Having placed visual-spatial learners (VSL) in context as a group of students whose gifts and talents lie outside those most commonly recognised by New Zealand teachers, the next section of this review traces some background of the visual-spatial learner concept and provides a description of the characteristics of this processing style.
2.2.1 Background to the Visual-Spatial Learner Concept
There are a number of writers in the field of gifted education who have contributed to the understanding that gifted and talented youth are a much wider demographic than academic high achievers. Most significant to this thesis, Horn (1976) and Cattell (1971) made a distinction between crystallised intelligence being that which is taught using sequential logic and can be learned through practice, applied and reproduced in its original form; and fluid intelligence being that which uses more intuitive reasoning that perceives, transforms and produces knowledge incidental to that being taught (Horn, 1976). Students who fail to follow the process as taught may not score well on tests, even though they may well develop their own way of producing correct answers and in fact have creative abilities beyond the capacity of those who score more highly. Seeley (2003) acknowledged the link between the idea of high fluid ability and high risk gifted youth. He noted also that Silverman (1998) has pursued the idea of a connection between high fluid ability, underachievement and a visual-spatial learning style with her visual-spatial learner model which recognises that fluid abilities are grounded in more holistic visual imagery, drawn from non-linear, spatial thinking that allows them to master complex material easily, but typically struggle with more simple, sequential tasks. These learners are considered at risk because our education system currently values and rewards sequential tasks and curriculum is designed in such a way that is demotivating for these students and incompatible with their visual- spatial learning styles (Gohm, Humphreys & Yao, 1998, Mahoney & Seeley, 1982, Seeley 1987, 2003).
2.2.2 Linda Kreger Silverman
Silverman is a major contributor to literature on the field of visual-spatial learners. She describes visual-spatial learners as those who think in images, as distinct from those who think using words, who she describes as auditory-sequential learners (ASL) (Silverman, 2002). This dichotomy of information processing style between visual- spatial learners and auditory-sequential learners is described by Maxwell in an appendix to Silverman’s 2002 text, Upside-Down Brilliance. Maxwell says that
VSLs are visual, spatial, holistic, focused on ideas; they seek patterns, are divergent, sensitive and intense, and display variable ‘asynchronous’ development. They organise their world using space as a whole. Pattern recognition leads to ‘Aha’ moments as they ‘see’ a relationship – this is an all or nothing phenomenon for them - only when pieces come together do they make sense – on their own they are
meaningless. Because VSLs think in images, it can take them longer to express themselves verbally, as they need to ‘translate’ their visual thoughts into words and sometimes they struggle to find the right words. They are very observant and do well at tasks that require strong visualisation skills, such as design, mechanics, or
technology. VSLs often find classroom learning difficult; they don’t learn easily when material is presented in the usual sequential order. Rather, they are global thinkers, who need to see the big picture first. They may succeed at complex tasks, while finding simple steps incomprehensible (Maxwell, in Silverman, 2002). ASLs on the other hand, are described by Maxwell as auditory, sequential, detail- oriented, convergent learners who focus on format. This means they organise
information following a logical sequence of steps to a conclusion, ordering everything in a linear way, e.g. writing from left to right, building an outline from the top down. They process what they hear quickly, understanding step by step explanations, and are usually very competent at expressing their thoughts verbally. When faced with
something complex, ASLs will break it down into small steps and work through the easier bits first, gradually working into the more difficult parts. They learn well at school, because content is generally presented in ways that make understanding easy for them (Maxwell, in Silverman, 2002).
Silverman noted characteristics such as extraordinary capability on tasks with spatial components, e.g. mazes, puzzles, duplicating block designs and mental rotations. She suggests the Block Design subtest of the Weschler Intelligence Scales for Children to be one of the best indicators of a visual-spatial learning style, along with the Abstract Visual Reasoning section of the Stanford Binet IV and the Raven’s Progressive Matrices (Silverman, 1995).
Further behavioural characteristics observed by Silverman in visual-spatial learners include examples of exceptional visual memory and children pulling things apart to see how they work. She noted that introverted VSLs will rehearse mentally before attempting anything new and that they often spend hours building with construction toys. They enjoy challenge and novelty, and have a love of numbers. Spatial abilities often equate with mathematical talent, creativity, science, computer science,
technology, architecture, mechanics, aeronautics, engineering, arts and music, however VSLs may dislike school because of the emphasis on lecturing, rote
memorisation, drill and practice exercises and the lack of sufficient stimulus of their powerful abstract visual reasoning abilities (Silverman, 1995).
2.2.3 Louise Porter
In writing about identifying giftedness Porter (2009) also acknowledges a clear distinction that can be made between the learning “styles” of students.
[Figure 2, Learning Style Preference of Students, Porter, 2009]
Sequential ¦ 5% ¦ 65% ¦ Visual ---Verbal ¦ 25% ¦ 5% ¦ Holistic
She sets out a graphic representation as shown above in Figure 2 that situates visual and verbal as two ends of a continuum and then a line that intersects at right angles portraying sequential and holistic as a further continuum of style. Porter differentiates those who favour an auditory-sequential style (65%) wherein they learn sequentially, mastering one idea at a time, analysing by breaking problems down into their parts and attending to details well. She notes these learners do well in school because of their ability to follow verbal instructions and plan in a logical, organised way. In opposition, Porter attributes the characteristics of Silverman’s visual-spatial learners (25% of learners in Porter’s estimation above) but in place of the term visual-spatial prefers to describe them as learners who use a conceptual (or holistic) style. In her description of conceptual or holistic learners, Porter doesn’t explicitly distinguish between the two terms however she includes that these learners intuitively synthesise ideas to form a big picture or conceptual overview from which it could be inferred that they draw these ideas together in a holistic form, from multiple experiences and disciplines, recognising patterns and forming connections.
2.2.4 Brain Lateralisation
A further association discussed by Silverman are the left and right brain hemispheres and the nature of functions each have in the past been thought to specialise in. Time, sequencing and analytic thought have been commonly considered left-hemispheric strengths; with spatial, holistic processing and synthesis described as right-
hemispheric strengths (Silverman, 1995). Technological advances mean that new knowledge is coming to light all the time. What is known for certain is that there is much we do not yet know about the brain and the way it works to process
information. More recently, Kalbfleisch and Gillmarten (2013) have highlighted the results of neuro-imaging technologies that dispel the notion of hemispheric
lateralisation. They counter ‘neuromyths’ including that visual-spatial abilities are primarily located in the brain’s right hemisphere with research that has found no evidence of left brain/right brain lateralisation (Nielsen, Zielinski, Ferguson, Lainhart & Anderson, 2013). These researchers conclude that the construct of cognition is much too complex to be represented in such a simplistic manner (Kalbfleisch & Gillmarten, 2013). Silverman agreed that the integration of both hemispheres is necessary for higher-level thought processing. However she maintained that while
we all use both hemispheres it is common to favour one or the other mode or style of processing. She makes the point that this natural preference, or way of perceiving, should be honoured and appreciated rather than attempts being made to ‘remake’ one into the other (Silverman, 1995).
2.2.5 Visual-Spatial Definition for this Thesis
Kalbfleisch and Gillmarten (2013) include in their work a useful parsing of definitions of the skills involved in visual-spatial ability. In tracing the history of ways that description of these skills has evolved, they conclude that all current definitions of visual-spatial ability include three elements:
thinking in images as a contributing factor in pattern recognition (or two dimensional reasoning),
skill in mental manipulation or rotation of those images in space (or three dimensional reasoning) and
spatial navigation, or problem solving that utilises holistic, as opposed to sequential strategies (requiring both two and three dimensional reasoning at different levels)
To conclude this section, this summary of skills informs the definition of a visual- spatial learner used for this thesis:
Visual-spatial learners can visualise three dimensional mental representations (think in 3D images) and manipulate those images in space. They use these abilities as they draw on holistic rather than sequential information processing strategies to solve problems.