Chapter 12 Electromagnetic Compatibility 381
For a quick overview, consider reading the summaries for Chapters 1, 2, and 3. Then read the summaries of any of the remaining chapters that address fields of technology of interest to you. A brief statement of the coverage of each chapter and appendix follows.
Introductory Information
The first three chapters introduce the subject of measurements and provide an overview of the products of the U.S. electronics and electrical-equipment industries.
Chapter 1, Role of Measurements in Competitiveness, shows why measurements are a fundamental part of the infrastructure of the nation. Chapter 1 also sets measurements in the context of the many other important factors that affect competitiveness.
Chapter 2, NIST’s Role in Measurements, indicates the circumstances under which Government assistance to industry in the development of measurement capability is appropriate in pursuit of a strengthened national economy.
Chapter 3, Overview of U.S. Electronics and Electrical-Equipment Industries, introduces these industries through an overview of their major product lines. This chapter shows the various ways in which the products of these industries are commonly classified and how those classifications relate to the structure of this document.
Fields of Technology
The nine following chapters address individual fields of technology and have been arranged in a special order. The technologies on which most other technologies depend are introduced first. Thus the chapter on semiconductors appears first because most electronic technologies depend on semiconductor materials. In contrast, the chapter on video is located near the end because it depends on nearly every other technology discussed earlier.
Chapters 4, 5, and 6 of this document describe the measurement needs arising from three important materials technologies that underlie current and emerging electronic and electrical products. These chapters also describe the measurement needs of components and equipment based on these materials and not discussed separately in other chapters.
Chapter 4, Semiconductors, addresses both silicon and compound semiconductors and their use in components, including individual (discrete) electronic and optoelectronic devices and integrated circuits. Semiconductor components are central to all modern electronic products from consumer products to supercomputers.
Chapter 5, Magnetics, focuses on both magnetic materials and the components made from them. Magnetic materials are second in importance only to semiconductor materials for electronic products and play a central role in electrical products. This chapter also addresses the measurement needs of selected equipment critically dependent on magnetic materials, including magnetic information storage equipment, electrical power transformers, and others.
Chapter 6, Superconductors, examines superconductor materials and addresses both present and emerging applications of these materials in electronic and electrical products.
Chapters 7 through 11 describe the measurement needs associated with selected technologies of importance to U.S. competitiveness for current and emerging products.
Chapter 7, Microwaves, describes the highest-information-capacity radio technology.
Microwave electronics provide the basis for modern and emerging wireless communications systems and radar systems. Included are new personal communications services with both local and worldwide access, intelligent vehicle-highway systems, and advanced audio and video broadcasting systems, among others.
Chapter 8, Lasers, addressed the single most important component for emerging lightwave systems used for manufacturing, medicine, communications, printing, environmental sensing, and many other applications.
Chapter 9, Optical-Fiber Communications, describes the highest-information-capacity cable technology. It provides the basis for national and international information highways of unprecedented performance and broad economic impact. Optical-fiber systems will be linked with microwave systems to interconnect mobile and portable users and to backup cable systems.
Chapter 10, Optical-Fiber Sensors, focuses on an emerging class of sensors that offers outstanding performance for a broad spectrum of applications in manufacturing, aerospace, medicine, electrical power, and other areas.
Chapter 11, Video, emphasizes advanced, high-performance systems, such as high-definition television, which offer, for the first time, simultaneous access to high-resolution, smooth motion, and great color depth. The chapter notes the potential of full-power implementations of video technology in interactive networked environments. The chapter contains a special focus on flat-panel displays.
Finally, Chapter 12, Electromagnetic Compatibility, describes the special challenges that the U.S.
faces in maintaining electromagnetic compatibility among the many new products of electronic and electrical technologies. Such compatibility is essential if the full potential of all of the above technologies is to be realized without debilitating mutual interference.
Content of Chapters
Each of Chapters 4 through 12 contains four basic types of information:
Technology Review: The field of technology is reviewed to highlight and explain the special capabilities that make the technology important. This review introduces the technical concepts that are necessary for understanding the sections that follow.
World Markets and U.S. Competitiveness: The economic significance of the field of technology is highlighted through use of national and international market data for major products that employ the technology. Available information on the U.S. competitiveness is described.
Goals of U.S. Industry for Competitiveness: The goals that U.S. industry is pursuing to improve its competitiveness are discussed so that they can be related to requirements for new measurement capability supportive of the goals.
Measurement Needs: The new measurement capability that U.S. industry will need to enable it to achieve its goals is described. This discussion emphasizes measurement capability that is needed widely in U.S. industry, that will have high economic impact if provided, and that is beyond the resources of the broad range of individual U.S. companies to provide.
While the assessment of measurement needs in this document is wide ranging, not every field of technology important to the electronic and electrical-equipment industries has been covered. NIST plans to expand this assessment in future editions to include additional fields.
THE APPENDICES
The appendices provide definitions of the U.S. electronics and electrical-equipment industries. These definitions were used in preparing much of the economic information in the report.
Appendix 1 describes the Standard Industrial Classification System that the U.S. Government uses for collecting data about U.S. industry. This appendix also lists publications in which the U.S. Government reports data on U.S. shipments.
Appendix 2 provides a definition of the U.S. electronics industry in terms of the Standard Industrial Classification System.
Appendix 3 provides a definition of the U.S. electrical-equipment industry in terms of the Standard Industrial Classification System.
TREATMENT OF ECONOMIC DATA
Certain standard practices have been followed in the treatment of economic data in this document to make that data easier to interpret.
Current Dollars
All data on markets and production are expressed in current dollars, unless constant dollars are specified. As a reminder, current dollars are dollars valued in the year for which the economic data are provided; they include the effects of inflation. Constant dollars can be valued in any year that precedes or follows the year for which the economic data are provided; they are adjusted to exclude the effects of inflation. Whenever constant dollars are used, the reference year is provided.
Nominal Growth Rates
Similarly, all growth rates are expressed in nominal terms, unless real terms are specified. Nominal growth rates describe the growth rate in current dollars (including inflation). Real growth rates describe the growth rate in constant dollars (adjusted to exclude inflation). Since the world generally experiences inflation rather than deflation, nominal growth rates are generally greater than real growth rates. The relationship among these quantities is this: nominal growth rate = real growth rate + inflation rate.
DATES OF PREPARATION
This document required two years for development. Each chapter or appendix was completed on the date shown on its first page. That date will provide you with a reference point in time for the economic and technological information in the chapter or appendix. These dates may be compared with the dates appearing on updated chapters or appendices in future editions.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface BUILDING THE NATIONAL MEASUREMENT INFRASTRUCTURE FOR
COMPETITIVENESS IN ELECTRONICS . . . iii
Guide ORGANIZATION AND CONTENT OF THIS DOCUMENT . . . v
THE CHAPTERS . . . v
Introductory Information . . . v
Fields of Technology . . . vi
Content of Chapters . . . vii
THE APPENDICES . . . viii
TREATMENT OF ECONOMIC DATA . . . viii
Current Dollars . . . viii
Nominal Growth Rates . . . viii
DATES OF PREPARATION . . . viii
Chapter 1 ROLE OF MEASUREMENTS IN COMPETITIVENESS . . . 3
SUMMARY . . . 3
INTRODUCTION . . . 4
Purpose of This Chapter . . . 4
Approach in This Chapter . . . 4
Definitions . . . 4
BUYER’S VIEW OF COMPETITIVENESS . . . 6
MANUFACTURER’S CHALLENGES FOR COMPETITIVENESS . . . 7
Developing, Manufacturing, Marketing, and Supporting a Product . . . 7
Research and Development . . . 8
Manufacturing . . . 9
Marketplace Exchange . . . 10
Support . . . 11
Raising and Protecting Resources . . . 11
Implementing New Management Strategies . . . 13
Total Quality Management . . . 14
Flexible Manufacturing . . . 14
Collaboration Among Organizations . . . 15
Collaboration Within Organizations . . . 15
CONCLUSION . . . 16
ENDNOTES . . . 17
Chapter 2 NIST’S ROLE IN MEASUREMENTS . . . 21
SUMMARY . . . 21
NIST’S MEASUREMENT CAPABILITY . . . 21
Measurement Methods . . . 22
Measurement Reference Standards . . . 22
TIMING VERSUS IMPACT OF NIST’S MEASUREMENT CAPABILITY . . . 25
HOW NIST DELIVERS NEW MEASUREMENT CAPABILITY . . . 25
Chapter 3 OVERVIEW OF U.S. ELECTRONICS AND ELECTRICAL-EQUIPMENT INDUSTRIES . . . 31
Manufacturing . . . 56
ECONOMIC SIGNIFICANCE AND U.S. COMPETITIVENESS . . . 105
Chapter 7 MICROWAVES . . . 147
RELATIONSHIP OF MICROWAVE AND OPTICAL-FIBER TECHNOLOGIES . . . . 155
MICROWAVE ELECTRONICS MARKETS . . . 156
Chapter 8 LASERS . . . 183
Chapter 9 OPTICAL-FIBER COMMUNICATIONS . . . 217
NETWORK SWITCHING TECHNIQUES . . . 241
Dispersion . . . 269
Special Measurement Needs for High-Performance Technologies . . . 281
Soliton Systems . . . 281
Physical and Temporal Extent . . . 288
ADVANTAGES AND CHALLENGES FOR OPTICAL-FIBER SENSORS . . . 306
Physical Advantages . . . 306
Environmental Advantages . . . 307
Performance Advantage . . . 308
Signal-Handling Advantage . . . 308
QUANTITIES MEASURED BY OPTICAL-FIBER SENSORS . . . 309
SENSING ELEMENTS AND MECHANISMS FOR OPTICAL-FIBER SENSORS . . . 309
Sensing Elements . . . 309
Measurement Needs Addressed Here . . . 324
Chapter 12 ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY . . . 381 Electromagnetic Environment Characterization Measurements . . . 405 Field Probe Development . . . 405 Mathematical Models for Characterizing Complex Fields . . . 405 ENDNOTES . . . 406
Appendix 1 INDUSTRY DATA FROM THE BUREAU OF THE CENSUS . . . 413 STANDARD INDUSTRIAL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM . . . 413 NUMERICAL LIST OF MANUFACTURED AND MINERAL PRODUCTS . . . 414 CURRENT INDUSTRIAL REPORTS . . . 414 ANNUAL SURVEYS OF MANUFACTURES . . . 415 CENSUS OF MANUFACTURES . . . 416 ENDNOTES . . . 417 Appendix 2 DEFINITION OF U.S. ELECTRONICS INDUSTRY . . . 421 COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT . . . 422 ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS . . . 423 COMPUTERS AND INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS . . . 425 Computers and Peripheral Equipment . . . 425 Industrial Electronics . . . 425 Electromedical Equipment . . . 427 CONSUMER ELECTRONICS . . . 427 ELECTRONIC-RELATED PRODUCTS AND SERVICES . . . 428 Aerospace . . . 428 Automatic Controls, Industrial Apparatus, and Other Instruments . . . 428 Systems Integration and Computer Services . . . 428 Motor Vehicles . . . 429 Electronic-Related Office Equipment . . . 429 ENDNOTES . . . 430 Appendix 3 DEFINITION OF U.S. ELECTRICAL-EQUIPMENT INDUSTRY . . . 435 SCOPE AND STRUCTURE . . . 435 EXCLUSIONS . . . 436 RELATIONSHIP TO NEMA PRODUCTS . . . 436 LIMITATIONS . . . 437 ELECTRICAL SUPPLY EQUIPMENT . . . 437 Generation . . . 437 Transfer . . . 439 Manipulation . . . 440 Storage . . . 441 ELECTRICAL CONVERSION EQUIPMENT (to non-electrical forms) . . . 441 Motion (motors) . . . 441 Light . . . 443 Electrolytic Action . . . 443 Heat . . . 443 OTHER ELECTRICAL SUPPLY OR CONVERSION EQUIPMENT . . . 444 ENDNOTES . . . 447
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Criteria for Classifying Written Standards . . . 6 Table 2 Buyer’s Demands for Competitiveness . . . 7 Table 3 Manufacturer’s Challenges for Competitiveness, Part 1 of 3: Develop,
Manufacture, Market, and Support a Product . . . 8 Table 4 Manufacturer’s Challenges for Competitiveness, Part 2 of 3: Raise and
Protect Resources . . . 12 Table 5 Manufacturer’s Challenges for Competitiveness, Part 3 of 3: Implement
New Management Strategies . . . 14 Table 12 Definition of U.S. Electrical-Equipment Industry: Major Categories . . . 36 Table 13 U.S. Shipments of Electrical Equipment (1990) . . . 38 Table 28 Estimated Worldwide Consumption of Application-Specific Integrated Circuits . . 68 Table 29 Worldwide GaAs Semiconductor Merchant Consumption . . . 68
Table 42 Measurement Needs for Devices and Packages . . . 89 Table 48 U.S. and World Markets for Magnetic Information-Storage Products (1990) . . . . 108 Table 49 U.S. and World Markets for Electrical Equipment (1990) . . . 110 Table 56 Estimated Future Markets for Oxide-Based and Niobium-Based
Superconductors by Area of Application . . . 137 Table 64 Measurements for Integrated Electronic Circuits for 1-100 Gigahertz . . . 170 Table 65 Measurements for Integrated Antennas for 1-100 Gigahertz . . . 173
Table 89 Channel Capacity of Conventional Versus Coherent Detection . . . 234 Table 96 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model for Networks by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) . . . 242 Table 97 Alternative Switching Techniques for Networks . . . 243 Table 98 Optical-Fiber-Based Networks . . . 250 Table 99 World Market for Optical-Fiber Communications Components by
Application (1992 to 1998) . . . 255 Table 100 Ranking of World Market Shares of Optical-Fiber Communications
Components by Application (1992 to 1998) . . . 255 Table 101 World Market for Optical-Fiber Communications Components by
Component Group (1992 to 1998) . . . 256 Table 102 World Market for Fiber Cable by Application (1992 and 1998) . . . 257 Table 103 World Market for Transmitters/Receivers by Application (1992 and 1998) . . . 258 Table 104 World Market for Connectors/Couplers by Application (1992 and 1998) . . . 259 Table 105 World Market for Optical-Fiber Communications Components by
Geographic Region (1992 to 1998) . . . 260 Table 106 World Investment in Undersea Optical-Fiber Communications Systems . . . 260 Table 107 U.S. Market for All Optical-Fiber Components (1992) . . . 261 Table 108 U.S. Market for Optical-Fiber Communications Components . . . 262 Table 109 Cumulative U.S. Investment in Installed Optical-Fiber Cable Through
1991 . . . 262 Table 110 World Market Shares of Production of Optical-Fiber Communications
Components by Geographic Region (1992) . . . 264 Table 111 Industry Goals for Improved Competitiveness of Optical-Fiber
Communications Systems . . . 266 Table 112 Types of Improvements Needed in Measurement Methods . . . 267 Table 113 Locations of Measurement Needs of Optical-Fiber Communications
Components and Materials . . . 267 Table 114 Measurement Needs for Optical-Fiber Communications Components, Part 1
of 3: Fibers, Connectors, and Splices . . . 269 Table 115 Measurement Needs for Optical-Fiber Communications Components, Part 2
of 3: Sources/Transmitters, Modulators, and Detectors/Receivers . . . 272 Table 116 Measurement Needs for Optical-Fiber Communications Components, Part 3
of 3: Optical Amplifiers, Couplers, Multiplexers/Demultiplexers, and Isolators . . 277 Table 117 Wavelength-Division Multiplexing/Demultiplexing Components . . . 279 Table 118 Principal Materials in Optical-Fiber Communications Components, Part 1
of 2 . . . 282 Table 119 Principal Materials in Optical-Fiber Communications Components, Part 2
of 2 . . . 283 Table 120 Measurement Needs for Materials Used in Optical-Fiber Communications
Components . . . 284 Table 121 Functions of Network Measurements . . . 286
Table 122 Challenges for Network Measurements . . . 287 Table 123 Advantages and Challenges for Optical-Fiber Sensors . . . 307 Table 124 Quantities Measured by Optical Fibers . . . 309 Table 125 Mechanisms of Sensing in Optical-Fiber Sensors . . . 311 Table 126 World Market for Optical-Fiber Sensors by Consuming Country or Region . . . 313 Table 127 World Market (Dollars) for Optical-Fiber Sensors by Measured Quantity . . . 314 Table 128 World Market (Units) for Optical-Fiber Sensors by Measured Quantity . . . 314 Table 129 World Market for Optical-Fiber Sensors by End-User Industry . . . 315 Table 130 Relative Concentration of Sensors For A Given Measured Quantity in
Each End-User Industry Based on Dollar Percentage of Worldwide
Consumption For 1990 . . . 316 Table 131 Technical Challenges to the Realization of Optical-Fiber Sensors . . . 321 Table 132 Average Unit Cost of Optical-Fiber Sensors by Measured Quantity . . . 322 Table 133 Types of Improvements Needed In Measurement Methods for Optical-Fiber
Sensors . . . 325 Table 134 Functional Groups of Components in Optical-Fiber Sensing Systems . . . 325 Table 135 Measurement Needs for Optical-Fiber Sensor Components . . . 326 Table 136 Representative Equipment Needed by Advanced Video Systems . . . 343 Table 137 World Equipment Markets Affected by Video Technology (1990) . . . 345 Table 138 Alternatives for Implementing Advanced Video Systems . . . 348 Table 139 Video Broadcast Transmission Alternatives . . . 350 Table 140 Technical Challenges for High-Resolution Charge-Coupled Arrays for
Imaging Cameras . . . 359 Table 141 Technical Challenges for High-Resolution Solid-State Imaging Cameras . . . 360 Table 142 Measurement Needs for Cameras . . . 360 Table 143 Technical Challenges for Signal Processing . . . 361 Table 144 Measurement Needs for Signal Processing . . . 362 Table 145 Technical Challenges for Flat-Panel Displays . . . 368 Table 146 Measurement Needs for Flat-Panel Displays . . . 369 Table 147 Technical Concerns in the Manufacturing of Active-Matrix Liquid-Crystal
Displays . . . 370 Table 148 Technical Concerns in the Manufacturing of Plasma Displays . . . 371 Table 149 Technical Concerns in the Manufacturing of Electroluminescent Displays . . . 372 Table 150 Improvements Needed in EMC Measurement Capability . . . 397 Table 151 Types of Measurement Capability Supportive of the Three EMC
Applications . . . 398 Table 152 Characteristics of EMC Facilities . . . 399 Table 153 Areas of Measurement Need by Application . . . 401 Table 154 Reporting Documents of the Bureau of the Census for U.S. Manufactures . . . 413 Table 155 Levels of the Standard Industrial Classification System . . . 414 Table 156 Divisions of the Standard Industrial Classification System . . . 415 Table 157 EIA’s Definition of U.S. Electronics Industry: Major Categories . . . 421 Table 158 EIA’s Definition of U.S. Electronics Industry in Terms of SIC System . . . 422 Table 159 Definition of U.S. Electrical-Equipment Industry: Major Categories . . . 435 Table 160 Definition of U.S. Electrical-Equipment Industry in Terms of SIC System . . . 437 Table 161 Representative Electrical Applications Equipment . . . 445
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Propagation of Measurement Benefits in a Buyer-Seller Loop . . . 13 Figure 2 Overview of the Frequency Spectrum . . . 46 Figure 3 Contribution of Semiconductors to the Economy . . . 60 Figure 4 Overview of the Frequency Spectrum . . . 149 Figure 5 Overview of the Frequency Spectrum . . . 185 Figure 6 Overview of the Frequency Spectrum . . . 220 Figure 7 Overview of the Frequency Spectrum . . . 353 Figure 8 Overview of the Frequency Spectrum . . . 383 Figure 9 Paths of Entry of Electromagnetic Interference . . . 384
ROLE OF MEASUREMENTS IN
COMPETITIVENESS
INTRODUCTION . . . 4 Purpose of This Chapter . . . 4 Approach in This Chapter . . . 4 Definitions . . . 4 BUYER’S VIEW OF COMPETITIVENESS . . . 6 MANUFACTURER’S CHALLENGES FOR COMPETITIVENESS . . . 7 Developing, Manufacturing, Marketing, and Supporting a Product . . . 7 Research and Development . . . 8 Manufacturing . . . 9 Marketplace Exchange . . . 10 Support . . . 11 Raising and Protecting Resources . . . 11 Implementing New Management Strategies . . . 13 Total Quality Management . . . 14 Flexible Manufacturing . . . 14 Collaboration Among Organizations . . . 15 Collaboration Within Organizations . . . 15 CONCLUSION . . . 16 ENDNOTES . . . 17
June 1991
Chapter 1
ROLE OF MEASUREMENTS IN COMPETITIVENESS
SUMMARY
The level of measurement capability of the nation sets an upper limit on the competitiveness of its high-technology products. The effects of measurement capability on competitiveness are manifested in many ways. For example, manufacturers of high-technology products need a high level of measurement capability to:
- develop products with optimized performance, quality, and compatibility - design and control manufacturing processes
- gain access to markets by proving compliance with marketplace standards - reach agreement with buyers on product specifications and performance - support products after sale
A high level of measurement capability is thus one necessary factor in achieving international competitiveness in high technology. There are many other necessary factors. Representative of these are:
- access to resources: capital, labor, equipment, technology - protection of resources: patents, copyrights
- access to international markets: export and import restrictions, both tariff and non-tariff All of these other necessary factors also present formidable barriers that must be overcome. Once they are overcome, however, the bottom line is this: manufacturers must deliver a product that is competitive on its own merits, and their ability to do this is highly sensitive to the level of measurement capability.
Measurement capability plays a special role in a free-market economy. A free-market economy relies on the ability of the marketplace to reach decisions that maximize economic efficiency. In areas of high technology, measurement capability is used by manufacturers and buyers to determine the performance, quality, and compatibility of products as a basis for marketplace decisions. Those decisions can be no better than the level of measurement capability on which they are based. This role is so critical that the level of measurement capability sets an upper limit on the ability of a free-market economy to reach economically efficient decisions on high-technology products.
Measurement capability is a generic tool that manufacturers use to make the products that they choose. The economic impact of measurement capability is high because measurements support every step that a manufacturer must complete to realize competitive products: research and development, manufacturing, marketplace exchange, and after-sales support. Because of this pervasive influence, measurement capability is often referred to as a supporting technology or as an infratechnology, that is, a technology that is essential to the development and utilization of other technologies. These terms
reflect the fact that measurement capability has high leverage on the ability of other technologies to deliver.
Further, a high level of measurement capability is essential to the implementation of new management strategies for improving competitiveness, whenever the strategies contain technical elements.
Examples of these strategies include total quality management, flexible manufacturing, joint technology development, and concurrent engineering. Measurement capability supports these strategies by improving: (1) the control that manufacturers exercise over all of the technical steps required to realize competitive products; and (2) the effectiveness of the technical language that manufacturers use in executing these strategies, particularly when collaboration or technology transfer are required.
These several roles give measurement capability high leverage on economic growth and international competitiveness. They also underscore the risks to competitiveness from underinvestment in the development of advanced measurement capability.
INTRODUCTION
Purpose of This Chapter
The purpose of this chapter is to show explicitly how measurement capability affects the competitiveness of high-technology products. The discussion is applicable to all high-technology industries. However, the examples provided are drawn from the electronics industry. The examples are set in small type.
Approach in This Chapter
Ultimately, the competitiveness of a product is determined by the decisions that a buyer makes in the
Ultimately, the competitiveness of a product is determined by the decisions that a buyer makes in the