A thesis
submitted in partial fulfilment of the degree of
Master of Arts
role of th e pesantren (a tra d itio n a l Islam ic in stitu tio n ) in th e m a in te n a n c e of S u fism in J a v a . T he s tu d y e x am in e s th e h isto ric a l b a c k g ro u n d of S u fism u n d e rs to o d a n d p ra c tis e d w ith in th e
pesantren tra d itio n , g en eral fe a tu re s of S u fism w ith in th e
pesantren tra d itio n , a n d th e w ays th e pesantren m a in ta in S u fism in J a v a .
T he s tu d y h a s sh o w n t h a t S u fism in J a v a w a s g reatly in flu e n ce d b y th e d ev elo p m en t of S u fism in M ecca a n d M edina, th e tw o c e n tre s of Islam ic orthodoxy, d u rin g th e la tte r p a r t of th e n in e te e n th a n d early tw e n tie th c e n tu rie s , t h a t S u fism w as m a in ta in e d b y fa m o u s In d o n e s ia n 'ulama' living in M ecca d u rin g th e p erio d a n d s p re a d to J a v a , a n d t h a t th e hap (pilgrim age) played a sig n ific an t role in th e s p re a d of S u fism in J a v a d u rin g th e period. In J a v a S u fism is p ra c tis e d a n d m a in ta in e d b y th e pesantren.
T he s tu d y also sh o w s t h a t w ith in th e pesantren tra d itio n c o n c e p ts u s e d w ith in th e rea lm of S u fism h av e b e e n red efin ed , a n d t h a t th e pesantren u n d e r s ta n d S u fism a s a d im e n sio n of Islam w h ic h is deeply ro o ted in th e Q u r'a n a n d H a d ith , th e tw o p rin cip le s o u rc e s of Islam ic d o ctrin e. T he s tu d y also e s ta b lis h e s t h a t th e
pesantren m a in ta in th e in se p a ra b ility of S u fism a n d shari'ah
b a sic a lly follows t h a t of A b d u llah Y u su f Ali's T h e M eaning o f the H oly Q ur'an, New E d itio n w ith R evised T ra n s la tio n a n d C o m m en tary , B rentw ood, M aryland: A m a n a C o rp o ratio n . I have, how ever, sim plified th e sy ste m b y o m m ittin g all d o ts a n d d a s h e s . I h av e also followed h is sy ste m of a b b re v ia tio n in re g a rd to th e w ritin g of c h a p te rs [surah) a n d v e rse s [ayah) of th e Q u r'a n . Sim ilarly, E n g lish tra n s la tio n s of v e rse s of th e Q u r'a n q u o te d in th e th e s is a re h is. I do n o t a d d a n 's' w h e n u s in g A rabic, In d o n e s ia n , J a v a n e s e a n d S u n d a n e s e w o rd s in th e p lu ra l. W ords s u c h a s 'ulam al, kh a lifa h a n d p e sa n tre n , for in s ta n c e , c a n re p re s e n t e ith e r sin g u la r or p lu ra l form s.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
ABSTRACT v
NOTES ON FOREIGN WORDS AND NAMES vii
CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION
A. General F eatures of Pesantren 1
B. Sufism 5
C. Sufism in Ja v a before the Nineteenth C entury 9
D. Organisation of the Thesis 14
CHAPTER II THE ROLE OF THE HAJJ IN THE SPREAD OF
SUFISM IN JAVA 17
A. The Role of the Hajj 17
B. Shaikh Ahmad Khatib Sam bas and the
Qadiriyyah-N aqshabandiyyah Order 23
C. Successors of Shaikh Ahmad Khatib Sam bas and the Spread of the Qadiriyyah-Naqshabandiyyah
Order in Ja v a 32
D. Some Fam ous Indonesian 'UlamcC in Mecca and Sufism 36
CHAPTER III GENERAL FEATURES OF SUFISM WITHIN THE
PESANTREN TRADITION 41
A. T a sa w w u f and Tariqah 41
CHAPTER IV PESANTREN TEBUIRENG AND SUFISM 62 A. Kyai Hashim Ash'ari: The Founder of Pesantren
Tebuireng 62
B. Development of Education in P esantren Tebuireng 68 C. Aspects of Sufism in Pesantren Tebuireng 70 D. P esantren Tebuireng and the
Qadiriyyah-N aqshabandiyyah Order 78
CHAPTER V PESANTREN TAREKAT OF SURYALAYA 85 A. A bah Sepuh: the Founder of Pesantren Suryalaya 86 B. The Spiritual Power of A b a h A n o m 93 C. The Teaching and Rituals of the
Qadiriyyah-N aqshabandiyyah Order of Suryalaya 101
D. Pondok Remaja Inabah 109
E. Education in Pesantren Suryalaya 112
CHAPTER VI CONCLUSION 117
BIBLIOGRAPHY 122
GLOSSARY 131
A. G en eral F e a tu re s of Pesantren
T h is th e s is c o n sid ers S ufism in J a v a , c o n c e n tra tin g o n th e role of th e pesantren in th e m a in te n a n c e of S u fism in J a v a . G en erally th e Pesantren is kn o w n a s a tra d itio n a l Islam ic e d u c a tio n a l in s titu tio n in J a v a . In th is th e s is th e te rm pesantren is n o t j u s t u n d e rs to o d a s a n e d u c a tio n a l in s titu tio n o r Islam ic b o a rd in g school even th o u g h th e m ain fu n c tio n of th e pesantren is in th e fields of e d u c a tio n a n d teach in g , r a th e r th e pesantren is u n d e rs to o d a s a religious a n d so c io -cu ltu ra l in stitu tio n . T h is is in a c c o rd a n c e w ith K .H .S aifuddin Z u h ri's term , followed by Dhofier, in reg a rd in g th e pesantren a s 'benteng pertahanan nm m at Islarrt
(fo rtresses for th e defence of th e Islam ic com m unity) a n d 'pusat penyebaran Islam' (centres for th e s p re a d of Islam ) (Zuhri
1981:616; D hofier 1982:7). I do n o t see th is u n d e rs ta n d in g c o n tra d ic ts th e fact th a t th e pesantren is a ’s u b -c u ltu re ', a term p ro p o sed by K .H .A b d u rrah m an W ahid. By th is W ahid m e a n s t h a t th e pesantren is a u n it of J a v a n e s e c u ltu re w h ich h a s its ow n c h a ra c te ris tic s different from J a v a n e s e c u ltu re a s a w hole (1988:39-60). As W ahid rea lises th is is a n o v e r-g en eralisatio n a b o u t th e v a rieties a n d com plexities of pesantren. T he Pesantren a s a c u ltu ra l in s titu tio n fu n c tio n s to m a in ta in a n d develop 'pesantren
c u ltu re ', th e te rm th a t is n e c e ssa ry to u n d e rs ta n d th e v irtu e s of
V ery little is kno w n a b o u t th e origins of p e s a n tr e n in J a v a . M adjid s p e c u la te s t h a t th e origins of p e sa n tr e n in J a v a c a n be re g a rd e d a s a c o n tin u a tio n of th e sy ste m of z a w iy a h or k h a n a q a h in th e M iddle E ast, th a t is, p laces w h ere follow ers of Sufi o rd e rs s to p p e d a n d p ra c tis e d dhikir. Like za w iy a h , p e s a n tr e n developed a n d b e ca m e Islam ic e d u ca tio n al in s titu tio n s (1988:104). In a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e role of S ufis in th e p ro c e ss of Isla m isa tio n in J a v a , th e Islam ic in s titu tio n th a t w as first e sta b lis h e d w a s sim ila r to a z a w iy a h or k h a n a q a h a s a c e n tre of Sufi te a c h in g s. T h is in s titu tio n th e n ta u g h t several b ra n c h e s of Islam ic know ledge w h ic h w ere very im p o rta n t for its followers. F u rth e r, it is believed t h a t Islam w as b ro u g h t to J a v a by th e so -called Wali S a n g a (the n in e sa in ts). A lthough little is kno w n a b o u t th e early d ev elo p m en t of p esa n tre n , m a n y J a v a n e s e s c h o la rs seem to believe t h a t th e Wali S a n g a first e sta b lis h e d th em . H .A b u b ak ar A tjeh w rites:
S h a ik h M aw lana M alik Ib rah im k n o w n a s S h a ik h M aghribi from G u jerat, India, is reg a rd ed a s th e fo u n d e r of first p esa n tren . T he p e s a n tre n p ro d u c e d M uslim p re a c h e rs w ho sp re a d th e holy religion th ro u g h o u t J a v a (1958:43).
At lea st, acco rd in g to Dhofier, in th e fifteen th c e n tu ry th e re m ig h t h av e b een Islam ic in stitu tio n s from w hich p e s a n tr e n o rig in a te d (1984:20). W ahid a s s u m e s th a t th e tra d itio n of Islam ic in s tru c tio n in p e sa n tre n b eg an in th e th irte e n th c e n tu ry alo n g w ith th e com ing of Islam (1984:7).
of th e ex isten ce of pesantren before P e s a n tre n T eg alsari in E a s t J a v a , w h ich is th e o ld est pesantren e sta b lis h e d in 1742. He p o in ts o u t t h a t in th e six te e n th a n d s e v e n te e n th c e n tu rie s th e re w a s relig io u s in s tru c tio n in m o sq u es, p alaces, h e rm ita g e s a n d a t holy g rav es (1 9 9 2 b :76-77). T his view does n o t n e c e ssa rily c o n tra d ic t o th e r view s if we im agine th a t pesantren in its early y e a rs w as m u c h sim p le r th a n it is today.
S ince th e m iddle of n in e te e n th c e n tu ry pesantren h av e b e en im p o rta n t o b jects of s tu d y a lth o u g h a c o m p reh en siv e a c c o u n t of
pesantren does n o t ex ist d u e to th e large v ariety of pesantren. T he e a rlie st s c h o la r w ho c o n d u cted re s e a rc h on pesantren w as p ro b ab ly B ru m u n d in h is a c c o u n t of th e e d u c a tio n a l sy ste m in J a v a in 1857. B ru m u n d w as th e n followed by o th e r s c h o la rs in clu d in g m issio n aries. At th e en d of n in e te e n th c e n tu ry v a n d e n B erg (1886) c arried o u t a su rv ey of th e pesantren in J a v a . R ad en A h m ad D ja ja d in in g ra t (1908), th e bupati of S e ra n g (1901-1917) also w rote a n a c c o u n t of pesantren life a n d its tra d itio n s in B a n te n , W est J a v a . R ecently th e re have b een a n u m b e r of s tu d ie s on
pesantren a s well a s s tu d ie s on J a v a n e s e religion a n d so ciety w h ich in clu d e th e developm ent of tra d itio n a l Islam ic in s titu tio n s .
(1982) c re d its it a s th e first book t h a t c o n c e n tra te s on th e tra d itio n a l Islam w hich is often neg lected sin ce s c h o la rs in In d o n e s ia g enerally p aid g reat a tte n tio n to 'm o d em ' Islam .
A lthough som e critiq u e s of D hofier's s tu d y h av e em erged, in th is in tro d u c tio n it is im p o rta n t to n o te th e b a sic e le m e n ts of a p e s a n tre n a s D hofier d escrib es. G en erally th e re a re five b a sic e le m e n ts of p esa n tren , n am ely pondok, m esjid, p e n g a ja ra n kita b kuning, sa n tri a n d kgai. P ondok w hich v a rie s from one p e s a n tr e n to a n o th e r is a h o stel w here s tu d e n ts (santri) live to g eth er. M esjid (m osque) is a c e n tre of Islam ic e d u c a tio n in th e p esa n tre n . It is co m m o n th a t th e e s ta b lis h m e n t of a p e sa n tr e n o rig in a te s from th e e s ta b lis h m e n t of th e m o sq u e. It is a place w h ere sa n tri p erform Islam ic ritu a ls , le a rn kitab kun in g (trad itio n al A rabic script) a n d so forth. T raditionally, a p e s a n tre n te a c h e s c lassic Islam ic b o o k s by th e sy ste m of sorogan (individual sy ste m of learning) a n d b a n d o n g a n or w e to n a n (group learning). Today, s e c u la r s u b je c ts a re ta u g h t a n d th e m a d r a sa h (classical) sy ste m is u se d . S a n tri or th e s tu d e n ts of a p e s a n tre n a re generally classified in to sa n tri
B. S u fism
In th is th e s is S ufism is u n d e rs to o d in its b ro a d e s t s e n s e a n d it is far b ro a d e r th a n th a t u n d e rsto o d by m o st w e ste rn s c h o la rs a s M uslim M ysticism '. B ased on Sufi te a c h in g s it in c lu d e s b o th a sc e tic ism (including piety a n d devotion) a n d m y sticism . T h e S ufis c a n be classified in to individual Sufi w ith o u t b ein g affiliated to a Sufi o rd e r a n d th o se affiliated w ith a Sufi order. B oth in d iv id u al Sufi a n d th o se affiliated w ith a n o rd er in term in g le. In th is th e s is th e role of th e p e sa n tre n in th e m a in te n a n c e of S u fism in J a v a involves th e w ay th e p e sa n tre n fu n c tio n s to m a in ta in S u fism in te rm s of in d iv id u al S ufism a n d Sufi o rd e rs a s well a s to p reserv e so m e a s p e c ts of a sce tic ism a n d m y sticism in J a v a .
A sceticism w as th e origin of S ufism . In th e early d ev elo p m en t of S u fism a sc e tic s w ere called ahl a l-S u ffa h (literally 'people of th e V eran d ah ') w hich p o in ts to som e of th e P ro p h e t's C o m p an io n s w ho
actively in sp ired to a tta in a sim ila r know ledge of th e Divine P resen ce, a n d w ho w ere often m en tio n ed in th e T rad itio n s for th e ir piety a n d asce tic ten d en cies" (Al-A ttas 1963:5).
p ro te c to r of S u n n i S ufism (Abdul M uis 1985:22). T herefore, S u n n i S u fism is so m etim es know n a s ta s a w w u f al-G hazali (Sufism of al-G hazali) b e c a u s e of h is g re a t in flu en ce on its te a c h in g s (D ahlan
1991:29). F a z lu r R a h m a n w rites:
T he in flu en ce of al-G hazali in Islam is u n c a lc u la b le . He n o t only re c o n s titu te d o rth o d o x Islam , m ak in g S u fism a n in te g ra te d p a rt of it, b u t also w as a g re a t refo rm er of S ufism , purifying it of u n -Islam ic e le m e n ts a n d p u ttin g it a t th e service of o rth o d o x religion. As s u c h h e re p re s e n ts a final ste p in a long developing h isto ry . S u fism received, th ro u g h h is influence, th e ap p ro v al of lim a or c o n s e n s u s of th e c o m m u n ity (R ah m an
1979:140).
A la te r developm ent of S ufism w as in m y sticism . C om m only th is is stro n g ly a sso c ia te d w ith p h ilo so p h ical or sp e cu la tiv e S u fism b e c a u s e it o rig in ated w h en Islam ic civilisation h a d developed a n d o b serv ed v a rio u s s tre a m s of G reek philo so p h y . M uhyi al-D in al- 'A rabi (d.1240) w as th e g re a te s t M uslim m ystic w h e n Islam ic m y sticism re a c h e d its c u lm in atin g point. T he c e n tra l core of h is Sufi te a c h in g s is th e d o ctrin e of w a h d a h a l-w u ju d or 'th e u n ity of E x is te n c e ’ w hich b asically e sp re s s e s th e Sufi d en ial of all ex isten ce b u t G od (Al-Attas 1963:10).
th e m sin ce th e early d ay s of th e ir e sta b lis h m e n t. Som e fa m o u s Sufi o rd e rs a re th e Q a d iriyya h o rd er a ttrib u te d to 'Abd a l-Q a d ir al- J ila n i (d. 1166), th e R ifa iy y a h o rd er deriving from A h m ad ib n Al- R ifa i (d.1182) a n d th e N a q sh a b a n d iy y a h o rd er a sso c ia te d w ith M u h a m m a d B a h a' al-D in a l-N a q sh a b a n d i (d.1389) a n d m a n y o th e rs (T rim ingham 1971:14). C ertain ch ief Sufi o rd e rs b ra n c h e d in to n u m e ro u s co rp o ra tio n s (T rim ingham 1971:103) a n d two or m o re Sufi o rd e rs w ere u n ited .
In reg ard to th e developm ent of S u fism G ilse n an w rites a b o u t th e two m ain stre am s:
T he first, b eg in n in g in th e early c e n tu rie s a fte r th e P ro p h e t M u h a m m a d 's d e a th , is t h a t in d iv id u als w ho felt a call to th e m ystical or devotional life. T he seco n d ... is th e c o rp o ra te p u r s u it of th e 'way', th e tariqa (pl.turuq), by g ro u p s of M uslim s w ho cam e to g e th e r in th e Sufi B ro th erh o o d s following one of th e g re a t S a in ts of m edieval Islam (G ilsenan 1973:1).
Sim ilarly, H .A b u b ak ar A tjeh p u ts it in th is way:
T he S ufis a re classified into two g ro u p s: T he first is in d e p e n d e n t 'ulam a' w ho do n o t follow a c e rta in Sufi o rd er w hich ties th e ir s tu d e n ts a n d b rin g s th e m in to a school of Sufi d o ctrin es. T hese Sufi figures a re k n o w n for th e ir w o rk s w hich a re reg ard ed a s sp ecial fe a tu re s in p ro d u cin g a s ta n d p o in t in th e field of S u fism ... T he o th e r is th e S ufis w ho a re b o u n d to c e rta in te a c h in g s or Sufi o rd ers w hich a re followed a n d p ro p ag a ted b y th e ir discip les. A lthough c h an g e s m ig h t o c cu r in th e o rd er, its p rin cip les rem a in a s w ere e sta b lis h e d b y th e fo u n d e r (Atjeh 1980:17).
J a v a n e s e tex t on m ysticism . U nlike th e s e a c c o u n ts , a c o n te m p o ra ry s tu d y by W oodw ard in c lu d e s th e d is c u s s io n of b o th a sc e tic ism a n d m ysticism . W h at is im p o rta n t in th is s tu d y is t h a t W oodw ard clearly m a k e s a d istin c tio n b etw een a sc e tic ism in th e sa n tri p o p u la tio n a n d m y sticism in th e J a v a n e s e Royal C o u rt a n d village. An im p o rta n t p u b licatio n w ork w h ich d e als w ith a Sufi o rd e r is a s tu d y of th e h isto rical, g eo g rap h ical a n d sociological a s p e c ts of th e N a q sh a b a n d iy y a h o rd er in In d o n e s ia by v a n B ru in e s se n (1992a). C o n sid eratio n of th e d ev elo p m en t of th e Sufi o rd e r in J a v a is in clu d ed in v a n B ru in e s se n 's stu d y . T h is th e s is in c lu d e s th e d isc u ssio n of b o th individual S u fism a n d Sufi o rd ers.
In o rd er to u n d e rs ta n d th e im p o rta n c e of S u fism in th e
pesantren th e g en eral fe a tu re s of S u fism m u s t be c o n sid ere d in th is th e s is . T his is im p o rta n t to relate a n u n d e rs ta n d in g of S u fism w ith in th e pesantren tra d itio n to S ufism in general.
T he role of th e pesantren in th e m a in te n a n c e of S u fism c a n b e se e n b o th in th e w ay pesantren m a in ta in S u fism w ith o u t n e c e s s a rily sp ecialisin g in th e d ev elo p m en t of S ufi o rd e rs a s well a s in th e w ay som e pesantren sp ecialise in u p h o ld in g a p a rtic u la r Sufi ord er. T his th e s is provides a c c o u n ts of P e s a n tre n T eb u iren g a s a re p re se n ta tiv e of th e first category a n d P e s a n tre n S u ry a la y a a s a re p re se n ta tiv e of th e o th e r category.
C. S u fism in J a v a before th e N in eteen th C e n tu ry
M ost sc h o la rs stu d y in g th e h isto ry of th e s p re a d of Islam in In d o n e s ia agree th a t Sufi played a m ajo r role in th e Isla m isa tio n of th e In d o n e s ia n archipelago. T an ja w rites t h a t "the Islam t h a t first s p re a d in th e In d o n e sia n arch ip elag o w a s Sufi Islam " (1982:21). J o h n s , a fam o u s w riter on th e h isto ry of S u fism in In d o n e sia (1955, 1957, 1961, 1965, 1975), su g g e sts t h a t A rab a n d M uslim m e rc h a n ts h a d b een visiting In d o n esia sin c e th e eig h th c e n tu ry a lth o u g h no M uslim co m m u n ities a p p e a re d u n til th e th irte e n th c e n tu ry . He d e scrib e s how im p o rta n t th e role of S u fism w a s in th is p ro cess:
It [Sufism] w as directly involved in th e s p re a d of Islam to In d o n esia, it played a sig n ifican t p a rt in th e social o rg a n isa tio n of th e In d o n esian p o rt to w n s, a n d it w as th e specific n a tu r e of S ufism w h ich facilitated th e a b so rp tio n of no n -M u slim c o m m u n ities into th e fold of Islam (1961:13).
It se em s th a t no In d o n esian sc h o la rs or 'ulama' d e n y th e g re a t role of S ufis in Islam isatio n of In d o n e sia a lth o u g h th is view is still r a th e r sp ecu lativ e. J o h n s a s s u m e s t h a t from th e th ir te e n th to th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu rie s th e activity of Sufi m is sio n a rie s b ro u g h t a b o u t th e s p re a d of Islam in In d o n esia. T h is is in a cco rd w ith th e d o m in a n t in flu en ce of th e Sufi o rd ers in th e Islam ic w orld a fte r th e fall of B a g h d ad to th e M ongols in 1258. T he Sufi m is sio n a rie s w ere forced to leave B ag h d ad a n d seek p eacefu l a re a s in th e e a s t (K o en tjaran in g rat 1984:53). D u rin g th e period Islam co u ld p u t dow n ro o ts am o n g th e people of local In d o n e sia n s ta te s a n d in c lu e n c e d th e ir ru le rs (Jo h n s 1961:13-14).
pre-Islam ic In d o n e s ia n c u ltu re s . J o h n s w rites of th e c h a ra c te ris tic s of th e Sufi w ho su c ce ed e d in th e sp re a d of Islam in In d o n esia:
T hey w ere p erip a te tic p re a c h e rs ran g in g over th e w hole k n o w n w orld, v o lu n tarily e sp o u sin g poverty; th e y w ere freq u e n tly a sso c ia te d w ith tra d e or cra ft g u ild s, acco rd in g to th e o rd er (ta rika h) to w h ich th e y b elonged to; th e y ta u g h t a com plex sy n cretic th e o so p h y largely fam iliar to th e In d o n esian s, b u t w h ich w as s u b o rd in a te to, a lth o u g h a n en la rg em en t on th e fu n d a m e n ta l d o g m as of Islam ; th ey w ere p ro ficien t in m agic a n d p o s s e s s e d pow ers of healing; a n d n o t lea st, c o n scio u sly or u n c o n scio u sly , th ey w ere p re p a re d to p reserv e c o n tin u ity w ith th e p a st, a n d to u s e th e te rm s a n d e le m e n ts of p re-Islam ic c u ltu re in a n Islam ic co n te x t (1961:15).
al-A rabi a n d th e like (Drewes 1969:17). In th e o ld est J a v a n e s e code of M uslim eth ics, p u b lis h e d by D rew es, th e a u th o r e la b o ra te s so m e of a l-G h a za li's BicLayah ai-H idayah (1978:6). S te e n b rin k c o n c lu d e s t h a t th e a u th o r of th e book h a d to be a follower of al-G h a za li's te a c h in g s, n o t al-'A rab i's (1984:174). H a m k a s u p p o rts th e s e view s.
S u fism a t th e tim e [of its first s p re a d in Indonesia] w as in a c c o rd a n c e w ith a n d /o r u n ite d w ith M a zh a b a h l al-S u n n a h w a a l-J a m a a h , p a rtic u la rly th e S h a f f ite tra d itio n w hich cam e h ere. In th e h isto ry of th e d ev elo p m en t of S ufism in In d o n esia, th e in flu en ce of al- G hazali a l-S h a ffi w as g re a te r th a n t h a t of al-H alaj al- S h f i (1984:233).
T he m y sticism of a l-A ra b i also sp re a d in J a v a . S te e n b rin k a rg u e s t h a t th e te a c h in g of w a h d a h a l-w u ju d s p re a d alo n g w ith th e s p re a d of th e S h a tta riy a h o rd er in th e s e v e n te e n th c e n tu ry (1984:174). T he S h a tta riy a h o rd er travelled from A ceh, w h ere Abd a l-R a 'u f of Singkel firstly p ro p ag a ted it, to W est J a v a . H ere h is d iscip le n a m e d Abd al-M uhyi of K arang e sta b lis h e d th e Sufi o rd er. From th e re it sp re a d to C e n tra l a n d E a s t J a v a (K artodirdjo 1966:144). T he S h a tta riy a h o rd er h a d a very s tro n g sp e cu la tiv e b a sis, m ain ly u p h o ld in g th e seven g ra d e s of b ein g (S te en b rin k 1 9 84:174-175). T h ere is a J a v a n e s e v ersio n of M u h a m m a d ib n Fadl A llah's te a c h in g s w hich c o n ta in s a sy ste m of 'seven g ra d e s of being'. J o h n s critically ed ited a n d tra n s la te d th e te x t (1965).
T h u s it is n o t p re ssin g p ro b ab ility too far to su g g e st t h a t th e s p re a d of th e S h a tta riy a h o rd e r a n d know ledge of th e T u h fa h w en t h a n d in h a n d , a n d th is to g e th e r w ith th e o th e r c irc u m s ta n c e s referred to above, m a k e s a J a v a n e s e v ersio n of th e w ork th eo re tic ally p o ssib le by
It is im portant to note th a t the teachings of w ahdah al-wujud influenced several works in nineteenth century Javanese literature su ch as the Serat Centini, Wind Hidayat Jati and so forth.
In addition to the Shattariyyah, the Qadiriyyah order might have appeared in Jav a before the nineteenth century. Hamzah F ansuri who was a famous Qadiriyyah mystic visited various places including Jav a (Kartodirdjo 1966:145). Hamzah F ansuri was strongly influenced by al-'Arabi. He was even regarded as the Malay interpreter of al-'Arabi. His thought was th a t there is no being other th a n God. God is not in the world b u t is the world. His system of the world is a series of em anations from Divine Being and the num ber of em anations is not limited (Johns 1955:75-76).
'Purification' efforts to restore the em phasis on ethics and obedience within the realm of orthodoxy as taught by al-Ghazali already existed from the sixteenth century (Wahid 1984:7). This purification effort is narrated in several Javanese literary works. Soebardi, writing about the Serat Centini which is assum ed to have been written in early nineteenth century, and in particular about the punishm ent of Shaikh Among Raga who was accused of having spread heterodox Sufi teachings, concludes:
In the present book of Centini we see the presentation of Syaikh Among Raga as the symbol of an aristocratic shaikh who adopted a syncretic religious life as a result of the conciliation and harm onisation of two religious currents in Javanese society, i.e. traditional Javanese mysticism as propagated by Shaikh Siti J e n a r and S unan Panggung, and orthodox legalistic Islam (1971:349).
of th e p e s a n tr e n in th e m a in te n a n c e of S u fism in J a v a closely re la te s to th e d evelopm ent of th is Sufi order.
D. O rg a n isa tio n of th e T h esis
T he th e s is is o rg an ised in six c h a p te rs in clu d in g a n In tro d u c tio n a n d C onclusion. C h a p te r I, In tro d u c tio n , d e sc rib e s g e n eral fe a tu re s of p e sa n tre n in J a v a in o rd er provide a n id ea of th e te rm p e s a n tre n a s u se d in th e th e s is . It th e n e x am in e s th e te rm S u fism a s it is u se d in th e th e s is . Before d e scrib in g th e o rg a n is a tio n of th e th e s is , th e th e s is d e sc rib e s th e d ev elo p m en t of S u fism before th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry a s h isto ric al b a c k g ro u n d for th e th e s is . T he m ain body of th e th e s is is d e scrib e d below.
closes with the analysis of some Indonesian 'ulama! and their relation to Sufism, b u t not to Sufi orders.
The discussion of the role of the hajj in the spread of Sufism in Ja v a during the latter p art of the nineteenth and early tw entieth centuries shows the relationship between Islam in Ja v a with international Islam. This relates to general features of Sufism within the pesantren tradition as provided in C hapter III. In detail, this chapter includes the discussion of the term ta sa w w u f and tariqah in the pesantren, the description of doctrinal bases of Sufism, the analysis of the importance of Sufism and shari'ah in the pesantren and the description of Sufi texts used in the pesantren.
C hapter IV aims at examining the role of the pesantren in the m aintenance of Sufism in Jav a as offered by Pesantren Tebuireng. The chapter begins with the description of the establishm ent of the pesantren concentrating on the role of Kyai Hashim A sh'ari. Tebuireng is a major pesantren which played a great role in Islamic education in Java. The chapter describes the development of its educational system. The m ain parts of the chapter consist of an analysis of some aspects of Sufism understood and practised in Pesantren Tebuireng and the relationship between this pesantren and the development of the Qadiriyyah-Naqshabandiyyah order in E ast Java.
d e sc rib e s th e s p iritu a l pow er of A b a h A nom , th e p re s e n t le a d e r of th e p e sa n tre n , a n d h is influence, followed by th e te a c h in g a n d r itu a ls of th e Sufi order. T he c h a p te r also provides a d is c u s s io n of th e d ev elo p m en t of e d u c a tio n in th e p e s a n tre n a n d a n a n a ly s is of P ondok In a b a h a s a u n iq u e a sp e c t of P e s a n tre n S u ry alay a.
M ecca a n d M edina a re two M uslim holy cities a n d a re re g a rd e d a s th e c e n tre s of Islam ic orthodoxy. T he hqjj o r pilgrim age to M ecca is th e fifth pillar of Islam w h ich m u s t b e perfo rm ed b y th o s e w ho hav e th e ability to do so. In th is c h a p te r I sh a ll ex am in e th e re la tio n sh ip of M ecca, a n d also M edina, w ith J a v a , p a rtic u la rly w ith reg a rd to th e s p re a d of S u fism in J a v a d u rin g th e se co n d h a lf of n in e te e n th a n d early tw e n tieth c e n tu rie s. F irst, I s h a ll d is c u s s th e role of th e hqjj in th e p ro ce ss of th e Isla m isa tio n in J a v a . T h en , I sh a ll d is c u s s a fam o u s 'u la m ä n a m e d S h a ik h A h m ad K h atib S a m b a s a n d h is role in th e fo u n d in g of th e Q adiriyyah-N a q s h a b a n d iy y a h o rd er a n d th e role of h is s u c c e s s o rs in th e s p re a d of th e o rd er in J a v a . Finally, I sh a ll ex am in e th e re la tio n sh ip b etw een som e fam o u s In d o n e sia n 'ulama! a n d S ufism .
A. T he Role of th e H ay
b etw een J a v a a n d th e M iddle E a s t d u rin g th is period. He m e n tio n s B a n te n , th e o ld est Islam ic p o rt city in W est J a v a , w h ich h a s re m a in e d a c e n tre of Islam ic lea rn in g sin c e 1524 (1980:176). W h en th e p eo p les of J a v a first b e g an to perform th e h ay re m a in s u n a n sw e re d . Yet v an B ru in e s se n p o in ts o u t th a t, to th e people of J a v a , th e hay h a s b een co n sid ered extrem ely im p o rta n t sin c e Islam first cam e to th e islan d a n d it w as n o t lim ited j u s t to th e sa n tri p o p u la tio n b u t also to o th e r M uslim s. V an B ru in e s s e n d e sc rib e s t h a t in th e se v e n te e n th c e n tu ry k in g s in J a v a b e g a n to se ek political legitim acy in M ecca. In th e 163 0 's ru le rs of M a ta ra m a n d B a n te n co m p eted in se n d in g th e ir d e p u tie s to M ecca in o rd e r to g ain reco g n itio n of th e ir kingdom a n d to receive th e title 'sultan'. T h ese ru le rs reg ard ed th e G re at S h a r if a t M ecca a n d M edina a s so m eo n e w ho h a d a u th o rity over th e M uslim w orld. In th e ir r e tu r n to J a v a , th e d e p u tie s b ro u g h t a piece of k is w a h — b la c k fabric w h ich covers th e k a 'b a h (the cu b ical s to n e s tr u c tu r e in M ecca t h a t is th e c h ief object of th e hqy a n d to w a rd s w h ich M u slim s face in prayer). T h is cloth is ch an g e d a n n u a lly a n d a piece of th is cloth w a s re g a rd e d a s effective am u let. Som e y e a rs la te r a so n of S u lta n A geng T irta y a s a of B a n te n , Abd a l-Q a h h a r w e n t to perfo rm th e hqy in M ecca. He w as th e n know n a s S u lta n Haji. He w as, acco rd in g to v a n B ru in e sse n , th e first p riy a y i w ho p erfo rm ed th e pilgrim age to M ecca (1990b: 43). T h u s in th is case, th e hqy h a d n o t only a ritu a l fu n ctio n b u t also a political fu n ctio n .
a re m a n y k y a i in J a v a w ho, acco rd in g to th e ir followers, sp iritu a lly w e n t to M ecca to perform F riday p ray e r a t th e M asjid a l-H a ram . In sev eral J a v a n e s e legends fam o u s figures a re often d e sc rib e d a s v isito rs to M ecca w ho lea rn ed th e ir Islam ic know ledge in th e holy city (van B ru in e s s e n 1990b: 43).
M ecca w as also reg ard ed a s a place in w hich one co u ld le a rn sev eral b ra n c h e s of Islam ic know ledge, e ith e r fiq h , ta fsir or S ufism . A lth o u g h m a n y w riters a rg u e t h a t Islam w as first b ro u g h t from In d ia a n d , therefore, w as in flu en ced by In d ia n c u ltu re , th e te a c h in g of w a h d a h al-wujucL, w h ich is often c o n sid ere d a s p a n th e is m , w as s tu d ie d by its p ro p a g a to rs in M ecca o r M edina. 'A bd a l-R a 'u f of Singkel, th e first p ro p a g a to r of th e S h a tta r iy y a h o rd e r in Aceh, le a rn e d a b o u t th e o rd er in M ecca, n o t in its original p lace in In d ia (van B ru in e s se n 1990b:44-45).
com pared with other islands; and, compared with other countries, Indonesia h as always had a large num ber of pilgrims. It is tru e th a t in Indonesia the people who hold the title hqji have high esteem and great prestige. Van Bruinessen writes:
To Indonesian Muslims, the hqjj, for a long time, has played an im portant role. There is an im pression th a t Indonesians considered the ho// more im portantly th a n m ost other peoples and th a t the society greatly appreciates the hqji. This situation might be linked to the traditional culture of Southeast Asia (1990b; 43).
It should be em phasised that, in addition to m aking the pilgrimage, a num ber of people from Ja v a settled at Mecca and M adina for several years to learn Islamic knowledge. The pilgrims were usually classified either as general pilgrims who came to Mecca and stayed for several m onths only to perform the hqjj and the muqimin, namely those who settled there for years ['menahun') to learn several branches of Islamic science. Some stu d en ts becam e followers of a particular Sufi order (Suminto 1985:95). Some of the muqimin became prom inent 'ulamol and teachers teaching at Mecca and Medina. Hurgronje observes th a t during the late nineteenth century the Indonesian colony in Mecca was large. He concludes:
... here lies the heart of the religious life of the East- Indian Archipelago, and num erous arteries pum p from thence fresh blood in ever accelerating tempo to the entire body of the Muslim populace of Indonesia (1931:291).
m y sticism . T h ese th re e p h e n o m e n a w ere in te rre la te d a n d th e role of th e hcyj in lin k in g th e m to th e in te rn a tio n a l d ev elo p m en t of Islam w as very g reat. The hatf h a s b rid g ed "... th e gap b etw een th e M eccan te a c h e r a n d th e com m on sa n tri of th e village" (K artodirdjo
1966:153) in J a v a . V an B ru in e s se n w rites:
We see several sociological fu n c tio n s of th e hqjj. In d o n e s ia n s so u g h t know ledge in M ecca a n d M edina a n d after re tu rn in g to th e ir c o u n try th e y ta u g h t th e ir co m m u n ity th e know ledge th ey le a rn e d in th e holy lan d . R eligious p ra c tic e s in In d o n esia m a in ta in e d to get co rre ctio n s from th e re a s well (1990c: 45).
K artodirdjo p u ts it in th is way:
R eligious revivalism ... w as a w ide s p re a d p h e n o m e n o n in th e la tte r p a rt of th e 19th c e n tu ry ... It w ould b e a m ista k e to reg ard th e religious m o v em en t in In d o n e sia d u rin g th is period a s a p aro c h ial h a p p e n in g . W ith o u t a d o p tin g a M ecca-centric p o in t of view, it is n e c e s s a ry to p o in t o u t th e m an y tie s w hich lin k ed th e Islam ic w orld in In d o n esia w ith t h a t religious cen tre. M ecca-train ed or M ecca in sp ire d u la m a or Hadjis, e ith e r p e rso n ally or th ro u g h th e ir d isciples, in stig a ted a n d c h a m p io n e d th e revival m o v em en ts in v a rio u s p a rts of in d o n esia . T h ese social core of th e s e revivalists w as to b e fo u n d in th e D ja w a h c o m m u n ity (K artodirdjo 1966:153).
K a rto d ird jo also w rite s th a t "... th e p ilg rim a g e w as a so cia l
force o f th e re v ita lis a tio n o f re lig io u s life" (1 966 :14 8). In th is
c o n n e c tio n , it is a m is ta k e to regard, as m a n y w rite rs do, o n ly th e
in flu e n c e o f th e hcyj on th e m o d e rn is t o r re fo rm is t m o vem e nts in
In d o n e s ia as a re s u lt o f c o n ta cts betw een In d o n e s ia n p ilg rim s w ith
P a n -Is la m ic m o vem e nt propagated b y th e E g y p tia n M u h a m m a d
A b d u h . One sh o u ld , however, b e a r in m in d th a t th e hatf also
p la ye d a g re a t ro le in th e process o f th e tra d itio n a lis a tio n o f Isla m ,
p a r tic u la r ly in Java. W ith regard to th e spread o f S u fi ord e rs in
J a v a th e hay played a s ig n ific a n t role, as K a rto d ird jo suggests:
These th re e S u fi orders [the Q a d iriy y a h , th e
S h a tta riy y a h an d th e N a q s h a b a n d iy y a h ] em erged as th e spearhead o f Is la m ic re viva l in c e rta in p a rts o f 19 th c e n tu ry Java. The m a in m is s io n a ry force co n siste d o f
h a d jis w h o re tu rn e d hom e as adepts o f one o f th e
ta re k a ts, since d ire c t c o m m u n ic a tio n w ith M ecca w as n o t o n ly m a in ta in e d b u t also increased in th e la tte r p a rts o f th e 19 th c e n tu ry , p ro p a g a n d a w as c o n s id e ra b ly stre n g th e n e d . M oreover, th e ta re k a ts in tro d u c e d d ire c tly fro m M ecca c o n trib u te d a great deal n o t o n ly to fe rv e n t re lig io u s p ra ctice s b u t also to in to le ra n c e a n d fa n a tic is m (1966:158).
D h o fie r describes s ix p ro m in e n t 'iila rn a ' w h o h a d a close
c o n n e c tio n w ith a n d played a great ro le in th e m a in te n a n c e a n d
sp read o f th e tra d itio n a l Is la m in Ja va d u rin g th e second h a lf o f
n in e te e n th c e n tu ry a n d th e e a rly tw e n tie th c e n tu ry : S h a ik h A h m a d
K h a tib Sam bas, S h a ik h N aw aw i B a n te n , S h a ik h 'A b d a l-K a rim ,
S h a ik h M a h fu d h a l-T a rm a si, K yai K h a lil B a n g k a la n a n d H a d ra h
a l-S h a ik h H a s h im A sh a ri (1 982 :85 -99). W h ile S h a ik h A h m a d
K h a tib S am bas a n d S h a ik h 'A b d a l-K a rim w ere w e ll-k n o w n as
leaders o f th e Q a d iriy y a h -N a q s h a b a n d iy y a h order, o th e rs
ord er. It is th e s e two tra d itio n s th a t h av e b e en developed a n d hav e b e e n m a in ta in e d by th e m ajority of p e sa n tr e n in J a v a .
B. S h a ik h A h m ad K hatib S a m b a s a n d th e Q adiriyyah-N a q sh a b a n d iy y a h O rd er
O ne of th e m o st fam o u s In d o n e sia n 'ulamcC d u rin g th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry w as S h a ik h A h m ad K hatib 'A bd al-G h affar from S a m b a s , K alim an tan . His c a re e r w as deeply b o u n d to th e e s ta b lis h m e n t of th e Q a d iriy ya h -N a q sh a b a n d iy ya h o rd er, to d a y ’s m o st w id e sp rea d Sufi o rd er in J a v a . T his Sufi o rd e r is a c o m b in atio n of th e Q a d iriyya h a n d N a q sh a b a n d iy y a h o rd ers. In th e h isto ry of S u fism it is com m on th a t so m e 'alamo! p ra c tis e d two o r m o re different o rd ers. B u t in In d o n e sia th e Q adiriyyah-N a q sh a b a n d iy y a h o rd er is n o t m erely a co m b in atio n of two d ifferen t o rd e rs t h a t a re p ra c tis e d to g eth er, b u t r a th e r is itself a new o rd e r (van B ru in e s se n 1 9 9 2 a:89).
know ledge: S h a ik h D au d ibn M u h a m m a d a l-F a ta n i, S h a ik h S h a m s al-D in, S h a ik h M u h a m m a d S aleh Rais, S h a ik h 'U m a r Abd al- R asu l, S h a ik h 'A bd al-Hafiz Ajami, S h a ik h B a sh ir a l-J a b a rti, Sayid A h m ad al-M azuqi, Said Abd Allah al-M irghani a n d S h a ik h T Jth m a n al-D im yati (A bdullah 1990:46).
S h a ik h A h m ad K hatib S a m b a s w as b o rn in 1217 A.H (1805 A.D). Little is k n o w n a b o u t h is early life. M ost of h is life w a s s p e n t in M ecca. S h a ik h A h m ad K hatib S a m b a s b e ca m e a n d re m a in e d a te a c h e r a t th e M asjid al-H aram u n til h e died e ith e r in 1875 (H urgronje 1931:262; D hofier 1982:85) or in 1878 (van B ru in e s s e n 1989:74). It is th e fact th a t for c e n tu rie s M ecca h a s b e e n a c e n tre of Islam ic e d u c a tio n in w hich m an y In d o n e sia n s n o t only h av e b eco m e s tu d e n ts b u t also b ecam e 'ulamcC a n d te a c h e rs . It w as S h a ik h D au d ib n M u h am m ad a l-F atan i, a m u rs h id of th e S h a tta r iy y a h order, w ho in tro d u c e d S h a ik h A h m ad K h atib S a m b a s to S h a ik h S h a m s al-D in, a m u rs h id of th e Q a d iriyya h o rd er. T he q u e s tio n re m a in s w hy S h a ik h A hm ad K hatib S a m b a s did n o t jo in th e S h a tta r iy y a h order, to w hich h is first te a c h e r b elonged before h e m e t S h a ik h S h a m s al-D in a n d w as th e m o st d o m in a n t Sufi o rd e r in S o u th e a s t A sia before its sp re a d w as c o u n te re d b y th e Q a d iriy ya h -N a q sh a b a n d iy ya h a n d th e N a q sh a b a n d iy y a h o rd e rs in th e la tte r p a rt of th e n in e te e n th cen tu ry .
al-D in 's s tu d e n ts so t h a t it w as a p p ro p ria te t h a t h e su c c e e d to h is te a c h e r's p o sitio n afte r th e la tte r's d e ath .
S in ce t h a t tim e S h a ik h A hm ad K hatib S a m b a s w as a lre a d y a p p o in te d to be a S h a ik h m u rsh id ka m il m u ka m il [the m o st perfect S h a ik h murshid] in th e Q a d iriy ya h -N a q sh a b a n d iy ya h o rd er w h ich w a s b a s e d on th e te a c h in g s of S h a ik h S h a m s al-D in (A bdullah
1980:181).
It is im p o rta n t to list th e silsilah (chain) of th e Sufi o rd e r u p to S h a ik h A h m ad K hatib S a m b as. A lla h a n d th e n G abriel a re m e n tio n e d in th e silsilah: th e y a re th e n followed by:
M u h a m m a d S.A.W 'Ali ib n Abi Talib H u s a in ib n Ali Z ayn a l-A b id in M u h a m m a d al-B aq ir J a 'f a r al-S h ad iq M u sa al-K azhim
A bu a l-H a sa n Ali ibn M u sa al-R id h a M a 'ru f al-K ark h i
S ari al-S aq a ti
A bu al-Q a sim J u n a y d al-B ag h d ad i A bu B a k r al-S hibli
Abd al-W ahid al-T am im i Abd a l-F a ra ja l-T a rtu s i A bu a l-H a sa n 'Ali H ak k ari A bu S a id M ak h zu m i
Abd a l-Q a d ir a l-J a ila n i A bd al-'A ziz
M u h a m m a d a l-H a tta k S h a m s al-D in
S h a rif al-D in N ur al-D in W ali al-D in
H u sa m al-D in Y ahya
A bu B a k r Abd al-R ah im U th m a n A bd a l-F a tta h M u h a m m a d M u rad S h a m s al-D in
A h m ad K hatib S a m b a s (van B ru in e s se n 1992a:90-91).
S a h ik h A hm ad K hatib h im self did n o t w rite a n y single book, b u t two of h is s tu d e n ts loyally reco rd ed h is te a c h in g s in a sh o rt M alay tre a tise , w h ich explicitly ex p lain ed te c h n iq u e s of th is Sufi o rd er (van B ru in e s s e n
1992a:90).
F ath al-'Arifin w as com piled by h is s tu d e n t a n d kh a lifa h n a m e d M u h a m m a d Ism a il ibn Ib rah im al-B ali, a B alin ese M uslim , a n d w a s b a s e d on S h a ik h A hm ad K hatib S a m b a s ' te a c h in g s (van B ru in e s s e n 1989:72). It w as firstly p rin te d in M ecca in th e y e a r 1323 A.H or 1325 A.H (1908 A.D) (S h alleb ear 1930:359). A ccording to v a n B ru in e s se n , M u h a m m a d Ma r u f ib n a l-S h a ik h A bd A llah K hatib P alem b an g , a n o th e r of S h a ik h A hm ad K hatib S a m b a s ' s tu d e n ts , w rote a tre a tis e called Tariqa y a n g d ib a n g s a k a n k e p a d a Q a d iriya h d a n N a q sy a b a n d iy a h (S u fi order a ttrib u ted to the Q a d iriyya h a n d N a q s y a b a n d iy y a h order) (1 9 9 2 a:9 0 ,n .2 ).
S h a lle b e a r (1930) m ig h t have b e e n th e first s c h o la r to h av e tr a n s la te d F ath al-'Arifin into E nglish. L ater, A rch er (1937), followed by a l-A ttas (1963), review ed so m e p a rts of th e tex t. T h ese s c h o la rs p aid p a rtic u la r a tte n tio n to a s p e c ts of th e tre a tis e c o n ce rn e d w ith th e N a q sh a b a n d iy y a h order. In h is b io g rap h y of S h a ik h A h m ad K hatib S a m b as, A b d u llah (1980) tr a n s la te s F a th
al-'Arifin a n d c o n c e n tra te s on th o se a sp e c ts of th e tre a tis e p ra c tis e d in th e Q a d iriy ya h -N a q sh a b a n d iy ya h ord er. V an B ru in e s s e n (1989) gives a n o th e r tra n s la tio n of p a rts of F a th al-'Arifin in a c c o rd a n c e w ith th e Q a d iriy ya h -N a q sh a b a n d iy ya h order.
T he first is to recite istighfar (forgiveness)- t h a t is, a sta g h fir A lla h al-G hafur al-R ahim (I a s k forgiveness from God, th e Forgiver a n d th e Merciful) e ith e r tw en ty to tw enty-five tim e s (according to A b d u llah 1980:187), or two to tw en ty tim es (according to v a n B ru in e s s e n 1989:73). T his is followed by recitin g s a la w a t
(invocation), A lla h u m m a salli 'a la sa g y id in a M u h a m m a d w a 'a la alih w a sa h b ih w a sa lla m (O God, b le ss th e P ro p h e t M u h a m m a d , h is fam ily a n d h is c o m p an io n s, a n d give th e m salvation) th e sa m e n u m b e r of tim es. T he th ird is to perform d h ikir by recitin g la ilah
ilia A lla h (There is no god b u t God) after each of th e five obligatory p ra y e rs everyday (A bdullah 1980:187; v a n B ru in e s s e n 1989:73).
F a th al-'Arifin also te a c h e s th e m eth o d of recitin g la ilah ilia Allah. T he p erfo rm an ce of d h ikir b eg in s w ith p ro n o u n c in g th e w ord
p ra c tis e d e ith e r ja h a r (aloud) or sirr (secretly) (A bdullah 1980:187; v a n B ru in e s s e n 1989:73).
A fter com pleting dhikir a cco rd in g to th e p re s c rib e d n u m b e r of tim es, one sh o u ld recite s a y y id u n a M u h a m m a d R a su l A lla h sa lla A lla h 'a la ih w a sa lla m (our lord M u h a m m a d , M essen g er of God w hom He b le s se s a n d saves). T h en sa la w a t is read , A lla h u m m a
salli 'a la S a y y id in a M u h a m m a d sa la t turyina bih a m in ja m i al-a h w al-a l w al-a al-al-al-afal-at (O God, g ra n t o u r lord M u h a m m a d b le s sin g w ith w h ich You save u s from all d is a s te rs a n d d e stru c tio n s ). Finally, th e ritu a l is en d ed by reciting S u ra h al-F atihah - th e first c h a p te r of th e Q u r'a n - for th e P ro p h et M u h am m ad , h is C o m p an io n s a n d all s h a ik h of th e Q a d iriy ya h -N a q sh a b a n d iy ya h o rd er, a n d in p a rtic u la r for S h a ik h 'A bd al-Q ad ir a l-J a ila n i, S h a ik h J u n a id al- B ag h d ad i a n d S h a ik h A hm ad K hatib S a m b a s. It is also rec ite d for fa th e rs, m o th e rs, a n d all M uslim b ro th e rs , d e ad a n d alive (A bdullah 1980:187; v a n B ru in e sse n 1989:73).
al-'Arifin d e sc rib e s te n lataif. Five of th e m a re th e qalb (heart), ruh (spirit), sirr (inner h eart), kh a fi (secret) a n d akhfa! (m ost secret) w h ich a re k n o w n a s 'a la m al-am r (World of C om m and). T he o th e r five la ta if a re n a fs (su b tlety of th e soul) a n d th e fo u r elem en ts: w ater, air, e a rth a n d fire. T h ese are called 'a la m al-khalq (World of C reation) (A rcher 1937:96; al-A ttas 1963:59). I q u o te below A rch er's tra n s la tio n of F ath al-'Arifin on la ta 'if (w hich al-A ttas also quotes). S h e lla b e a r (1930:360-370), A rch er (1937:98) a n d al-A ttas (1963:60) m a in ta in th a t th e origin of la ta if c a n b e tra c e d to S a ik h A h m ad F a ru q i al-S irh in d i, th e eig h th su c c e s s o r from th e fo u n d e r of
N a q sh a b an d iy y ah order.
... [T]he s u b tle ty of th e h e a rt [latifah al-qalb] is below th e left b re a s t, two fingers b re a d th to th e left, a n d ... its co lo u r is yellow, a n d it is th e s e a t of th e a u th o rity of o u r lord A dam , a n d its origin is w ater, a ir a n d e a rth . T he s u b tle ty of th e sp irit [latifah al-ruh] is below th e rig h t b re a s t, two fingers b re a d th to th e right, its co lo u r is red, a n d it is th e s e a t of th e a u th o rity of o u r lo rd s A b ra h a m a n d N oah, a n d its s e a t of origin is fire. T he s u b tle ty of th e in n e r h e a r t [latifah al-sirr] is lo cated o p p o site th e left b re a s t, two fingers b re a d th to w ard s th e c h e st, its co lo u r is w hite, it is th e s e a t of th e a u th o rity of o u r lord M oses a n d its origin is w ater. T he su b tle ty of th e s e c re t [latifah al kh a fi] is o p p o site th e rig h t b re a s t, two fingers b re a d th to w a rd s th e c h est, its co lo u r is green, it is th e s e a t of th e a u th o rity of o u r lord Isa (Jesu s), a n d its origin is air. T he su b tle ty of th e m o st se c re t [latifah a l-a k h fa'] is lo cated in th e m iddle of th e ch est, its co lo u r is b lack , it is th e s e a t of th e a u th o rity of o u r lord M u h a m m a d , a n d its origin is e a rth . The su b tle ty of th e so u l (brain) [latifah a l-n a fs al-natiqah] is located in th e fo reh ead a n d th e w hole h e a d (Archer 1937:96).
in flu en ce of th e N a q sh a b a n d iy y a h o rd e r is taw cyjnh (ecstatic union) or rabitah sh a ik h before a n d / o r d u rin g d h ü d r. T h is g en erally d oes n o t o c cu r in th e Q a d iriyya h o rd er (van B ru in e s s e n 1989:73). T he ex p la n atio n of M uraqabah or sp iritu a l c o m m u n io n in F ath al-'Arifin is a n o th e r strik in g in flu en ce of th e N a q sh a b a n d iy y a h order.
C. S u c c e ss o rs of S h a ik h A hm ad K hatib S a m b a s a n d th e S p re a d of th e Q ajdiriyyah-N aqshabandiyyah O rd er in J a v a
D u rin g h is life S h a ik h A hm ad K hatib S a m b a s a p p o in te d m a n y khalifah, b u t after h is d e ath , h is p o sitio n a s th e s h a ik h of Q a d iriy ya h -N a q sya b a n d iyy a h in M ecca w a s filled b y S h a ik h 'A bd al-K arim from B a n te n . S ince a n early age S h a ik h 'A bd al-K arim h a d b e e n ste ep e d in th e tea c h in g of S h a ik h A h m ad K hatib S a m b a s a n d w as th e b e s t am o n g S h a ik h A hm ad K hatib S a m b a s ' s tu d e n ts . T herefore h e w as co n sid ered su ita b le to p ro p a g a te th e Sufi o rd er. For few y e a rs S h a ik h Abd al-K arim w as a p p o in te d a s a k h a lifa h of S h a ik h A h m ad K hatib S a m b a s in S in g ap o re a n d th e n in B a n te n , a n d finally a s s u c c e s s o r to S h a ik h A h m ad K hatib S a m b a s in M ecca j u s t before h is te a c h e r's d e ath .
Before he m oved to M ecca to su c ce ed h is te a c h e r, S h a ik h Abd al-K arim played a n im p o rta n t role in sp re a d in g th e Q a d iriy ya h -N a q sya b a n d iyy a h o rd er in J a v a . T he early d ev elo p m en t of th e Sufi o rd er in J a v a w as tied u p w ith th e c a re e r of S h a ik h Abd al-K arim a s a religious te a c h e r a n d a m u rsh id of th e Sufi o rd er (K artodirdjo 1966:177). V an B ru in e s se n p o in ts o u t t h a t it w a s th e c h a ris m a of S h a ik h ‘Abd al-K arim t h a t led th e Q adiriyyah-N a q s y a b a n d iy y a h o rd er to sp re a d widely, n o t only in B a n te n , b u t also in o th e r a re a s from S o u th S u m a te ra in th e w e st to Lom bok Isla n d in th e e a s t (1989:74).
s p iritu a l s u p p o rt from h is followers, h e w a n d e re d from o n e p lace to a n o th e r to s p re a d th e Sufi o rd er a n d p re a c h religious revival. His p re a c h in g s stro n g ly in flu en ced th e p o p u la tio n of B a n te n , in clu d in g m a n y civil se rv a n ts. T he d h ikir w hich w as p erfo rm ed in m a n y p laces, p a rtic u la rly in m o sq u e s a n d langgar (prayer room ), b e ca m e th e fo cu s of rev italised life (K artodirdjo 1966:178). K artodirdjo w rites:
In th is s p iritu a l clim ate it is q u ite n a tu r a l t h a t th e re sh o u ld be a stro n g reverence for a m a n s u c h a s H adji A bdul Karim . It w as generally believed t h a t h e w a s a Wali A lla h w ho h a d b e en g ra n te d b a ra k a t a n d c o n se q u e n tly h a d th e pow er to tr a n s m it k era m a t or m ira c u lo u s g ra n ts . L ater on h e b e ca m e b e tte r k n o w n a s K ja iA g u n g, th e G re at Kyai (1966:179).
S h a ik h 'A bd al-K arim w as co n sid ered , by th e D u tc h , very in flu e n tia l in th e revolt of B a n te n re s id e n ts a g a in s t th e D u tc h in 1888, even th o u g h h e w as n o t directly involved in it. He left B a n te n on 13 F e b ru ary , 1876 a n d h e w as th erefo re in M ecca d u rin g th e o u tb re a k of th e revolt in B a n te n . K artodirdjo gives a n in te re s tin g a c c o u n t of th e in flu en ce of h is te a c h in g s a n d p re a c h in g s on th e m a s s p o p u latio n . He w rites:
M eanw hile H adji A bdul K arim 's se rm o n s, p ro m ise s a n d p ro p h ec ies k e p t th e people in a s ta te of ex citem en t. E vidently h is p red ic tio n s a b o u t th e 'L ast J u d g e m e n t', th e com ing of th e M ahdi, a n d th e d jih a d, gave rise to g en eral religious ferm en tatio n ; th e d jih a d s p irit w as a n im a te d by vivid a w a re n e ss th a t th e ir c o u n try w as to be c o n sid ere d a s a d a r al-Islam tem p o rarily a d m in iste re d by foreign ru le rs, a n d th a t one d ay it h a d to b e rec o n q u ere d . T he u ltim a te goal th a t th e G re a t Kjai h a d in view w as th e fo u n d atio n of a n Islam ic s ta te (1966:180).
h e b e ca m e th e s h a ik h a t th e c e n tre of th e Sufi o rd er in M ecca h is in flu en ce in c re a s e d (H urgronje 1931:276-278). H u rg ro n je w rites:
Not only J a w a h from th e e n tire A rchipelago, pilgrim s a n d se ttle rs , e d u c a te d a n d u n e d u c a te d th ro n g e d for th e b le ssin g of h is s p iritu a l lead b u t even b re d a n d b o rn M ek k an s (1931:278).
p o p u la tio n s to c a rry o u t a jih a d a g a in s t th e D u tc h colonial g o v ern m en t (K artodirdjo 1966).
W h at is kn o w n a b o u t S h a ik h T o lh ah is th a t h e b e g a n to s p re a d th e te a c h in g of th e Q a d iriy ya h -N a q sh a b a n d iy ya h o rd e r in P e s a n tre n R an can g , w hich belonged to h is fath e r, Kyai T o la b u d d in . S h a ik h T o lh ah first fo u n d ed a p e s a n tre n in Begong C ireb o n in 1825 before h e w e n t to M ecca. B u t th is p e s a n tr e n w a s d e stro y ed by flood w h en h e w as in M ecca. He th e n e s ta b lis h e d P e s a n tre n K alisap u , th e first c e n tre of th e te a c h in g of th e Q adiriyyah-N a q s h a b a n d iy y a h o rd er in th e C irebon a re a, w h ere S h a ik h A b d u llah M u b a ra k or A b a h Sep u h , th e fo u n d e r of S u ry a lay a , b e ca m e h is s tu d e n t (D asuki 1990:23-25).
th ro u g h th e line of S h a ik h 'A bd al-K arim (van B ru in e s s e n 1989:74-75).
D. Som e F a m o u s In d o n e sia n 'Ulama' in M ecca a n d S u fism
D u rin g th e se co n d h a lf of th e n in e te e n th a n d early tw e n tie th c e n tu rie s M ecca a n d M edina w ere im p o rta n t c e n tre s of Islam ic s c h o la rsh ip . Several 'ulama! from In d o n e sia b e ca m e fa m o u s te a c h e rs in th e two holy cities a n d th is a ttra c te d a large n u m b e r of s tu d e n ts from In d o n e sia to s tu d y several b ra n c h e s of Islam ic know ledge. It is im p o rta n t to e m p h a sise t h a t only a p o rtio n of s tu d e n ts a n d 'ulama! from In d o n esia jo in e d a p a rtic u la r Sufi o rd er. T he m ajo rity of th e m followed th e tra d itio n of al-G h azali w h ich w a s very stro n g ly ro o ted in Islam ic orthodoxy. H u rg ro n je o b serv es t h a t d u rin g th e la tte r p a r t of th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry th e w o rk s of al-G h azali b e ca m e th e p rim a ry te x ts of S u fism ta u g h t a t th e M asjid a l-H a ra m in M ecca (1931:200-203).
A ccordingly a t th e lec tu re s w hich a re given on m y sticism o n F rid ay s a n d T u esd ay s, b u t also w h en ev er on o th e r d ay s, Law is n o t th e ch ief item of th e pro g ram m e, w e find for th e m o st p a rt th e older m en a n d far a d v an c ed s tu d e n ts . T he b o o k s u se d a re all m o re or less e x ce rp ts or co m p ilatio n s from th e w o rk s of G hazali (H urgronje 1931:201).
every p rac tic e of S u fism (1965:283-284). A l-G hazali's in flu en ce, how ever, re m a in e d stro n g , a s M acD onald w rites:
T he seco n d m ovem ent is th e revival of th e in flu en ce of al-G hazali. T h a t influence n ev er b e ca m e a b so lu te ly e x tin ct a n d it seem s to have rem a in e d especially s tro n g in al-Y am an. In th a t c o rn e r of th e M uslim w orld g e n e ra tio n s of S ufis lived co m p arativ ely u n d is tu rb e d , a n d it w as th e Sayyid M u rta d a, a n ativ e of Z abid in T ih am a, w ho by h is g rea t c o m m en ta ry on th e Ih y a of al- G hazali p ractically fo u n d ed th e m o d ern s tu d y of t h a t b o o k .... [Thus] th e re c a n be no q u e stio n of th e w ide in flu en ce w hich h e is now exercising (1965:284-285).
T herefore, th e Sufi te a c h in g s of al-G hazali in flu e n ce d th e Islam ic tra d itio n in M ecca. M any In d o n e sia n s tu d e n ts a n d th e 'ulamcC in M ecca w ere stro n g ly b o u n d to th e te a c h in g s of al-G hazali in th e field of S ufism . S h a ik h M u h a m m a d Nawawi B a n ten , b o rn in 1230 A /H (1815 A /D ) in th e village of T a n a ra in W est J a v a , se ttle d in M ecca u n til h e died p ro b ab ly a t th e e n d of th e n in e te e n th c e n tu ry . H is fa th e r w as O m ar ibn A rabi, a p e n g h u lu (M uslim leader) in T a n a ra , w ho ta u g h t Nawawi to g e th e r w ith h is b ro th e rs , T am im a n d A hm ad. T h en th ey w e n t to M ecca a t a n early age
(H urgronje 1931:268).
w ith ju ris p ru d e n c e , Sufism , A rabic g ra m m a r a n d divinity, in clu d in g a tw o-volum e c o m m en ta ry on th e Q u ra n k n o w n a s T a fsir M urah Labib. M ost of h is bo o k s w ere p u b lish e d in C airo, w h e re a s so m e w ere p rin te d in M ecca (Jo h n s 1980:176). S h a ik h Nawawi B a n te n is w ell-know n in In d o n esia a n d all h is b o o k s a re w idely s tu d ie d in p e s a n tr e n in J a v a (Dhofier 1982:89).
S h a ik h Nawawi B a n te n did n o t jo in or lead a Sufi o rd e r a s did S h a ik h A h m ad K hatib S a m b a s, h is te a c h e r. N eith er did h e c o u n se l h is s tu d e n ts to jo in a Sufi o rd er n o r did h e p re v e n t th e m from doing so. He how ever ta u g h t h is s tu d e n ts th e w o rk s of S u fism t h a t fo cu s on e th ic s r a th e r th a n on p h ilo so p h ical o r sp e cu la tiv e th o u g h t (H urgronje 1931:271). He h im self how ever c o n tin u e d to p ra c tis e Sufi tea ch in g s, p a rtic u la rly th o se of al-G hazali. H u rg ro n je n o te s th a t
... th e m y sticism p rac tic ed by Nawawi h im self is th e m o d erate, eth ical S ufism of al-G hazali in th e m ore form alistic s h a p e w hich it a d o p te d in la te r tim es. His lite ra ry activity ag ain evidences th is, for in 1881, th e re w as p rin te d a co m m en ta ry by him on G h azali's B id a y a t a l-H id a ya h a n d 1884 a c o m m en ta ry u p o n a m y stic poem of Z ain al-D in al-M alibari ... (1931:272).
Kyai Khalil B an g k alan also stu d ie d a t M ecca d u rin g th e se c o n d h a lf of th e n in e te e n th c en tu ry . U nlike S h a ik h Nawawi B a n te n a n d S h a ik h M ah fu d h T rem as, h e did n o t te a c h a t M ecca b u t b e ca m e a p ro m in e n t lea d er of p e sa n tr e n in M a d u ra. T he m ajo rity of fam o u s k y a i a n d fo u n d e rs of fam o u s p e s a n tr e n in J a v a d u rin g th e late n in e te e n th a n d early tw e n tie th c e n tu rie s w ere Kyai K halil's s tu d e n ts . Som e of th e m w ere Kyai H ash im A sh a ri of P e s a n tre n T eb u iren g , S h a ik h A b d u llah M u b a ra k of P e s a n tre n T a re k a t of S u ry alay a, Kyai M unaw w ir of P e s a n tre n K rap y ak of Y ogyakarta, Kyai M an af Abd al-K arim of P e s a n tre n Lirboyo, Kyai M a k su m of P e s a n tre n Lasern a n d Kyai M u h a m m a d Siddiq of J e m b e r (Dhofier 1982:92).
Kyai Khalil w as sim ilar to S h a ik h Nawawi a n d S h a ik h M ah fu d h in t h a t h e p ra c tis e d Sufi te a c h in g s w ith o u t b ein g affiliated w ith a Sufi order. He h a d , a cco rd in g to D hofier, a co m b in atio n of th e c h a ra c te ristic of S h a ik h Abd al-K arim in te rm s of sp iritu a l c h a ris m a a n d of S h a ik h M ah fu d h in te rm s of in te lle c tu a l ach iv em en t, even th o u g h in q u a lity h is p o sitio n w a s below th e irs. He w as kno w n a s a W ali in J a v a a lth o u g h h e n ev er led a Sufi o rd er a n d w as n o t a n ex p ert in S u fism (Dhofier 1982:91- 92). H .A b u b ak ar w rites:
As we know it, Kyai Khalil w as very p io u s a n d z u h u d [ascetic], so t h a t h e w as loved b y h is s tu d e n ts a n d h e w as called W aliynllah Kyai Khalil w ith th e p u rp o s e of paying re s p e c t a n d loyalty (1957:141).
A s h 'a ri, th e fo u n d e r of P e sa n tre n T eb u iren g . His g re a t role in th e p ro c e ss of th e Isla m isa tio n of J a v a a n d in th e c o n tin u a tio n of th e tra d itio n of In d o n e sia n 'ulamal in th e la te n in e te e n th c e n tu ry is d e sc rib e d by W oodw ard in th is way:
It is likely th a t th e co m b in atio n of th e d o m in a n c e of 'sober' S u fism in M ecca in th e la te n in e te e n th c e n tu ry a n d th e p restig e a n d o rg a n isa tio n a l ab ilities of K .H .H ashim A s h a r i w ere re sp o n sib le for th e tra n s fo rm a tio n of th e te x tu a l a n d theological o rie n ta tio n s of tra d itio n a l J a v a n e s e Islam (W oodward
Sufism h as various aspects, two im portant ones being asceticism and mysticism. In the previous chapter I have examined aspects of Sufism practised by Indonesian 'u la r n ain Mecca in the latter p art of the nineteenth and early tw entieth centuries. In this chapter I shall examine general features of Sufism w ithin the pesantren tradition. I shall discuss the concepts of ta sa w w u f and tariqah understood within the pesantren tradition, the doctrinal bases of Sufism understood in the pesantren, the position of Sufism and shari'ah in the pesantren, and examine Sufi texts used in the pesantren.
A. T a sa w w u f and Tariqah
The kyai in Ja v a have attem pted to redefine concepts used within the realm of Sufism. The links to al-Ghazali's Sufi tradition were m aintained by several 'ulamcC such as Shaikh Nawawi Ban ten, Shaikh Mahfudh, Kyai Khalil Bangkalan and H adrah al- Shaikh Hashim Ash ari on the one hand and several shaikh of Sufi orders such as Shaikh Ahmad Khatib Sam bas and Shaikh Abd al- Karim on the other.
