4.6.1 Validity
Validity is the extent to which a measurement measures what it is supposed to measure and reliability is the extent to which a measurement procedure yields the same results on repeated trials in a qualitative study (Carmines and Zeller, 1979).
Most of the literature shows that validity can be classified into two areas, namely, content and construct validity. The content validity refers to consensus of the community of scholars on a particular instrument on whether or not is appropriate to measure a particular entity. Construct validity refers to the extent to which a measure relates to other measures consistent with theoretically derived hypothesis concerning the concepts being measured (Carmines and Zeller, 1979: 1).
However, Henning et al (2004: 147) elaborate the term validity more qualitatively by saying, “We ask the question whether, by using certain methods, we are investigating what we say we are investigating.” By saying this Henning et al (ibid.) refer to the trustworthiness of the research and its findings. She elaborates further that the truth has to correspond with reality, be coherent and have pragmatic utility. She argues that validity in research has to be assessed by the three criteria. She concludes that validity subsumes reliability.
Since the approach of the current study was mostly qualitative, the validity and reliability of the study were based on the foregoing definition provided by Henning et al (2004).
4.6.2 Validity and reliability of data collected
In this study reliability was maintained by checking the procedures and documentation so that they are precise. Data collection was done bottom-up, starting from school level to ministry level. It was assumed that this model would provide an opportunity to check precisely the information provided by participants at different levels, thus assuring validity in data and information collection.
Triangulation of data and information was made to cross-check the validity and reliability of data collected. Triangulation of methods is the use of a variety of data collection methods and sources (Henning et al 2004: 103). This includes data and information collected from different sources and methods which are crosschecked by the use of member checks and verbatim quotes of transcribed interviews to maintain their validity and reliability. Any information or data that was inconsistent or doubtful was discarded.
In this study the following measures were taken to ensure trustworthiness. More than one method was used to gather data, such as, structured interviews, focus group interviews and document analysis. Furthermore, member checks were performed by making the report available to the participants for comments. Both individual and focus group interviews were tape recorded and transcribed verbatim. The evidence provided was prudently assessed and alternative explanations were given for patterns discovered.
4.7 CONCLUSIONS
In this chapter the qualitative research approach, design and methodology were presented. The main area of the study includes the primary education sub-sector. The participants have been selected purposely. Because the study focuses on the primary education sub-sector, the population of the study included stakeholders of primary education, namely the Ministry officials in the primary education department, the regional and district officials concerned
with primary education, ward education coordinators, the primary school head teachers, parents, teachers and students.
The literature showed that qualitative research was suitable for the present study which is concerned with the experiences of stakeholders with regard to the management of educational change in Tanzania, which is a social phenomenon.
Clearly the choice for qualitative study is linked to the type of inquiry that a researcher conducts. Qualitative methods were found suitable to the present study, which also focused on organisational process, outcomes and an understanding of individual and group experiences of implementing educational change in Tanzania. One of the main concerns of this study was to describe the experiences of the people involved in the management of educational changes in the Primary Education Sector in Tanzania and on the basis of their experiences decide on the successfulness of the PEDP implementation. For this purpose the researcher felt that the qualitative methodologies used served the aim of the study adequately.
The selection of respondents was done purposely to include relevant people who are involved in implementing primary education activities. These include key stakeholders in the primary education sub-sector ranging from teachers, managers, department officials, parents and students.
The research design of this study can be described as exploratory, contextual and phenomenological by nature. The data collection methods are discussed from a theoretical perspective and a description is given of actual methods used in the present study. These include individual interviews, focus group interviews, observations and document analysis.
The validity and reliability in data collections rely on being precise in the methodology and member checks. The use of more than one method is intended to crosscheck the trustworthiness of the data collected.
Procedures for data presentation, analysis and discussions are discussed. The procedures include tape recording of interviews, verbatim transcribing and qualitative data according to emergent categories. Content analysis is one of the procedures used for analysing condensed
and grouped content. The discussions, conclusions and recommendations were made on the basis of determined trends, and patterns, which emerged from the findings.
CHAPTER FIVE
PRESENTATION OF DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the key research findings, as a result of the data analysis and discusses the implications of the findings on the management of educational change in the primary education sub-sector in Tanzania. The presentation is done in four main sections based on the research questions. The aim of the research questions was to guide data collection. The presentation of the data analysis under three broad categories follows hereunder.
• The process of educational change in primary education sub-sector in Tanzania. • The participation and roles of different stakeholders on the education reform. • Factors that underlie the success and sustainability or failure of educational
change in Tanzanian primary schools.
The three broad categories were synthesized from the specific research questions set to guide the research (See Section 1.6). The broad categories were preferred because of the nature of qualitative data that involves huge amounts of raw data or information. The broad categories were used in data analysis process to sub-divide the huge amounts of raw information. However, the data analysis was done to answer all the research questions as presented in the coming sections.
It should be realised that in contrast to quantitative research methods, qualitative research focuses on the exploration of values, meanings, beliefs, thoughts, experiences, and feelings characteristics of the phenomena under investigation (Wong, 2008: 1). In this regard, qualitative research, work with an emergent research design and does not necessarily have to rigidly refer to initial questions posed. Indeed, the initial research questions stated in the chapter one (see section 1.6) were meant to merely guide the research and not to form part of the findings from the open-ended questions asked in the interviews. Indeed, qualitative research does not use concepts such as hypothesis and assumptions, nor using direct causal links to specific questions as asked during interviews. Neill (2006) argue in the same line that phenomenological qualitative research design such as the one used in this study (see section
4.4) describes the structures of experiences as they present themselves to consciousness without recourse to theory, deductions, assumptions from other fields.
The process of analysing the qualitative data pre-dominantly involved categorising the data. Basically it involved making sense of huge amounts of raw information followed by identifying significant patterns and finally drawing meaning from data and subsequently building a logical chain of evidence based on the research questions.