanics – property characterisation and analysis pro-cedures. In: Proceedings of the 11th ICSMFE, San Francisco, pp 1–55
Wroth CP, Wood DM (1978) The correlation of index properties with some basic engineering properties of soils. Can Geotech J 15(2):137–145
Standard Penetration Test
Abstract This chapter provides a detailed description of the Standard Penetration Test (SPT) procedure and corrections to be applied to the SPTN value and hammer energy. Correlations of SPTN value with relative density, peak drained friction angle and modulus of elasticity of sand are discussed in detail. In clays, correlations to obtain the undrained shear strength, preconsolidation pressure, over consolida-tion ratio are provided. As the SPTN value is used extensively in the design of foundations, correlations to obtain foundation bearing capacity for both shallow and deep foundations are provided.
Keywords Standard penetration test • SPT • Correlations • Relative density • Liquefaction • Bearing capacity