Validity, reliability and ethical considerations

The findings of scientific research are valuable when the researcher is able to prove the validity and reliability of the results. If there is no confidence in the data, there can be no faith in the results obtained and also the conclusions made. As a result, the research will not serve the purpose it sought to address and also it will not be replicable. Therefore, validity and reliability are the criteria used to judge the trustworthiness and credibility of research findings (Ary, Jacobs & Razavieh, 2002; Gay & Airasian, 2003). In addition to validity and reliability, the issue of ethical consideration is also important in establishing the trustworthiness and credibility of the research findings, as it may affect the quality of the data collected. The issues of validity, reliability and ethical considerations are presented in the following sections.

3.8.1 Validity and reliability

The key to effective research findings is validity and reliability (Cohen et al., 2000). While in qualitative research reliability is concerned with the consistency of the scientific findings, validity in quantitative research is concerned with the accuracy and trustworthiness of the scientific findings (Best & Kahn, 1993). According to Bell (1999) and Best & Kahn (1993), accuracy determines whether the instrument used has measured what it was intended to measure. Validity also refers to the relationship between the data collected and the theoretical framework of the study (Burns, 1994). Although in qualitative research, measurement of phenomena is not taken into consideration, accuracy is considered. But to make a distinction between the way it is used in quantitative research and qualitative research, Guba and Lincoln (1989) suggest that the notion should be replaced with authenticity. However, it is argued that since we are researching in the same world, validity is attached to accounts and not data

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or methods (Hammersley & Atkinson, 1983). Therefore, the distinction between its application in quantitative and qualitative research does not apply much because the notion is concerned with accuracy, which applies to both research traditions. The basic thing is that, whether the findings are quantitative or qualitative, they must describe the phenomena being studied accurately.

Validity in qualitative studies can be measured through external and internal validity (Cohen et al., 2000; Eklund-Myrskog, 1996), which Trochim et al. (2006) refer to as credibility and transferability, respectively. External validity refers to the extent to which scientific observations and measurements can be compared and applied legitimately across groups (Eisenhart & Howe, 1992; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Internal validity addresses the degree to which the scientific observations and measurements are authentic representation of the reality. Internal validity is concerned with the researchers’ interpretation of the extent to which the data represents the reality of the situation being studied (Cohen et al., 2000).

The drawbacks of internal validity can be the inconsistencies of the participants’ responses. This is because the participants may tell the researcher what they think he/she wants to hear, or they can even lie, or omit data or information. These drawbacks can be reduced through the use of other data collection methods like observation, or according to Cohen et al. (2000), by the use a multiple respondent approach, or by approaching the respondents and asking them to read what they have said and confirm if it reflects what they meant. While internal validity focuses on ensuring that the data which has been provided by the research is valid, external validity focuses on the extent to which the results can be generalized to a wider context. Although in qualitative research the aim is not to generalize the findings, external validity can refer to how the empirical findings can be used to make suggestions as to how other people understand a given phenomenon. In this study, validity is measured by internal validity. It involves the extent to which the categories developed represent primary school teachers’ perceptions of the integration of environmental education into the primary school curriculum and their teaching practices.

Another means of ensuring validity of the findings is triangulation. Triangulation involves studying the same phenomena using different methods. If the findings are similar, then the validity of the study is high. In this study, triangulation has been taken care of by the use of different methods of data collection, which are interviews and observation. In addition, response validation was done by the researcher asking specific questions with the aim of checking her understanding of what the interviewee meant.

External validity refers to the transferability of the study results from one context to another. In qualitative research, external validity can be determined by the degree of honesty, depth of the inquiry, scope of the data collected, and triangulation (Cohen et. al., 2000). In this study, the researcher has tried to ensure the external validity of the study by choosing a representative sample for the study, collecting sufficient data in relation to the research questions and

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using a combination of data collection methods (interviews and lesson observation).

Within the qualitative tradition, the concept of reliability refers to the consistency, reliability, dependability, credibility, applicability or trustworthiness of the research findings (Anfara et al., 2002; Cohen et al., 2000; Golafshani, 2003; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Also, in qualitative research, reliability is regarded as a comparison between what the researcher has recorded and what actually takes place in the actual setting which is being studied. This also implies the degree of accuracy and comprehensive coverage of the study (Burns, 2000; Cohen et al., 2000). It is argued that reliability is applicable to quantitative research, which assumes that for the findings to be reliable they should be replicable, meaning that if the same methods are used with the same sample, they should yield the same results (Cohen et al., 2000; LeCompte & Preissle, 1993). Similarly, in qualitative research, a degree of reliability is ensured. It is suggested that the aspect of reliability in qualitative research can be taken care of by ensuring the stability of things like observations and interviews. This can be done by doing the same observation and interpretation of the observation at different times or in a different place, or another observer doing the same observation or carrying out the same interview. It may involve member checks, triangulation and audit trails (Cohen et al., 2000). In audit trails, the researcher confirms the results. This can be done by the researcher taking back the transcribed data to the respondents to get their comments on how the data was analyzed.

In this study, validity and reliability were ensured first by reading the responses to the respondents to ensure what was written is what they meant. Secondly, a co-judging procedure was used to ensure the validity and reliability of the study. The co-judging method involves the use of an independent co-judge independently classifying all statements in accordance with the categories of description set up by the researcher (Eklund-Myrskog, 1996). The co judge, who is conversant with qualitative research, was given statements to categorize, which were already categorized according to the researchers’ categories. If the co judge’s categorization is the same as the researcher’s categories, then it can be said that the study is valid. Also validity in this research was ensured through the honesty and keenness of the researcher. Although discussed separately, the aspects of validity and reliability cut across the research process.

3.8.2 Ethical considerations

When research involves people, the issue of ethics has to be considered. Ethical issues must be considered because they protect both the researcher and the participants of the research from potential harm that may be caused as a result of the research (Cohen, 2000; Lester, 1996). Kvale (1996) points out that there are three ethical considerations which have to be taken into consideration in conducting research. These include the informed consent of the participants to participate in the study, confidentiality and consequences. Also acknowledgement of all the people who have participated in the research for their contribution and support (Cohen et al., 2000; Kvale, 1996; Lester, 1996) has to be made.

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On the aspect of consent, before the researcher conducted her study in the schools, the researcher explained the aim and objectives of the research to the Morogoro urban and rural district government authorities and sought permission to carry out the study in their schools. The district officials issued letters of permission to go into the schools and conduct the research. At each school, the informed consent of the heads of the schools and teachers was obtained before the data collection began. Although the researcher may have targeted particular respondents because they were purposefully selected, the researcher also informed them of their right to withdraw when they felt like doing so. Luckily, all the teachers who were approached to participate in the study agreed.

To ensure confidentiality, the interviews were conducted in a place that the teachers preferred. Before conducting the interview, the researcher assured the participants that all data collected during the interviews would be kept securely and treated as confidential. To maintain confidentiality, the schools and all the participants were given anonymous names in the data analysis and interpretation. Therefore, private data identifying the teacher and their schools is not included in the report. Instead, names and other identifying features are assigned to them. When the teachers in this study were assured of anonymity, they relaxed because they may have been afraid of giving information that would imply that the teaching of environmental education was not being implemented as expected. In research, potential harm can be associated with the participants’ involvement in giving their views, perceptions, concerns, and feelings (Cohen et al., 2000). As for the consequences of the study, the researcher assured all the schools and individual teachers that she would take full responsibility for the consequences arising from the study. This is in line with Kvale (1996), who pointed out that consideration of the consequences or benefits to the larger group which the sample for the study is representing should be done. Following the guidelines discussed in this chapter, the results of my study will be presented in the next chapter.

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