Validity and reliability

Debate on the usefulness of the concepts of validity and reliability in qualitative research has been undertaken for many years (Kelle and Laurie, 1995). Some researchers suggest that whilst these terms are inappropriate in qualitative research, preferring to use terms such as "trustworthiness", "rigorousness", or "quality" of the data, it is nevertheless important that qualitative research and data analysis are carried out in a thorough and transparent manner (Creswell, 1998; Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Miles & Huberman, 1994). But because of the lack of detail and scrutiny in most published research on how the analysis process is carried out, qualitative data analysis, as a research tradition has been open to allegation of “unthorough” research practice. However, according to Clifton and Handy (2001) qualitative methods can have the same rigour and credibility as quantitative methods provided that researchers follow a systematic process, paying attention to validity, consistency, and reliability issues during data collection and analysis. Furthermore, Kirk & Miller (1986, p.21) suggest that validity in qualitative research "is ... a question of whether the researcher sees what he or she thinks he or she sees" so that there is evidence in the data for the way in which data are interpreted.

In dealing with validity, this PhD research followed some strategies that according to Maxwell (2005) increase credibility of the conclusions, e.g., ‘triangulation’, the use of ‘rich’ data, and the use of specialist computer software.

In terms of triangulation, according to Maxwell (2005), collecting information from a diverse range of individuals and settings, and using a variety of methods reduces the risk of chance associations and of systematic biases due to a specific method and allows a better assessment of the generality of the explanations that the author develops. This research, therefore, collected data from a diverse range of individuals, which included groups of young children, aged 7-11, older children aged 12-16 and parents aged 20-60 at different schools and households. In addition, specifically in relation to children, a concern, which applies to all methods, is to ensure that the information obtained is valid in that it represents the perspective of the child, whether of a particular time, or a more permanent attitude. This, according to Lewis and Lindsay (2000) can be limited by poorly worded questionnaires which inhibit or truncate the child’s full and necessary expression, or by using a sound method but without adaptation for the children concerned, taking account of their developmental status, for example. Therefore, this research followed the recommendations by Morrow (2012, p.12) that suggests to avoid “an over-reliance on one type of data-collection method” which “can lead to biases in any research” by drawing on a range of creative methods, and by using interactive and participatory methods of data

collection adapted and designed for children, which have been discussed in more detail in section 4.5 and 4.6 of this thesis.

Which regards to “rich” data, which has been defined as the “product of detailed,

descriptive note – taking or transcribing of the specific, concrete events that the researcher observes or obtains” (Maxwell, 2005, p.242) the author of this research did not take just notes but voice recorded all the sessions facilitated during the fieldwork. Therefore, this research obtained rich data derived from the verbatim transcripts from the semi-structured interviews, focus groups and activity groups. Such transcripts provided enough detailed data, which was helpful in providing a full and revealing picture of the participant’s perceptions about active travel to school, not only on what the author felt was significant. In addition, the author kept a record of all the graphic material derived from the sessions with parents and children, e.g., drawings and photographs, which also helped to illustrate the material generated by the participants.

In addition, using software in the data analysis process has been thought by some to add rigour to qualitative research (Richards & Richards, 1991). Therefore, this research has tried to achieve such rigour by using NVivo 9.2, and more specifically its search facility that is considered one of the main assets facilitating interrogation of the data (Richards & Richards, 1991). Regarding this, an interrogation of the data based on the number of references given by the participants with respect to certain aspects of this research, allowed the author to test and support claims that are inherently quantitative, but also enabled the author to assess the amount of evidence in the data that bears on a particular conclusion and from how many different sources they were obtained. According to Maxwell (2005) this process is called ‘quasi-statistics’ and is another of the strategies to increase credibility in the conclusions of research.

The research rejected other strategies such as ‘respondent validation’, (that focuses on obtaining systematic feedback from the people the author is studying about the author’s data and conclusions) or ‘comparison’ (that focuses on making explicit comparisons particularly in multisite studies) because of time constrains regarding the limited period of time of this PhD research, the difficulty in accessing the participants, especially the group of children, which is time consuming in terms of negotiating access with schools, guardians, etc. and also the author’s lack of funding to incur further research.

In terms of generalizability, that has been defined as “the degree to which the findings can

645), qualitative researchers often study only a single setting or a small number or individuals or sites, using theoretical or purposeful rather that probability sampling, and rarely make explicit claims about the generalisability of their accounts. Indeed, according to Maxwell (2005) the value of a qualitative study may depend on its lack of generalisability in the sense of being representative of a larger population, yet, it may provide an account of a setting or population that is illuminating as an extreme case or “ideal type” (p. 245). However, Maxwell (2005) also acknowledges that qualitative research is generalizable or “transferable” by a different logic from that of a sample survey. Yin (2003) describes these as “analytic generalization” and “statistical generalization”, respectively. Analytic generalization is not generalization to some defined population that has been sampled, but to a theory of the phenomenon being studied, a theory that might have much wider applicability than the particular sample studied. Therefore, for the purpose of this research it can be argued that regardless the size of the sample (130 participants), it was not intended to make statistical generalisation to a larger population, but rather as Yin (1994) explained, it was intended to make analytical generalization to expand theory, as it is believed that the results of this study can provide ground for a deeper understanding that can inform theory and practice and also for possible replication to other similar or larger studies.

4.10 Ethical considerations

Maxwell’s interactive model (2005) emphasises that the ethical considerations should be involved in every aspect of the research design. Ethics in research have been defined as the application of a system of moral principles to prevent harming others, to promote good, to be respectful, and to be fair (Sieber, 1993; Morrow 2010). Although according to Lewis et al (2000), research with children poses the same ethical questions that apply to other types of research, further considerations need to be taken into account when researching children and young people. For example, Morrow (2010) stipulates that ‘practitioners’ should be socially and professionally responsible and competent in their interactions, in the set tasks and in the treatment of information required. Furthermore, appropriate training and obtaining consent from gatekeepers is required before establishing contact with children.

Children are one of the groups to be considered ‘vulnerable’ by The Safeguarding Vulnerable Groups Act 2006, the Protection of Vulnerable Groups (Scotland) Act 2007 and the Safeguarding Vulnerable Groups (Northern Ireland) Order 2007. The Acts define children as being under 18 years and following the requirements, people who seek to work with children or vulnerable adults are currently vetted through a system that involves

employers applying to the Criminal Records Bureau (CRB) for disclosures about new job applicants, under arrangements set out in the Police Act 1997. CRB disclosures include information from police databases and local police records about the individual’s criminal record and may also include other information held by the police.

For the purpose of this PhD research, ethical approval was secured from the School of the Built Environment through the VISIONS2030 Project in order to engage with children and issues related to data protection, privacy, confidentiality, and informed consent has been specified. A copy of the ethical approval can be found in Appendix D of this thesis. The PhD researcher also obtained a certificate from the Criminal Records Bureau (CRB). Consent from adult gatekeepers (parents, school teachers and head teachers) was obtained before any approach was established. Each school, group or person participating voluntarily in this research was informed about the nature and purpose of the research and also about the purpose and extent for which the research information was to be used. Special care was taken in protecting confidentiality for all the participants.

4.11 Summary

This chapter introduced the philosophical underpinning of this PhD that in terms of epistemology and ontology is situated in the interpretivist and social constructivist paradigms, from the view that reality is socially constructed and given meaning by people (Easterby-Smith et al., 2002). In terms of axiology, this research assumed a subjective, value-laden criteria and the author constructed her own “truth’ of the social reality by the application of critical interpretations and the gradual establishment of research conclusions (Remenyi et al., 1998).

Subsequently, this PhD research adopted a qualitative approach because it was seeking to understand complex phenomena in context-specific settings. Hence the strategy adopted was qualitative survey, which studies diversity (not distribution) in a population and it does not aim at establishing frequencies, means or other parameters but at determining the diversity of some topic of interest within a given population (Jansen, 2010). The questions posed to the participants of this research at the level of data collection were guided by the synthesis of frameworks of factors and variables that affect children’s Active Travel to School resulting from the literature review in chapter two of this thesis.

This research used focus groups, activity groups and semi-structured interviews as the methods to collect the data. Furthermore, a range of participative and play-based interactive methods, which included drawing and mapping, were designed to use with children from different age groups.

With regards to sampling, for the purpose of this research, a combination of ‘purposive’ and ‘snowballing’ sampling techniques were followed. A sample of 130 participants consisting of 51 children aged 7-11, 45 children aged 12-16 and 34 parents aged 20-60 was obtained through 12 activity groups, 2 focus groups and 42 one-to-one semi- structured interviews.

In dealing with validity, this PhD research followed some strategies such as ‘triangulation’, ‘rich’ data and the use of specialist computer software (NVivo9.2), in order to increase credibility of the conclusions.

In terms of ethics, this PhD research obtained ethical approval, a certificate from the Criminal Records Bureau (CRB) and consent from adult gatekeepers (parents, schoolteachers and head teachers) in order to approach and engage in research with children.

5.1 Introduction

As stated in the introductory chapter, one of the objectives of this PhD research was to investigate the factors that affect children and parents’ trips to school choices. This chapter discusses in detail the themes that emerged from the analysis of the empirical data and that represent what children and parents perceive to be the most important barriers to active travel to school at individual, family, community, and wider society/environmental levels in sections 5.2. A graphic synthesis of the barriers to active travel to school is presented in section 5.3. An analysis of the barriers by group, age, gender and travel mode is presented in section 5.4. Finally, a summary of the chapter is presented in section 5.5.

5.2 Emergent themes as barriers

As identified by both children and parents participating in this research, the most common barriers to active travel to school can be categorized into 11 themes: ‘perceptions of risk’,

‘health and fitness issues’; ‘issues with public transport’; ‘bad weather’; ‘negative perceptions of cycling’; ‘time and schedules’; ‘issues with work and other destinations’; ‘long distance and lack of direct routes’; ‘cost and availability’; ‘lack of storage and facilities’ and ‘the positive perceptions of car use’ (Figure 5.1). The 11 themes included a total of 70 sub themes that are presented in detail in the following sections.

CHAPTER 5: RESULTS - EMERGENT THEMES AS BARRIERS TO ACTIVE