What “works” for work-based learning?

Pedagogy, then, as it is used in my research is seen by me as a generic term that applies to the provision of learning opportunities through the design and support of learning, at any age, but that needs to be modified to meet individual needs. In my context these individual needs are those of work-based learners, whose needs will be further individualised depending on each learner’s distinct characteristics. In this section I will look at proposed principles for effective pedagogies and how these can be applied in the context of work-based learning. Longitudinal research by the Teaching and Learning Research Programme (TLRP) identified ten evidence-informed principles for designing effective pedagogies. Although the research was originally focused on schools, James and Pollard (2011, p275) argue that the principles have been grounded in wider literature and that those applying the principles need to judge how best to apply them in their own contexts:

“although contexts for learning vary, the common features in how people learn across the life course makes the validity of a shared set of principles sufficient to be worthy of serious consideration.”

(James and Pollard, 2011, p280) Variations of the principles for application in HE (David, 2009) and workplace learning (Brown, 2009) have been identified. Table 3.1 presents a summary of these three sets of principles and shows how they apply in the contexts of my research i.e. situated in HE and for work-based learners. The ten principles can be grouped into four categories reflecting the “multi-layered nature of

innovation in pedagogy” (James and Pollard, 2011, p275):

1. Educational values and purposes (Principle 1) 2. Curricula, pedagogy and assessment (Principles 2-5)

3. Personal and social processes and relationships (Principles 6-8) 4. Teachers and policies (Principles 9-10).

TLRP’s evidence- informed pedagogic principles (TLRP, no date b)

TLRP’s evidence-informed principles for learning and teaching in UK higher education (David, 2009)

TLRPs evidence-informed principles for higher skills development at work (Brown, 2009) 1 Effective pedagogy equips learners for life in

its broadest sense. (1)

Effective pedagogy equips learners for life in its broadest sense. (10)

Effective higher skills development at work should engage with individuals’ broader life goals. (10)

2

Effective pedagogy engages with valued forms of knowledge. (2)

Effective pedagogy engages with expertise and valued forms of knowledge in disciplines and subjects. (9)

Effective higher skills development at work engages with expertise and valued forms of knowledge. (9)

3

Effective pedagogy recognises the importance of prior experience and learning. (3)

Effective pedagogy recognises the importance of prior or concurrent experience and learning. (8)

Effective development at work recognises the importance of prior

experience and learning. (8)

4

Effective pedagogy requires learning to be scaffolded. (4)

Effective pedagogy requires learning to be systematically developed. (7)

Effective higher skills development at work requires learning to be systematically developed. (7)

5

Effective pedagogy needs assessment to be

congruent with learning. (5)

Effective pedagogy needs assessment to be congruent with learning. (6)

Effective higher skills development at work is dependent upon the timeliness and quality of feedback and support. (6)

6

Effective pedagogy promotes the active engagement of the learner. (6)

Effective pedagogy promotes the active engagement of the student as learner. (5)

Higher skills development at work promotes the active engagement of the individual as a learner. (5)

7

Effective pedagogy fosters both individual and social processes and outcomes. (7)

Effective pedagogy fosters both individual and social processes and outcomes. (4)

Higher skills development at work involves both individual and social processes and outcomes. (4) 8 Effective pedagogy recognises the significance of informal learning. (8)

Effective pedagogy recognises the significance of informal learning to developing specific expertise. (3)

Informal learning is central to higher skills development at work. (3)

9

Effective pedagogy depends on the learning of all those who support the learning of others. (9)

Effective pedagogy depends on the research and learning of all those educators who teach and research to support the learning of others. (2)

Effective higher skills

development depends on the learning and development of all those who support the learning of others in the workplace. (2)

10

Effective pedagogy demands consistent policy frameworks with support for learning as their primary focus. (10)

Effective pedagogy demands consistent policy frameworks, with support for learning for diverse students as their main focus. (1)

Skills development policy should have twin foci upon enhancing both individual development and

organisational performance. (1)

Table 3.1 Evidence-informed principles for effective pedagogies

(Numbers following principles represent order in which principles are presented in the respective texts; for comparison purposes principles have been re-ordered)

TLRP’s principles present a view that effective pedagogy encompasses a wide range of factors from the broader economic and social contexts through to the local and individual contexts of learners, teachers and others such as family and employers and hence an effective pedagogy is “evaluated by reference to the

goals and values of the society it serves” (James and Pollard, 2011, p276).

TLRP’s, David’s and Brown’s research shows that there is consistency in the pedagogic principles for different contexts but they need to be contextualised to the specific application, hence the emphasis on skills, the workplace and the learner in Brown’s view that is not relevant to the other two, more generic, views.

These views align directly with my notion of a context-engaged approach which is what underpins my approach to the e-portfolio based pedagogy that I am developing. It also confirms my experiences in designing and delivering

curricula, in teaching and assessment practices and in the support of learners. At a micro level I can apply this to the design of a single learning experience, a taught classroom session. Over my career in education I have delivered the same module over a number of years to a variety of different groups of learners, some full-time, some part-time, international students in the UK, international

students overseas. Whilst the aims of the session do not change, the way in which I deliver it will vary on the group, on their prior experience and on their level of engagement with the activities. I need to vary the approach to suit the specific context but the underlying principle of the session’s learning outcomes will not change, hence the principle is consistent but the application is context- specific.

The TLRP principles provide a framework that I can use to inform, as well as test, the design of my pedagogy.

A range of other authors argue for work-based learning pedagogies but none of these contradict or diminish the principles expressed in the TLRP research, what they argue for is a context-based approach.

Johnson (2000, in Lee, McGuiggan and Holland, 2010, p561) posits that:

“evidence suggests that traditional teaching pedagogies are too prescriptive, dated and inaccessible to some students and use inappropriate assessment criteria.”

The traditional teaching pedagogies referred to by Johnson are those which require regular attendance in face-to-face lectures and assessment by essay or examination and these will be inappropriate for learners who are based in work, for whom it is not appropriate to attend classes and who want to evidence their learning through and in their work.

Lester and Costley (2010, p564) also support the view that “work-based learning

… pedagogies are needed” whilst Groves (2009, p46) reports Longhurst’s request

(in a speech at a conference on employer engagement) that “Institutions should

see work-based learning as an innovative pedagogy, not something to do with training...or a bit of work experience.”

Brodie and Irving (2007, p11) state that “the development of rigorous

pedagogies to underpinning WBL and its assessment is still embryonic” and

Anderson (2009) argues that new pedagogic models are needed for new

technologies whilst Wesch (2009) considers the implication of rapidly changing technologies for how we teach and what we teach. Barnett, Parry and Coote (2001) recognise the importance of the ‘self’ domain over those of action and knowledge in WBL curricula design.

Additionally, there is widespread support for the involvement of employers as well as learners and the academy in designing learning (Thérin, 2011; Ferrell, 2011) and for pedagogy to encompass lifelong and life-wide learning, not solely the learning opportunities from a formal education. Thorpe and Mayes (2009, p160) recognise that pedagogy needs to encompass the full gamut of a learner’s experiences and enable the learner to build connections between them. The classroom, workplace, home life and social life can all contribute suitable experiences from which learners can draw resources. Carter (2009, p26)

supports these view stating that a suitable pedagogy needs also to embrace the skills agenda as well as be more imaginative and employer focused. Hence, research is showing that new pedagogic approaches are needed to apply the TLRP principles in work-based learning and that new models are needed for the new technologies.

In designing a pedagogy for work-based learners, we need to be mindful of the opportunities provided by including the learner, the employer and the university in the design as well as enabling the learner to include a wide range of

approach was conducted by Nixon, Smith, Stafford and Camm (2006) who investigated a number of cases studies and presented a series of 13

characteristics for work-based learning (Figure 3.1) that expressed the range of approaches to WBL provision.

Figure 3.1 Characteristics of work-based learning provision (Source: Nixon et al, 2006,p43)

[Permission to reproduce this image has been granted by the Higher Education Academy]

The characteristics present a series of continua within which all their case studies sat but they state that it was not possible to determine where on each continuum the ‘ideal’ position was. However, what did emerge was a range of factors that impacted on “the effectiveness of different pedagogical

Figure 3.2 Factors impacting on the effectiveness of different pedagogical approaches (Source: Nixon et al, 2006, p44)

[Permission to reproduce this image has been granted by the Higher Education Academy]

Through the research presented in this section, I have identified a range of authors who recommend that new pedagogies are needed and that technologies could be incorporated in these new approaches. A range of authors recommend that a suitable pedagogy will include both learner and employer in its design, allow formal and informal learning to be incorporated, recognise prior and concurrent learning, be accessible and make use of appropriate technologies. However, I have not found an existing approach that fits the context for the genre of learner that I am targeting through my research i.e. bite-sized learning opportunities for work-based learners in SMEs. What I have identified is a set of principles for effective pedagogies, upon which to found my pedagogic design, as well as research-based evidence of characteristics and approaches that have been seen to be effective.

The “e-portfolio based pedagogy” that this project aims to develop will be a new model within an innovative technology and it will be founded on principles of recognised practice that will draw on relevant, recognised theories and that will “reflect the importance of the individual in the design of the learning” (Felce, 2010, p24).