For the wellbeing of the Khan and his lineage

As the first appeal, ’Phags pa reiterates the need for Qubilai to “work unreservedly” in order to achieve three objectives that the Khan would have desired:

Now is the time for you to make an effort: to lengthen your own life personally; To secure the glory of your lineage; and To seek the means to attain liberation. Work unreservedly.99

97 _{Chos rgyal ’Phags pa (1968h: 182, folio 3).} 98 _{Shes rab gzhon nu (1968: 107, folio 2–3).} 99 _{Chos rgyal ’Phags pa (1968h: 182, folio 4).}

It appears likely that ’Phags pa’s specific mention of these counsels reflects an inside knowledge of the Khan’s primary concerns based on his strong personal-religious bond with Qubilai nurtured over almost two decades. The first among these goals is lengthening Qubilai’s life. As was the case with successive Mongol khans who employed religious people to pray for them,100 in return exempting them from taxes and corvée, longevity was likely an important concern for Qubilai. Indeed, praying for the long life of the Khan was one of the most important tasks assigned to the monastics of Tibet in ’Phags pa’s official letters101 and imperial edicts (Tib. ’ja sa). Apparently aware of the Khan’s desire, ’Phags pa links achievement of a long life with exertion in practicing the teachings he has espoused in Advice to the King and more broadly through the course of their relationship.102 As discussed in The Ornament, ’Phags pa’s linking of longevity and the practice of teachings in this text is not novel; ’Phags pa’s

Letter to Prince Nomugen details the three actions that cause a depleted lifespan and advises him to forsake them.103 The actions that impede longevity are listed as: killing innocent beings, harming non-human spirits and abandoning periodic rites. Conversely, the actions that increase one’s lifespan are: saving lives, assisting non-human spirits104 and performing periodic rites.105

The second objective that ’Phags pa raises concerns securing the glory of Qubilai’s lineage. As with most rulers of dynasties, the ability of his descendants to maintain the empire and successfully succeed him would likely have been a priority for Qubilai. This would have become an increasingly important concern as Qubilai’s age advanced—he was fifty-six years old when Advice to the King was completed.

100 _{Mongol khans issued edicts in many different languages containing directives for religious people to}

pray for their longevity. See Nikolaj Poppe and John Krueger (1957: 65). Chinggis Khan is said to have even summoned a Daoist scholar named Chang Chun in a search for an elixir of immortality. See Leo de Hartog (2004: 124).

Sechin Jagchid asserts that “from the Mongolian point of view these alien religions were only branches of the Mongolian pantheistic teachings, their deities additional to the native gods. If foreign priests, monks or khojas communicated with Heaven and prayed for the Khan, they also would be honoured as böes, for the more prayers for the life of the Khan and the tranquillity of the people the better”. See Sechin Jagchid (1979: 7–28). However, as noted in chapter one and further discussed in chapter four, such an interpretation of Mongol views of Buddhism does not align with the contents of ’Phags pa’s writings for Qubilai and the members of the imperial family. These texts reveal that ’Phags pa explicitly refuted the existence of an Everlasting Heaven or the Eternal Sky.

101 _{For an example of an official letter in which ’Phags pa requests the monastics of Central Tibet to pray}

for Qubilai’s long life, see Chos rgyal ’Phags pa (1968av: 236, folio 1). Additionally, there are many instances where ’Phags pa dedicates various compositions for the longevity of the Khan and his family.

102

According to Kapstein, the histories of the Rnying ma pa order of Tibetan Buddhism depict Qubilai as being fascinated by “arcane rites of longevity”. See Kapstein (2009: pp. 113–14).

103 _{Shes rab gzhon nu (1968: 107, folio 3–4).}

104 _{According to Buddhist beliefs, non-human spirits can harm humans if they are displeased. For}

example, Tibetan and Mongolian sources attribute Köden Khan’s chronic illness to non-human spirits, and Sa paṇ is thought to have successfully cured the condition by performing rites that pleased them. For details see A myes zhabs (2012a: 96–98).

105 _{As discussed in chapter one, ’Phags pa introduced some Buddhist periodic rites to Qubilai’s court.}

According to The Ornament, humane treatment of subjects is the primary means of securing the longevity and success of Qubilai’s lineage.106 It explains that just as Qubilai wishes to alleviate his own suffering and desires happiness for himself, so do his subjects.107 On the basis of this equality of desire to be happy, Qubilai should look after his subjects. This view is consistent with ’Phags pa’s advice in Rosary of Precious Jewels: Letter to Prince Jibig Temür, where he presents focusing on the wellbeing of others as the way to gain their love, respect and praise:

Work for others if you want to be loved; Care for others if you want to be revered; Commend others if you want to be praised; This is how things work.108

The third objective that ’Phags pa urges Qubilai to work towards is the attainment of liberation. The Ornament highlights the urgency of this appeal by explaining:

You have attained a precious human birth with favourable conditions. You have encountered the Buddha’s teachings and are compassionately cared for by a genuine spiritual teacher. The time to make an effort, to find out how to attain liberation, is now.109

Having presented Qubilai with a complete guide to the attainment of Buddhist liberation, this appeal is essentially a final exhortation to practice these instructions and work conscientiously for his own liberation from the cycle of suffering while he still possesses all the requisites to do so.