WEAVING TECHNIQUES

There appears to be no definitive method to recording basketry, with only a very few books on the subject, (see: Who is Afraid of Basketry - Wendrich 1991). In this paper I have tried to use the simplest terms to describe the techniques used:

• Weaving: where strands are laid in two different directions, at right angles to each other and follow an over under weave pattern. Where these strands are horizontal and vertical to each other, it is referred to as plain weave and plaid if it is woven on the diagonal.

• Plaiting: where all the strands originate from the same direction and are folded into position for weaving.

• Netting: Where a knotted mesh is made by evenly spaced ties formed in string.

• Wrapping: Where one element is wrapped around another, usually of a different material, This is similar to binding, but does not include the ties.

• String: A twisted length of material used for ties which can be made up of either S or Z spun material, depending on the direction of manufacture and whether the person producing the string is left or right-handed. Two of these strands are then put together to form a ply, preventing untwisting of the material and adding strength.

Plain weaves

These are formed from strands running vertical and horizontal to each other and is the simplest method of weaving.

Fig.4.1. 2/2 Plain weave. Fig.4.2. 3/3 Plain weave

Fig.4.3 & 4. Two simple plain weaves patterns, (R) an arrow effect.

Fig.4.5. 1/2 Plain weave. Fig.4.6. 1/4 Plain weave.

When a corner is reached the strands are all folded in a 90º upward direction forming the verticals and new strands becoming the horizontals. In a basket, the beginning and end of each horizontal strand overlap through the weave to hold them in place tightly.

Changing the size of strands within a weave can produce a very different visual impact, this can only be worked using a plain weave.

Fig.4.7. Similar weave patterns showing how a change in size of only one weave direction can change the overall weave appearance.

Complex patterns can also be produced in plain weave, this example is most often seen used on tapan winnowing tray.

Fig.4.8. These two examples are of the same weave, depending on which side is viewed. (Left) a plain weave of paired strands,

Plaid Weaves

This very simple weave is formed by staggering the start point of each strand by one place. Both 2/2 and 3/3 are produced in the same manner, just passing over more or less strands. These weaves can be carried out so the stripes lie both vertically (P. - kutek pejek, K.B. - alé, L.B. - tenganuh’ nurat tuped.) or horizontally (P. -kutek teperket, K.B. - belata, L.B. - tenganuh’ nurat tepalang).

Fig.4.9. 2/2 Plaid, horizontal. Fig.4.10. 2/2 Plaid, vertical.

Fig.4.11. 3/3 Plaid, horizontal. Fig.4.12. 3/3 Plaid, vertical.

To produce a basket in this weave, single weaves called mata - x (P. - maten) must be incorporated into the base, otherwise when the corner is turned the pattern will not remain in an even plaid design. These two diagrams below show the positions of the mata within the weave. The weave is built up as a diamond until the corners are reached.

x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

Fig.4.14. 2/2 Base using mata. Fig.4.15. 3/3 Base using mata.

Where a corner is to be turned on a rectangular base the mata are spaced in a slightly different way:

x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x x

Fig.4.16. Use of mata to form a rectangular base.

The strands that initially change direction for the corners are those formed from the lines of diagonal mata.

x x x x x x

Fig.4.17. Turning a corner in a Fig.4.18. Turning a corner in an close weave. open weave.

Patterns are built up by changing the number of strands passed over and under in a particular sequence, this can be seen more fully in the section on designs. Simple plaid weaves start to become loose if too many strands are passed over each time, this starts to appear on 4/4 plaid weaves. It is possible to change from a vertical to a horizontal weave by using single outside weave and triple inside weave in a 2/2 plaid.

Fig.4.19. Change of weave direction, outside. Fig.4.20. Change of weave direction, inside.

When spaced weaves are produced all of these above rules apply if the finished object is to be both strong and aesthetically pleasing, this is seen on items such as the keratang and blanyat.

When a close weave has been completed and it has been all pushed together (often with the fibres being wetted to soften them), the surface is rolled or rubbed with a heavy object. If the weave is part of a container a support is placed on the inside. To ensure a nice flat surface finish.

Fig.4.21. Turning a rim.

Rims are turned by bending the strands at 90º to the direction in which they have been woven, folding them over the top and passing them back through the weave. Open weave strands are often turned back on themselves and again woven to the edge to keep them more secure.

Most weaving is carried out in one of the two styles plain or plaid, although plaid weave gives more scope for artistic flair.

Woven plant materials can be used in the manufacture of flat articles such as mats, three-dimensional items like baskets and those in between, such as trays. Of these two types of weave, it is the plaid style that is seen most often and is used to produce, all but a few, of the varying types of object I discuss (see fig. 4.23).

A further style of weaving is made up of six strands positioned to form a hexagon and star shaped weave, (This style of weave is frequently seen on cane bottomed chairs in the West. In some cases the addition of further strands can be seen, making the weave very complex). All the Orang Ulu communities I studied use the simplest form of this weave, shown in fig.4.22. From it they manufacture such items as keba and gai, both baskets, for carrying heavy weights. Some forms of chicken basket are also made in this way, as the weave allows maximum air flow for the birds being kept inside.

Fig.4.23. Table of Weave Styles. OBJECT TYPE Rice Farming seed baskets harvest baskets winnowing tray winnowing sieve drying mats G a r d e n s chicken baskets gardening baskets fruit baskets kelung gai Kelung

Forest & River heavy baskets Houshold trays

square basins

bowls & fruit baskets cassava baskets cooked rice boxes fans sacks sleeping mats sitting mats boxes document holders baby carriers flowerpots purses Travelling Baskets all types Protective clothes headbands skull caps kelawak PLAIN WEAVE MANUFACTURING COMMUNITY Kj., Sk., P.B. Kj., Sk., P.B. Kj. all none known Kj. Kj., P. P. Kl., P. PLAID WEAVE MANUFACTURING COMMUNITY all all all none known all K.B. K.B., P.T., Lh., P.B., L.B.K. all Kj., Sk., K.B. K.B. Kl., P., L.B. none known K.B., U.B.K., Kl., L.B. all all all K.B. all Kl., U.B.K. P. all all all K.B. OTHER WEAVES MANUFACTURING COMMUNITY K.B., Kl., P., L.B. K.B., Kj., Sk. Kl. Kl. all K.B. Kl., L.B., P., U.B.K. K.B., P.

Straps, Ties and Attachments

Many of the woven objects discussed in the following chapters could not be completed or utilized without a number of added features, giving strength, allowing the object to be carried; stored; closed; or for further attachments to be made.

Head Band Straps K.B. - tapung ujap, Kl. - senguluk, L.B. - tengelai uluh.

This starts as a heavy plaited band, which then divides into two smaller plaits, before becoming a 2/2 plaid weave, therefore, going from a rope to a flattened area for the forehead, before becoming a rope again. Another form involves a heavy plait, again dividing into two, then each part dividing, again, in to two, forming four strands before the 2/2 plaid weave begins. If necessary in emergency a piece of barkcloth can be used, but this is rare. Lidad Selutan, a Lun Bawang, states that they almost never use a head strap on their baskets, unless it is an extremely heavy load (pers. com 2003).

Shoulder straps K.B. - ay, Kl. - telaih, P. - terlinan, L.B. - tengelai, P.T. - vee/veehay,

KJ. - we’i, Sk. - wei.

Straps (ay) are produced from six strands. Starting in the middle of the strands, two of them remain passive. The other four strands are woven about these two in both directions, by crossing the strands over the core, two in each direction. Next passing one of the upper strands round the back, through the two on the opposite side and then bringing it back across the top, so that it lies below its pair. This process then carried out with the top strand on the other side; working out from the centre in both directions until a long enough length has been woven, that can be doubled over to form a loop. When it has been doubled over there are twelve strands, one of which is cast out of the weave at this point, leaving eleven strands with which to weave. The weave pattern is a

2/2 twill, but when a strand reaches the edge, it is twisted over, so that it lies at 90˚ to the direction it has just come from, and is ready to be incorporated back into the weave, with the skin face of the rattan uppermost. When the required length of strap has been produced in this manner, the five central strands are used to form the core, with three remaining on either side. The top strand is then taken round the back, passed through the top two on the other side, and brought round the front again, so that it becomes the lowest strand on its original side. This process is carried out with the strands going back and forth until, again, a long enough length exists to double over and form a loop. The five central core strands are then cut off and the six remaining ones are pushed into the weave pattern of the main strap, until they are securely held, at which point, they too are cut off.

Fig.4.24. Strap.

A variation on this is mentioned by Dunsmore (1991:206):

‘They are made from a round 4-strand plait, folded into a loop and all ends made into a squarish 8 -strand plait. This in turn is plaited into a flat twill along the stretch that will lie on the shoulder. After forming another loop, all the ends are slotted and folded back into the flat braid to form a pattern and a finish, which can hardly be detected.’

The Kejaman often produce more complex, decorative, straps, using the same basic techniques. They use more strands in the core, and make the plait longer, so that, when it is doubled over, it can be woven into an eight strand rope, rather than making it a flat weave at this point. The strands are divided, and two further plaits produced, often this weave becomes flat, and continues in the

manner already described. Some Penan in the Baram also do this dividing, but then return the strands to one plait again, before making the flat weave; according to Ribeka Nyato (pers. com. 2002), this is dependant on the rattan length. They also use many different designs, chequer, crocodile back etc. along with colour on their straps. Some Kejaman straps are also produced from fewer strands producing a thinner end product.

Fig.4.25. End details of a Kejaman style shoulder strap.

A further strap type, made by the Badeng is called ay aya (aya - eight). This is made up of strands positioned as shown in figure 4.26, forming an eight pointed star. When this shape has been produced, all the strands are pushed up to a 90º angle from the flat. They are then in a position to be woven into a very tight plaid tube (I personally find it easier to weave this tube onto a core, but I have never seen the Badeng do this). When the tube is considered long enough the strands are separated into two sets of four and plaited, before being flattened for the main section of the strap to be woven. This tube appears to form no function, being purely decorative.

Fig.4.26. Ay Aya starting point.

The Lun Bawang also use waist straps, which are again called tengelai. They are made from lengths of barkcloth or of fabric, usually red; these are threaded

through the loops - berkang found at the top of their baskets. These straps can also be worn across the body, from shoulder to opposing waist side if wished.

String P. & K.B., - tali, Kl. - nupar, L.B. - nuber.

String is rolled in two parts on the thigh and the two then allowed to twist together to give a two ply strand. It is produced from various materials, several types of long grass/leaves are used. Leva (P.) is a particular leaf type used by both the Penan and Kelabit. They may also use the bark of a particular tree or fibre from the leaf of the pineapple, amongst others. Antiaris toxicaria, is the type of fig used for barkcloth and string. The string from bark is from the secondary inner bark, cut from the tree with a knife and the sap allowed to dry. The uses of string is manifold but includes the attachment of straps; or sewing in bases for serut. In earlier times, they were used for the production of fishing nets and for stitching the leaves together for sunhats. Bark string is the strongest and, therefore, the one preferred, unwoven rattan is considered the weakest.

Handles

Handles for various baskets are produced from rattan. The simplest handle being manufactured from a single piece of rattan bent to shape and passed through the weave below the baskets rim.

Fig.4.27. A simple handle.

Other simple handles are produced in the same way as used for beginning the shoulder straps, but continued until the length of strap is complete. A core of

passive strands is used, the number in this case depends on the width of handle required, usually based on strength needed, and the strand size available. Four strands are woven round the core in the manner described above, and are seen on modern plastic shopping baskets. The simplest pattern available uses a four strand combination but other weaves involving only two strands, can be more complex; passing these strands through loops produced from the other strand. Both of the strands work around the entire circumference of the core. The pattern built up depends on the manner and direction in which the strands pass through the loops, they can be made up of strands of one colour or two. These weaves are also used to produce decorative bracelets, for personal adornment and for sale. In the case of bracelets, and of some of the handles, a single piece of wide half cut rattan is used as the inner core.

Fig.4.28. Starting point for a 4 strand weave.

Fig.4.29. Completed 4 strand weave.

A typical jewellery element is formed by wrapping. It too is worked onto a core, but in this case the outer strand or strands are solely wound around this. Bracelets are very traditional and have a very long history amongst the various communities, especially the Penan, other groups also use ulat style plaiting. Although traditionally, wound bracelets are black, nowadays they are also made in various colours, and frequently of more than one colour. These are worn by men, just below the knee or above the biceps. Where a wide core has been utilised, other colours are often woven through the strands to pick out a

pattern. It is rare to see more than three colours used in a single bracelet: in exceptional cases they are made small enough to be used as rings. Bracelets produced by the Badeng from a plait are called lekok. Penan of the Upper Baram call the woven bracelets selungan. Further bracelets are produced by burning a design into the surface of the rattan, traditionally by heating the end of a tahat - blowpipe dart, today mosquito coils and joss sticks are used in their place due to the fact that they keep burning, these bracelets are called jong.

Hanging loops K.B. - kisew, P. - kematak, L.B. - berkang, Kl. -lalid/dalit.

These loops are used in several ways: to hang basket up out of the way; to attach integral parts to a basket such as straps or rims (ie. the Penan gawang) and to hold additions such as ropes to a keba to stop items falling out.

The loops are easily produced by pushing a strand of rattan through the weave or rim, repeating this again slightly further along the weave or rim, forming a loop on the edge. The strand is, then, brought back to its starting position, thus forming a second loop of the same size. The strand passes through the weave again to hold it secure. From here the strand is wrapped around the loops, by forming a small loop to one side, passing the strand under the double loop and over the top where it then goes through the small loop and the strand pulled tight.

Fig.4.30. Starting point and completed kisew.

This process is continually repeated until the length of the double loop has been covered in this binding. The strand then passes through the weave a final time and is then pushed through the binding to secure it so that it can be cut off.

Rings K.B. & P. - ulat.

These small rings are predominantly used around the openings of serut and

blanyat style baskets, and form the start point for much of the weaving in these

items. They can also be made into bracelets and rings.

The rings are made using a one strand continuous plait, formed from a strand being twisted into two coils side by side, the second loop of the strand crossing over the first. The strand is then brought up again, but instead of forming a third loop it is passed over the first loop and under the second to come out on the other side. The second loop is pushed over the first and the strand pushed through in the same way, but from the other side. This is continuously repeated until the strand has returned to the beginning of the loop. At this stage it then follows this original course of weave round the loop twice more, building up the pattern. Further strand passes can be added building up the width of the ring, depending for what the ulat is to be used.