Zooming In

Via zooming-out, the two different plots were distinguished. These plots uncovered the united master-narratives of the foreign fighters’ motivations: the fight against various “monsters”, protection of the oppressed, and keeping war away from home. But if the question “Why would they go?” must be answered in-depth, one should not only look at the master-narratives. Instead, one must dig deeper and recognize the personal grievances that led to their decision to leave. Zooming out for the sake of gaining deeper understanding into the topic of the motivations of foreign fighters is not sufficient and would prompt only a very shallow discussion. And therefore, the following sub-chapter will zoom in from the two plots into more unique aspects of each story. These unique motivations will be organized into two distinct categories: (i) significance loss and (ii) opportunity for significance gain, but will still show the relation they have towards the identified plots.

Before revealing the unique personal motivations that influenced the fighters’ decision to join the fights in Ukraine, it is important to note that the categorisation of this sub-chapter was deducted from the theory of the Significance Quest by Kruglanski et al (2014), as the authors provide a solid theoretical background for analysing the underlying motivations of individuals involved in political violence. The core of the theory is personal significance: a universal human motivation to matter. Looking at the foreign fighting through the lens of Kruglanski et al (2014), for a foreign fighter to travel, he/she must get the goal of significance aroused either by significance loss or an opportunity for significance gain, identify violence as the appropriate means to re-attain significance and shift other motivational concerns towards the goal of significance. This manner of approaching the analysis of the narratives was deemed suitable for the purpose of this thesis, as it allows for the interpretation of the motivations underlying the master-narratives.

Loss of Significance

Each of the plots included certain personal grievances that resemble what Kruglanski et al (2014) defined as significance loss. Interestingly, with exception of one, all of the losses of significance were conflict-unrelated and were the result of various unpleasant conditions. The following paragraphs are dedicated to the unique elements of the foreign fighters’ master- narratives that resemble the loss of significance.

Political situation in Slovakia as a catalyser for personal insignificance

Štefan is the only interviewed foreign fighter, who was narrating his motivations exclusively under the “Overcoming the monster” plot. Throughout his narration it seemed, at first, that truly the only factor influencing his decision to take up arms in Ukraine is his despise towards the EU. However, as the story was unfolding, it became clear that his dissatisfaction with the political situation in Slovakia played a crucial role as well.

Kruglanski et al (2014) argue that significance loss can result from political conditions prevailing in a given state, as it can create a sense that the state is failing to provide conditions for the attainment of the citizens’ goals. Štefan’s story is a good example of this. He became very vocal in politics during the Gorila protests against corruption scandals, which were reshaping the political scene in Slovakia. As he said, he felt strongly dissatisfied with the Slovak government that was failing its citizens:

“I was working abroad my whole life and what they did to us just simply pissed me off. I was done. Slovaks are working their whole lives and yet they struggle and live from hand to mouth

because they (the government) steal everything…”

This dissatisfaction made Štefan feel helpless, as no matter how hard he tried to fight the system during the Gorila protests, he still could not change it, which fostered a feeling of personal insignificance. After unsuccessful attempts to change the political order in Slovakia, it can be argued that Štefan needed a battlefield to fight against another system, in order to regain the lost significance. In the end, he found it in Donbass two years later.

It should be noted here that similarly to Štefan, two other fighters (Richard and Michal) harbour negative sentiments towards the European Union due to their perceived influence of it on Slovakia’s economic and social conditions. However, their narrative accounts were preoccupied with different grievances and therefore, the political situation in Slovakia is not

Idleness as a source of significance loss

While narrating the interview within the Two-Quest Journey, Richard explained that he had particularly strong emotions about the events that were happening in Ukraine because he felt regretful for not intervening in the Yugoslav wars:

“There were fighter jets flying over our heads headed to bomb Yugoslavia and we did nothing but complained about it over a beer in a pub. And I am not proud of this. I decided I am not

going to be just complaining this time.”

Richard’s guilt over not intervening resulted in loss of significance. This loss was felt so strongly, that it had to be avoided the next time another conflict escalated in the neighbourhood. And indeed, more than a decade later, Ukraine offered a chance to avoid another significance loss. Kruglanski et al (2014) argued that just the mere threat of significance loss has the ability to motivate actions that could potentially prevent it. Had he not travelled to Ukraine, more regrets and guilt would have befallen him. Therefore, the avoidance of these negative emotions, in combination with other factors, motivated him to become a foreign fighter.

Failed dreams

Martin appears to be an intelligent man, who used to work in the IT sector before joining the fights and also now, after he retired from service in Donetsk. But IT is not what he always aspired to do. He shared that he used to have an ambition to join the Armed Forces of the Slovak Republic. Disappointingly, he was rejected from service due to his asthma. It can be argued that Martin suffered a considerable loss of significance because of this rejection. He realized, however, that his dream of a military career could be realized if he would join the separatists. Surely, they would not care for asthma. And this is how his quest for significance had been activated.

Kruglanski et al (2014) argued that loss of significance can also be a direct consequence of a conflict with some out-group. Perhaps this conflict could be of an ideological character. While talking about overcoming the monster, Michal also shared the dream of serving in Slovakia’s Army. But only until the day Slovakia joined NATO. Michal strongly condemned the participation of his homeland in this organization:

“It used to be my ambition, but I was not planning on becoming a mercenary and occupy foreign lands for money.”

The membership of Slovakia in this “ideological out-group” forced Michal to abandon his dream to be in military service, which led to loss of significance as he was helpless in influencing this geopolitical decision. Alternatively, the loyalty and gratitude he felt towards Russia motivated him to reincarnate this dream, which he thought was long time gone.

Additionally, there were particularly two types of grievances that did not appear as a part of any plot, but which are nevertheless deemed relevant for the topic of personal insignificance. These grievances were abstracted from the introductory quotes of the foreign fighters.

Criminal history

To have the status of a criminal can be humiliating and can lead to a loss of significance within a community. Two interviewed foreign fighters (Richard and Štefan) faced criminal charges in their lives. Štefan was prosecuted for shooting with an illegally owned weapon, which was, however, as he said, long time ago.

Richard, on the other side, was on trial for arm and human trafficking and even spent some time in prison. The trial had been ongoing since 1997, which means that for twenty years, he was subjected to court hearings, investigations and interrogations. This fostered a feeling of helplessness as he could not do anything but await the court’s decision. The verdict finally arrived in 2014. He had been proven guilty, but objected against this decision. And how did it end up? It is not known because right after he objected, he left for Ukraine:

“Bad tongues said I was running away from prison. But If I wanted to run, I would have run earlier.”

Only he can know whether he ran away from justice or not. But regardless of the former, taking into consideration the charges, he definitely could use a place where he could have his fresh start: not as a convicted human trafficker, but as a hero, who saves the lives of the oppressed. This way, the lost significance could be restored.

Grievance against family

Kruglanski et al (2014) believe that significance loss can also arise out of personal losses. Losing family is definitely one such loss, which could have activated Štefan’s quest for

“I fell out of touch with my family because of misunderstandings with my wife. We divorced in 2013 and I could not talk to my two kids ever since.”

The fact, that he is not allowed to talk to his children might have fostered a feeling of significance loss, which could have been restored by fights in Donbass.

A similar argument can be made about Richard. He also divorced and is no longer in contact with his children, which was major element in his decision to go to Ukraine:

“I divorced, have no family, my children do not live with me, I have nothing to lose.”

Indeed, for Richard, who lost his whole family, there was nothing more to lose, only to gain – and one of these gains could be significance.

A key observation is that central to their decision to leave for Ukraine was the absence of children. All three foreign fighters who do have children (Miro, Richard, Štefan), are no longer in contact with them. And while the absence of their children constitutes a major personal grievance, arguably, it also makes their departure easier as their children no longer depend on them. It can only be guessed whether the men would still take up arms in Eastern Ukraine if their family relationships would be less complicated.

In sum, when one zooms into the three master-narratives of fighting the “monster”, keeping war away from home and protecting the oppressed, certain personal grievances that might have influenced the decision to leave for Ukraine were identified. Martin had a well-paid job upon his departure, but had to live with the grievance of being rejected from the one thing he really wanted to do in his life: military service. Richard lived for a long time with regrets for not intervening in the Yugoslav wars, with criminal charges upon his head and without contact with his beloved children. The participation of Slovakia in NATO ruined Michal’s dream of becoming a professional soldier, which led to failed aspirations and hence, a significant personal grievance. Lastly, Štefan was outraged by the Slovak government, which was failing to provide for its citizens, he was freshly divorced without the ability to talk to his children and still had his criminal record. But this thesis argues that the war in Ukraine provided a platform where the majority of the afore-mentioned losses of significance could be re-attained: Michal and Martin could fulfil their dreams of military service in a NATO-free army, even despite asthma. Richard could make up for his idleness during the Yugoslav wars and get a fresh start somewhere where the criminal charges could not reach him. Lastly, for Štefan, eastern Ukraine

offered an opportunity to translate his frustrations with the Slovak government into actual combats.

Opportunity for Significance Gain

Kruglanski et al (2014) argue that individuals often turn to violence because it offers an opportunity for significance gain and the status of a hero. The following paragraphs discuss elements of the narratives that present such an opportunity.

Miro the Hero

But before that, it should be noted here that there was one fighter in particular, who did not share any personal story, which could be identified as a significance loss. Miro emphasized numerous times that he was happy with himself and with his life upon his departure and there were no real personal grievances. Quite the opposite, Miro was very vocal about him having to go to Ukraine because he “had to lift up morals”, “save locals” and most importantly, “stop evil”. In short, those were all very hero-like motivations. Therefore, it can be argued that joining

the separatists was a great opportunity for Miro to gain significance and respect from the local population. And indeed, he himself considers his presence in Eastern Ukraine to be heroic when he talks about his departure in 2014:

“...I chose the best time for heroic deeds, but the worst time for survival in the war.”

Payback Time

A unique element in the plot of the Two-Quest Journey was an urge to repay the Russians for the liberation of Slovakia by the Red Army. In particular, two Slovaks felt the need to protect Russians who are fighting these “evil fascist” Ukrainians (Miro) since they felt that Slovaks

owed a debt to the Russians for liberating Slovakia from the fascist Germans after the Second World War:

“I travelled to Eastern Ukraine to protect locals from being killed with impunity by a scum. I felt the urge to get personally involved partly because I felt like we (as Slovaks) have a debt towards them and their ancestors for liberating Czechoslovakia. I think over 180 000 soldiers of the Red Army had fallen while liberating us, so I wanted to pay them off a little…Especially

the older generation in Donbass, who still remembered World War II, was welcoming the foreign fighters with gratitude and respect. It was a very satisfying feeling to see old

Similarly, but put more briefly:

“Russians did a lot for us, so I wanted to do something for them.” (Miro)

It is without doubt that the soldiers of the Red Army involved in the liberation of Slovakia are considered heroes. Therefore, applying the same logic, the effort to repay and “liberate” the people of eastern Ukraine should bring the status of a hero too.

The Three Master-Narratives as an opportunity for significance gain

Additionally, the common motivations that were identified while zooming out can be considered as potential chances for significance gain. In the eyes of the foreign fighters (or at least in the manner they presented their stories), they made the selfless act of being willing to sacrifice their own lives in order to protect the suffering locals in Eastern Ukraine. And what is more, they are killing two birds with one stone by also keeping the machinery of war away from Slovakia. The engagements in fights could bring glory, respect by the locals and more importantly, significance to these foreigners that voluntarily came to risk their well-being for their neighbours. And indeed, their perception of being helpful to locals brought them a feeling of satisfaction:

“..It was the role of all the foreigners – to lift up the morale. To make them see they are not alone…It was indeed satisfying to see what the presence of foreigners did to morale.” (Miro)

“It was a very satisfying feeling to see old grandmas blessing us and thanking us with tears in their eyes.” (Michal)

Overall, only two elements of the foreign fighters’ narratives can be considered what Kruglanski et al (2014) call opportunity for significance gain. Without suffering any personal grievance related to the given motivation, repaying Russians by protecting the Russian speaking minority in Ukraine could bring the status of hero to the foreign fighters, just as it did to the soldiers of the Red Army. The master-narratives identified within the plots while zooming out were also argued to be opportunities for significance gain, as the fighters perceived them as means of gaining the respect of locals and hence, personal significance.