Word Form

Many words in English need to change their form when they are used as verbs,

adjectives, adverbs, or nouns. 26 errors relating to word form were found in the study. Table 21 identifies examples of word form errors.

Table 21

Word Form Errors

Error Identification Error Correction

1. I have in the recent past completed.. 1. recently 2. I request information on getting enrolled 2. applying

3. thanking you 3. thank

4. And please give a prospectus 4. prospective student 5. I received your very informed email 5. informative

6. How do I obtain a scholar? 6. scholarship

7. I am hoping to work with him at the soonest. 7. soon

4.2.4. Semantic 4.2.4.1 Word Choice

A usage mistake occurs when a word or a series of words in a sentence are technically

grammatically correct, but not usual in standard English. While this is an uncommon error

among native speakers, ESL students often translate words from their own language and select

the wrong English equivalent for the meaning they wish to express. Word-for-word translations

often cause faulty usage, which can in turn result in writing that is difficult to understand.

Although through extensive reading in English these mistakes will dwindle, language learners

should be aware of their mistakes. A total number of 43 word choice errors were found. Table 22 identifies a few examples of these errors.

Table 22

Word Choice Errors

Error Identification Error Correction

1. …date to sit for the IELTS exam. 1. take

2. I will do my TOEFL test 2. take

3. I am currently coursing the second semester 3. taking 4. I hereby make a request to know what exams are required. 4. Please let me

5. Good Christmas 5. Merry

6. …thank you too much 6. very

7. I have passed Bachelor of Arts 7. my

8. Please allow me information for facilities for doctorate 8. Please give me information to apply 9. I graduated 5 years ago from now 9. Delete: from now 10. I want to know the requirements to get admitted in music faculty 10. department 11. I want to know how to do to obtain a scholarship 11. what

12. The U of A is my first option. 12. choice

Table 22 (Cont.)

Error Identification Error Correction

14. Can I join PhD directly with bachelor’s degree? 14. apply for the

15. I am not holding TOEFL. 15. do not have a

16. I am attaching it for your ready reference. 16. Delete: ready 17. I hereby make a request to know what exams are required. 17. Please let me

4.2.5. Syntactic 4.2.5.1 Word Order

Word order refers to the syntactic arrangement of words in a sentence, clause or phrase. There were a total of 24 word order errors. Table 23 further identifies these errors, and their corrections.

Table 23

Word Order Errors

Error Identification Error Correction

1. 08th October 1. October 8th

2. How long I must wait 2. long must I

3. These all information I will send you soon. 3. I will send you all this information

4. I am a student of software engineering 4. software engineering student

5. …paid 50$ 5. $50

6. I have constantly been in touch 6. been in constant touch 7. …in your department with poultry. 7. poultry department 8. …two years and half 8. and a half years

9. test of English 9. English test

4.3. Statistical Treatment

An independent-samples t test was conducted to evaluate the hypothesis that males make more writing errors than females. The test was not significant, t(98)=.207, p=.84, and we fail to reject the null hypothesis that there is no statistical difference. While males in the study

(M=13.57, SD=8.93) on average made more errors than females (M=13.16, SD=9.21), there is not a significant difference.

An independent-samples t test was conducted to evaluate the hypothesis that writers from countries where English is not an official language make more writing errors than writers from countries where English is an official language. The test was significant, t(99)=.813, p=.418, but the results were counter to the research hypothesis. We reject the null hypothesis that there is no statistical difference. Participants from countries where English is not an official language (M=12.976, SD=8.653) on average made fewer errors than participants from countries where English is an official language (M=13.16, SD=8.885).

As the researcher expected, on average, the higher the educational level, the fewer the errors. The mean error count for undergraduate applicants was 13.977, master’s applicants was 13.268, and Ph.D. applicants was 12.438. A one-way analysis of variance was conducted to evaluate the relationship between education level and the number of writing errors in the sample emails. The P value (.834) was greater than the significance level (.05), so we failed to reject the null hypothesis that the means are equivalent. And F (.181) is less than F crit (3.090) so we cannot reject the null hypothesis.

The mean error count was different across departments. Walton College of Business applicants made the most errors, averaging 16.938 errors per email. Applicants of the Dale Bumpers College of Agriculture and Life Sciences made the second highest number of errors, averaging 14 errors per email, followed by the Fulbright College of Arts & Sciences, averaging 13.368 errors per email. Applicants of the College of Education and Health Professions made the fewest averaged errors, accounting for 10 errors per email. The College of Engineering made the second fewest average errors, with 12.333 errors per email. A one-way analysis of variance was

conducted to evaluate the relationship between department and the number of writing errors in the sample emails. The P value (.612) was greater than the significance level (.05), so we failed to reject the null hypothesis that the means are equivalent. And F (.718) is less than F crit (2.31) so we cannot reject the null hypothesis.

V. Conclusion

The results of this study indicate that international applicants have several problems in email writing. A major source of errors in this research could be lack of knowledge in grammar, vocabulary, interference of mother tongue, and lack of sufficient practice in writing, particularly email writing. Teachers should employ effective methodology for teaching writing, with a special focus on known areas of trouble, including the top 5 most common type of errors: capitalization, punctuation, sentence structure, article use, and word choice.

The results of the present study, which is perhaps best categorized as a case study, may not reflect trends in general. However, data gained from this study can serve as invaluable feedback that will help teachers develop their teaching materials and syllabi to better suit learners’ abilities and to overcome their weaknesses in writing. The statistical analyses revealed that a) there were statistically significant differences among _ on overall error types they made in their email compositions, and b) frequency of occurrence of error types in each student

demographic were different.

5.1. Email Formatting

Students write emails, or computer-mediated communication (CMC), to professors to ask questions about the curriculum, writing assignments, deadlines, exam dates and complain about their grades. Emails have taken the place of face to face contact during office hours and in between lectures, as well as over the phone correspondences. It is necessary for international

students, unfamiliar with the target culture’s norms and values, to be able to appropriately and successfully communicate with professors and academic staff. Amant (2002) acknowledges how the immediacy and directness of emails “may amplify cultural rhetorical differences,”

complicating exchanges by participants whose English proficiency has not yet developed subtle nuances embedded in cultural identity of the target language. However, if ELLs are taught the fundamental elements of email and colloquial, cross cultural digital communication can be improved.

5.1.1. Email address

Credibility is an important factor in post-secondary education (Livermore, 2013). When exchanging emails, the recipient subconsciously and consciously evaluate the sender’s credibility through the sender’s email address. Email addresses appear to have an impact on the perception of others (Livermore, Scafe, Wiechowski, 2011). Livermore (2013) conducted a study to determine what email addresses students perceived to be the most credible. Livermore found [email protected] was least credible, and [email protected] was the most credible of all the address options available in the study. The study concluded that students find

professional or regular surnames (Ethan.Brown), not nicknames (Mr. Baseball), more credible. Additionally, college email addresses (HFCC.edu), not common (AOL.com) or professional (EDS.com) email addresses, appear to hold more credibility. Newman, Hebein and Drost

conducted surveyed college students’ perceptions of faculty credibility based on email addresses. The researchers found that a standard business email address is more credible than using a nickname in an email address (Newman, Hebein, & Drost 2008). It is important to note this credibility factor is especially strong if there is no personal contact with email recipients.

Because international applicants are conversing electronically with admissions staff, never engaging face-to-face until after they have been admitted and arrive on campus, email

users must be particularly aware of their email address choice. An email address is the first item the viewer receives. The address must be appropriate, professional, and identifiable. Normally, an email address will include the writer’s first and/or last name or initials, with punctuation and numbers. A majority of the participants in this study had professional email addresses; however, 5 participants had inappropriate email addresses. Appendix C lists email address errors.

5.1.2. Subject Line

The subject is the hook. It should be short, concise, and a representation of the content of the email message. A relevant, descriptive subject line should always be included in an email (Labuschagne, 2007). Spinellis (2009) claims every email should tackle one topic and that topic should be the subject line. Granberry (2007) encourages all writers to include a subject line, which should summarize the message or request action. Email senders should include informative, meaningful, and concise email subject lines that may or may not include the sender's name and main topic (Aguilar-Roca, et al., 2009; Hassini, 2006). Blake (2002) encourages senders to use the subject line to capture attention in a positive way, and motivate the reader to open the email. The subject line should summarize the email’s content using specifics. A well written subject line helps the recipient prioritize the message and determine necessary action. Phrases such as “Important message” or “Immediate attention” should not be used excessively (Granberry, 2007). Using "URGENT" or "ASAP" shows disregard for the recipient. Even when an email is urgent, labeling it as such in the subject line tends to send a negative tone (Bradberry, 2015).

Skogs (2013) conducted a study to investigate how the subject line content affects overall coherence in an asynchronous online communication exchange in a learning environment. Skogs found subject lines maintain social relationships and contribute to whether students will open a message. Graham (2007) found email writers who do not use a subject line that accurately reflects

message content are seen as impolite. Table 3 identifies the number of emails with subject line errors. Appendix D further identifies the participants’ incorrect subject line.

5.1.3. Greeting

Electronic communications are often claimed to be informal (e.g. Crystal 2001). However, depending on who the email exchange is between, the level of formality differs. Although email can be a quick, informal exchange between friends, it can also be used as a formal communication between a prospective employer and employee, as well as a professor and student. Labuschagne (2007) believes all emails should always start with a salutation. Previous research has shown that salutations and closings in e-mail interaction play an important role in establishing social relations (Rintel et al. 2001; Waldvogel 2007). According to Waldvogel (2007), the absence or presence of a greeting and the type of the greeting set the tone for the e- mail conversation that follows.

In e-mails, salutations usually consist of a greeting and a first name or last name. Dickey (1997) believes social distance determines whether writers address the email to the reader’s first name or title and last name. The combination of both first name and last name can sometimes be used as a compromise between the informality of just a first name, and the ‘awkwardness’ of title + last name (Dickey, 1997). Gaines (2006) classifies Hi as informal and Dear as formal. Chen (2006) Hi informal, Dear + Title + Surname is formal. The Longman Dictionary of

Contemporary English (2005) recommends using Dear + Honorific/Title + Surname, or Dear Sir/

Madam for formal emails, and Hi (+ First Name), First Name only, and no greeting to be informal. Dear + First Name is considered neutral.

Greetings play an important role in establishing social relations in email. Stommel (2012) conducted a study and found informal salutations, closings and/or the informal second person pronoun reduced the social distance between writer and recipient. Bjorge (2007) conducted a

study on 344 emails to investigate the level of formality in international students’ emails sent to academic staff. Different cultures have varying traditions when it comes to student-professor relationships. Hofstede’s cultural dimension of power distance (PD) is used to differentiate between relatively high and low PD cultures. Hofstede defines PD as “the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally” (2001). High PD is associated with societal views where

“subordinates consider superiors as being of a different kind” with privileges. The study found students from relatively high PD cultures are more likely to be formal.

5.1.4. Closing

A closing can help consolidate the relationship and establish relational basis for future encounters (Stommel, 2012). Altom (2013), a technology consultant, has been studying closings on emails. He defines closings as the ‘long, often-flowery prose’ before the actual signature, which often indicates the writer’s current mood and regard for the recipient. Permutations range in formality: “Regards,” “Yours Truly,” “Very Truly Yours,” “Cordially,” “Sincerely,” etc. While Thomas Jefferson’s closing in a letter to George Washington ended with, “Your most obedient and most humble servant,” nowadays a simple “Thanks” will do (Altom). Altom believes closings in everyday business emails are unnecessary, as senders are usually in a rush and don’t give a lot of thought to them. However, Altom still favors closings in formal emails such as one to a prospective employer. Because emails sent to the college admissions staff should be formal in tone, closings should always be included.

5.1.5. Signature

In following a business letter format, a signature should always be used to end an email. While a first and last name are the basic format of a signature, Granberry (2007) defines a

signature block to be composed not only of the sender’s name, but also degrees/credentials and contact information. A signature block allows the recipient to be easily identifiable.

5.2. Mechanical Errors

Mechanical errors can usually be attributed to careless typos which could have been prevented through proofreading and spellcheck. Although the content of a written message is arguably the most important, so too, are the mechanics.

The most common punctuation mistakes arise when the student does not correctly end a sentence (producing either a fragment or a run-on.) These are typical of low proficiency writers who do not understand the concept of a sentence, and are neither more nor less likely to be found in an ESL student's work. Mechanical errors seldom interfere with comprehension, but can reflect negatively on the writer, particularly in formal/academic settings.

A capitalized word has a capital first letter with the remaining letters in small (lower- case) letters. The first letter of the first word in a sentence must be capitalized. Proper nouns are capitalized, while common nouns are not. Races, nationalities, and languages are proper nouns. Some students did not capitalize proper nouns, while others erroneously capitalized common nouns.

5.3. Grammatical Errors

Grammar mistakes rarely occur in native speakers' writing but very commonly do in the work of less proficient ESL students, whose mother-tongue "interferes" with the production of correct English. ESL students make numerous mistakes in the use of verbs (for example, incorrect tense choice, incorrect tense form), the articles (a/an, the - particularly Asian students in whose languages these words do not exist), and word order.

The researcher recommends future studies with modifications. Although 100 participants and their respective emails were used in this study, future studies should be conducted on a larger scale, with more participants. More participants will allow the data collection to be a better representation of the EFL/ESL student populations. Additionally, with a larger data set, the researcher can better determine if country of origin impacts the number and type of errors. Because only one participant represented certain geographic regions, the researcher cannot generalize findings based on one representative of an entire region.

The male-female ratio in higher education since the 1970s has been steadily moving in favor of females (Bhandari, 2017). Across all types of schools – private and public – females outnumber males in terms of enrollment. According to the Institute of Education Sciences, on a national scale, public universities - like the university in this study - have the most even division between male and female students (2010). As of 2008, the male-female ratio of public university attendance was 43.6 to 56.4 (IIE).

While national industry trends in higher education indicate a female prevalence, global academic mobility for females is lower than males. During the 2014-2015 academic year, 44% of students pursuing higher education in the U.S. were female (IIE). Bhandari (2017) attributes this gender gap in international students to the fact that many international students apply to the STEM fields, which typically tend to be dominated by male students. Also, international students who come from India and Saudi Arabia, which have become the most common country of origin for international students studying in the U.S., tend to be male. Therefore, the participants in this study should properly reflect these numbers. While future studies should include a fewer number of females than males, females should represent approximately 44% of the participants.

The researcher also recommends future studies to analyze not just errors, but also what participants are doing correctly. Although error analysis is a good first step in identifying error type to assist students, it can overlook critical language learning features. First, when focusing solely on errors, researchers and teachers ignore cases where the learner correctly uses the form. Additionally, error analysis fails to identify avoidance. Schachter (1976) discovered that learners can avoid using certain features of an L2 that they know are particularly difficult, and that they have difficulty with. While avoidance can lead to the absence of errors, it fails to show a learner’s mastery of a language skill. Therefore, the scope of error analysis is limited, focusing only on accuracy. Teachers should not exclusively evaluate learner language in terms of

accuracy, as accuracy is only one of three ways of describing learner language. Learner language includes accuracy, complexity and fluency. As a result, teachers must include varied approaches to foster the learners' development of complexity and fluency in writing. The researcher suggests future studies to not only focus on errors, but also what the writers do correctly.

Additionally, the emails analyzed in this study ranged in length. The shortest email was a few words, while the longest email was longer than a page of text. To ensure a standardized method of determining error count, emails should be the same approximate length. It can

reasonably be inferred that longer emails would have more emails than shorter emails. Although the email with the most errors in this study was not the longest, future studies should analyze writing compositions within a range of a certain amount of words. Or, the researcher should collect the word count of each email as part of the data collection to determine if error count and word count have a positive correlation.

The final adjustment the researcher suggests is having more than one reader. Because errors such as word choice can be subjective, multiple readers should evaluate participants’ writing to ensure an accurate assessment of errors.

References

Alhaisoni, E., Gaudel, D., & Al-Zuoud, K. (2017). Article errors in the English writing of Saudi EFL preparatory year students. Advances in Language and Literacy Studies. 8(1). 72-78.