THE ROLE OF THE NUCLEAR FACTOR
IN THE SINO-SOVIET SPLIT
XU, LINGZHI
DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
RESEARCH SCHOOL OF PACIFIC STUDIES
THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY
THE R O L E OF THE N U C L E A R F A C T O R IN THE S I N O - S O V I E T S P L I T
A s u b - t h e s i s s u b m i t t e d in partial f u l f i l m e n t of the r e q u i r e m e n t s of the D e g r e e of M a s t e r of Arts ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l Rela t i o n s ) in the D e p a r t m e n t of I n t e r n a t i o n a l R e l a t i o n s , R e s e a r c h
School of P a c i f i c St u d i e s , the
D E C L A R A T I O N
This s u b - t h e s i s is my own work and all s o u r c e s used h a v e been a c k n o w l e d g e d .
A c k n o w l e d g m e n t
In the p r e p a r a t i o n of this s u b - t h e s i s , I have b e e n i n d e b t e d to Mr. G e o f f r e y Jukes, my s u p e r v i s o r , for his g u i d a n c e and c o n s t a n t s u p e r v i s i o n . I owe s p e c i a l t h a n k s to my f r i e n d s in B e i j i n g for a r r a n g i n g m e e t i n g s with s p e c i a l i s t s in the field. I am p a r t i c u l a r l y g r a t e f u l to my r e l a t i v e s for t h e i r e n c o u r a g e m e n t and support. The m a t e r i a l s f r o m the l i b r a r i e s of the A u s t r a l i a n N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y and H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y were of g r e a t help in e n a b l i n g me to c o n s t r u c t the a n a l y t i c a l fram e w o r k .
Finally, w i t h o u t the s u p p o r t and u n d e r s t a n d i n g of my h u s b a n d , this s u b - t h e s i s w o u l d n e v e r have c o m e to f r u i t i on .
T a b l e of C o n t e n t s
I n t r o d u c t i o n
C h a p t e r One: The Era of S i n o - S o v i e t F r i e n d s h i p 1. F o r m i n g of the S i n o - S o v i e t
A l l i a n c e
2. Soviet. M i l i t a r y A s s i s t a n c e to C h in a
3. S i n o - S o v i e t " H o n e y m o o n ” C h a p t e r Two: S e e d s of C o nf l i c t
1. The T w e n t i e t h C o n g r e s s of the C P S U and K h r u s h c h e v ' s de-S t a 1 i n i z a t i o n C a m p a i g n
2. D i s a g r e e m e n t s o v e r I d e o l o g y and M i l i t a r y S t r a t e g y
3. The S e c r e t Agreement, on N u c l e a r A s s i s t a n c e
C h a p t e r Three: B e g i n n i n g of the Rift
1. Rad i c a l C h a n g e in the S o v i e t N u c l e a r P o l i c y t o w a r d s C h i n a 2- The T a iw a n Str a i t C r i s i s 3. C h i n e s e C h a l l e n g e to the
S o v i e t L e a d e r s h i p C h a p t e r Four: Open C o n f l i c t
1. S o v i e t W i t h d r a w a l of All Aid f r o m C h in a
2. E s c a l a t i o n of the D i s p u t e 3. The N u c l e a r Test Ban
1
I n t r o d u c i i o n
Andrei G r o m y k o , a v e t e r a n F o r e i g n M i n i s t e r of the USSR, s h o c k e d the w o r l d last w i n t e r w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r r e v e l a t i o n in his memoirs: the late C h a i r m a n Mao Z e d o n g
of C h i n a ha d a plan to lure U n i t e d S t a t e s t r o o p s into the h e a r t l a n d of C h i n a and then wipe t h e m out with a t o m i c w e a p o n s made v/ith S o v i e t help. 1 We m a y q u e s t i o n the t r u t h of G r o m y k o ’s memoirs. The C h i n e s e F o r e i g n M i n i s t r y ha s a l r e a d y done so. But the s t o r y of Soviet-c o o p e r a t i o n in C h i n a ' s n u c l e a r i ndustry, bo t h for pe a c e f u l an d m i l i t a r y p u r p o s e s , c a n n o t be denied. It is one t h a t t e l l s why the S o v i e t s and C h i n e s e b e c a m e c l o s e a l l i e s in the e a r l y 50s and w h y t h e y d r e w a p art several y e a r s later. It is the c o n t e n t i o n of this w r i t e r that the S i n o - S o v i e t d i s p u t e c a n n o t be f u l l y u n d e r s t o o d w i t h o u t g i v i n g due w e i g h t to the d i s a g r e e m e n t s the C h i n e s e and S o v i e t s had o v e r n u c l e a r t e c h n o l o g y issues.
This s u b - t h e s i s p r o p o s e s to e x a m i n e the role of d i s a g r e e m e n t s over the t r a n s f e r of n u c l e a r t e c h n o l o g y to C h i n a in s h a p i n g the S i n o - S o v i e t split. The n u c l e a r issues i n c r e a s i n g l y a g g r a v a t e d the S i n o - S o v i e t a l l i a n c e and a d d e d h e a t to the p o l i t i c a l and i d e o l o g i c a l c o n f l i c t s b e t w e e n B e i j i n g and Moscow. It is a r g u e d that
the S i n o - S o v i e t a l l i a n c e f o r m e d in 1950 was a t e n u o u s one b r o u g h t a b o u t by a c o m m o n fear of A m e r i c a n p ower in the Pa c i f i c , r a t h e r than by a n y g e n u i n e f r a t e r n i t y . T h i s a l l i a n c e was s o m e w h a t r e i n f o r c e d by M a o ’s i d e o l o g i c a l c o m m i t m e n t s w h i c h made h i m c h o s e to ’’lean on one s i d e ” , n a m e l y the s i d e of the C o m m u n i s t bloc led b y the S o v i e t U n ion in the Co l d War b e t w e e n East an d West. N e v e r t h e l e s s , aid a g r e e m e n t s u n d e r the S i n o -S o vi e t T r e a t y of F r i e n d s h i p , A l l i a n c e and Mutual A s s i s t a n c e , 2 e s p e c i a l l y the n u c l e a r aid a g r e e m e n t s s e c r e t l y s i g n e d in 1957 b e t w e e n the S o v i e t U n ion an d C h i n a were not p r o d u c t s of s h a r e d i d e o l o g y or S o v i e t g e n e r o s i t y but the r e s u l t s of p e r s i s t e n t C h i n e s e d e m a n d s to have the S o v i e t s s e r v e s o m e of C h i n a ’s c r u c i a l d o m e s t i c needs. The S o v i e t r e f u s a l in J u n e 1959 to s h a r e its n u c l e a r t e c h n o l o g y w i t h C h i n a h i g h l i g h t e d for C h i n a its s u b o r d i n a t e p o s i t i o n in the S i n o - S o v i e t a l l i a n c e a n d p u s h e d the S i n o - S o v i e t r e l a t i o n s to the edge of a deep s p l i t in e a r l y 1960.
B a s e d on this a r g u m e n t the p r e s e n t s t u d y is d i v i d e d into four chapters:
C h a p t e r One o u t l i n e s th e h i s t o r y of the S i n o - S o v i e t r e l a t i o n s h i p f r o m 1949, the f o u n d i n g of the P e o p l e ' s R e p u b l i c of C h i n a ( P R C ) , to 1955. It s t u d i e s the 2 . The_SiLno-SoyiLe t T r e a t y a n d A g r e e > F o r e i g n
L a n g u a g e s Press, Be i j i n g , 1950. See note in C h a p t e r Two.
m o t i v e s b e h i n d the a c t i o n s of the two C o m m u n i s t parties, p a r t i c u l a r l y c o n c e r n i n g S o v i e t milit a r y , s c i e n t i f i c an d t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e to China.
C h a p t e r T w o c o v e r s the T w e n t i e t h C o n g r e s s of the C o m m u n i s t P a r t y of the S o v i e t U n ion (CPSU) in 1956 and the s i g n i n g of the s e c r e t a g r e e m e n t on S o v i e t n u c l e a r aid to C h i n a in 1957. It t r a c e s the d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the C P S U and the C o m m u n i s t P a r t y of C h i n a (CPC) over glo b a l s t r a t e g y , i n t r a — bloc r e l a t i o n s , the pace and s c o p e of d e - S t a l i n i z a t i o n , the p e r m i s s i b l e d i v e r s i t y of m e t h o d s u s e d in b u i l d i n g s o c i a l i s m and C o m m u n i s m , an d the f u n d a m e n t a l q u e s t i o n of s o c i a l i s t -camp l e a d e r s h i p . It a l s o a t t e m p t s to d e - m y s t i f y K h r u s h c h e v ' s m o t i v e in y i e l d i n g at least p a r t i a l l y to C h i n e s e d e m a n d s and s t e p p i n g up S o v i e t a s s i s t a n c e to the C h i n e s e n u c l e a r p r o g r a m in 1957.
C h a p t e r T h r e e f o c u s e s on the n u c l e a r quest i o n : S o v i e t m i l i t a r y c a p a b i l i t i e s , d i f f e r i n g p e r c e p t i o n s of the S o v i e t and C h i n e s e l e a d e r s h i p s on the t h r e a t f r o m the West, and the ways to m e e t the p e r c e i v e d threat.
C h a p t e r Fo u r t r a c e s the d e t e r i o r a t i o n of S i n o - S o v i e t
4
C h a p t e r I
The f o u n d i n g of the P e o p l e ’s R e p u b l i c of C h i n a (PRC) in 1949 by no m e a n s m a r k e d an end of C h i n a ' s v u l n e r a b i l i t y as a nation. C h i n a was a c o u n t r y e x t r e m e l y u n d e r d e v e l o p e d by W e s t e r n s t a n d a r d s , with an e c o n o m y in shambles. A l t h o u g h the p o o r l y e q u i p p e d C h i n e s e P e o p l e ’s L i b e r a t i o n A r m y was v i c t o r i o u s o v e r the Nationalist-K u o m i n t a n g ( Nationalist-K M T ) , it still had not c o n q u e r e d the KMT f o r c e s on Taiv/an , an o p p o n e n t of c o n s i d e r a b l e p o t e n c y e n j o y i n g th e s u p p o r t of the U n i t e d States.
C h i n a u r g e n t l y n e e d e d a s o u r c e of e c o n o m i c , s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l aid, and it u r g e n t l y n e e d e d an a l l y to help d e t e r a g a i n s t ’’c o u n t e r r e v o l u t i o n ” and the ’’i m p e r i a l i s t t h r e a t ” . T h e r e was n o w h e r e to turn to but the S o v i e t Union.
In D e c e m b e r 1949, soon a f t e r the e s t a b l i s h m e n t of the PRC, Mao w e n t to Moscow, his f i r s t trip o u t s i d e China, to seek an a l l i a n c e wi t h the S o v i e t Union. It took two m o n t h s b e f o r e the S i n o - S o v i e t T r e a t y of F r i e n d s h i p , A l l i a n c e a n d Mutual A s s i s t a n c e was f i n a l l y s i g n e d by
Mao and S t alin. As Mao later said: ’’Even a f ter the
s u c c e s s of th e r e v o l u t i o n , S t a l i n f e a r e d that C h i n a
d i f f i c u l t y e n c o u n t e r e d b y the two p a r t i e s in r e a c h i n g an a g r e e m e n t s t e m m e d f r o m the s u s p i c i o n w i t h w h i c h e a c h v i e w e d the other.
The C h i n e s e h ad b i t t e r m e m o r i e s of S t a l i n ' s t r e a t m e n t of the CPC. Ever s i n c e the f o u n d i n g of the CPC, the a t t i t u d e of the S o v i e t s t o w a r d s the C PC was h i g h l y a m b i g u o u s . 2 T h e y were s k e p t i c a l of the r e v o l u t i o n a r y p o te n t i a l of the m i n u s c u l e C h i n e s e " p r o l e t a r i a t ” of the 20s a n d h e n c e a d v i s e d the CPC to c o o p e r a t e w i t h the KMT who, in 1927, t u r n e d on the CPC and o t h e r e l e m e n t s of the o r g a n i z a t i o n 's left wi n g and p u s h e d the C P C to the verge of e x t i n c t i o n . D u r i n g the e a r l y 30s, S t a l i n t u r n e d a b l i n d eye to the e x t e r m i n a t i o n c a m p a i g n s l a u n c h e d b y C h i a n g K a i - s h e k aga i n s t M a o ' s C o m m u n i s t forces. The f i f t h and l a r g e s t c o n d u c t e d in 1934 with the aid a nd a d v i c e of o f f i c e r s f r o m Nazi G e r m a n y , f o r c e d the e p i c 6000 m i l e L o n g M a r c h to Yenan. Indeed, S o v i e t s u p p o r t to the KMT c o n t i n u e d until 1949.
In 1945, h a v i n g b e a t e n the J a p a n e s e in M a n c h u r i a , the S o v i e t s r e m o v e d much i n d u s t r i a l m a c h i n e r y , w h i c h t h e y r e g a r d e d as l e g i t i m a t e war booty. I n s t e a d of h a n d i n g
M a n c h u r i a o v e r to the C o m m u n i s t s , as t h e y c o u l d have
C e n t r a l C o m m i t t e e of the CPC in S e p t e m b e r 1962. For t r a n s l a t i o n of t h i s speech, s e e C h i n e s e La w ä!Td_Goyer n men t , Vol . I, No. 4, Win t e r , 1966-69, pp. 8 8 - S 9 .
done, th e S o v i e t s t r ie d to n e g o t i a t e j o int S i n o - S o v i e t m a n a g e m e n t of k e y i n d u s t r i e s with the KMT. 3
As the civil war c o n t i n u e d and the o u t c o m e b e c a m e cl e a r e r , the S o v i e t U n i o n ' s p r e f e r e n c e was for a p a r t i t i o n a l o n g the line of the Yangtse. In the last m o n t h s b e f o r e the C P C ' s final victory, the S o v i e t U n i o n h a s t i l y c o n c l u d e d n e w a g r e e m e n t s wi t h the KMT f o r c e s for s p e c i a l m i n i n g r i g h t s in S i n k i a n g and with the C h i n e s e N o r t h - e a s t P e o p l e ' s G o v e r n m e n t for trade. 4
Yet, in 1950, C h i n a u n d e r the new C o m m u n i s t l e a d e r s h i p was s t i l l m i l i t a r i l y v u l n e r a b l e and t e c h n i c a l l y backward. O n l y w i t h a p o w e r f u l m i l i t a r y a l l y to e n s u r e p e a c e c o u l d C h i n a d e v o t e its e f f o r t s to its u r g e n t r e c o n s t r u c t i o n . T h u s the do u b t f u l a c t i o n s of the Soviet U n i o n in M a n c h u r i a v/ere t h e r e f o r e r e g a r d e d in the w o r d s of Ma o as "small m a t t e r s c o m p a r e d wi t h R u s s i a ' s s a c r i f i c e s in the war with J a p a n and with her h e l p i n g l i b e r a t e M a n c h u r i a . ”5
Sta l i n h ad g o o d r e a s o n s to t r e a t his C h i n e s e c o u n t e r p a r t w i t h c a u t i o n s i n c e Mao had r i sen to p o w e r in the p e r i o d of least S o v i e t i n f l u e n c e in the C P C ’s
3. McL a n e , C h a r l e s B. , SoyiLet-Pol_iLcy_and_the_Chi_nese C o m m u n i s t s , N.Y. , C o l u m b i a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1958, C h a p t e r Five.
4. G i t t i n g s , J o h n , _ S u r v e y _ of _the_Si noySovi_et_Di_s]oute London, O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1958, p . 14.
a f f a i r s , w h e t h e r p o l i t i c a l , s t r a t e g i c or f i n a n c i a l . M o r e o v e r , t h r o u g h o u t the late 3 0 's, Mao p u r s u e d his s t r u g g l e a g a i n s t the S o v i e t - t r a i n e d and C o m i n t e r n -o r i e n t e d f a c t i -o n i n s i d e the CPC. He r e j e c t e d w h a t he c a l l e d ’’a b s t r a c t M a r x i s m ” an d d e m a n d e d i n s t e a d the a d a p t a t i o n of M a r x i s m to C h i n e s e c o n d i t i o n s . 6 D u r i n g the ’’R e c t i f i c a t i o n C a m p a i g n ” of 1942-43, the ”28 B o l s h e v i k s ” an d t h e i r f o l l o w e r s , the p r o - S o v i e t e l e m e n t s , we r e purged. 7
As late as 1946, the CPC still h o p e d for a f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the U n i t e d S t a t e s that w o u l d e n a b l e it to n e u t r a l i z e the KMT f o r c e s and m a i n t a i n i n d e p e n d e n c e of Moscow. T h r o u g h o u t 1945 a nd e a r l y 1946, the C P C l e a d e r s made e x t r a o r d i n a r y b i d s for b e tt e r r e l a t i o n s w i t h the U n i t e d S t a t e s . 8 Even till 6. Schram, S t u a r t R. , ed. , A u t h o r it^j PDDk:L2tDD.kt2D
§ ^ d _ C u H u r a l _ C h a n g e _ i n _ C h i n a , C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1973, p.9.
7. G i t t i n g s , o p . c i t . , p.9.
the s u m m e r of 1949, Mao, w h ile f a v o u r i n g s o m e c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h Russia, n e v e r t h e l e s s w a n t e d to p u r s u e a mo r e i n d e p e n d e n t line. He p a r t i c u l a r l y d e s i r e d a n e w r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h the U.S. in o r d e r to o b t a i n A m e r i c a n e c o n o m i c aid and to a v o i d l o p s i d e d d e p e n d e n c e on S t a l i n . 9
Howev e r , d e s p i t e S t a l i n ' s f e a r s of C h i n a ' s u n w i 1 1 i n g n e s s to b e c o m e a c o m p l i a n t s a t e l l i t e and the p o s s i b i l i t y of C h i n a b e c o m i n g a d i s s i d e n t , the u n i f i c a t i o n of C h i n a u n der a C o m m u n i s t party, and t h e r e f o r e p o t e n t i a l l y rival l e a d e r s h i p , was a f a i t a ccompli. S t a l i n ' s c h o i c e was b e t w e e n a l l i a n c e with a p o s s i b l e rival a nd the U.S. e n c i r c l e m e n t of the S o v i e t Union. F u r t h e r m o r e , S t a l i n a l s o w a n t e d to o b v i a t e the p o s s i b i l i t y of Si n o - A m e r i c a n c o l lusion.
On the p o s i t i v e side, the p r o p o s e d a l l i a n c e w o u l d have i n c r e a s i n g p r o p a g a n d a v a l u e for the S o v i e t s in the h e i g h t e n e d E a s t - W e s t t e n s i o n at a time when the S o v i e t U n ion r e m a i n e d m a n i f e s t l y inferior. (The S o v i e t U n i o n
had a small, c r u d e , just d e v e l o p i n g n u c l e a r ar s e n a l but as yet no s e c u r e m e a n s of d e l i v e r i n g t h a t arsenal, as a g a i n s t an o p p o n e n t that p o s s e s s e d the c a p a c i t y to d e s t r o y her.) The a l l i a n c e w o u l d g i v e pause, as the
Q u a r t e r l y , W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , 1973, p. 68.
Z a g o r i a , D o n a l d S . , "Mao's Role in the S i n o - S o v i e t C o n f l i c t " , in Pac i_f i_c_Af f a i_r s , Vol . 47, 1974-75, p. 145.
S o v i e t s hoped, to the c a p i t a l i s t s and then e n h a n c e the c r e d i b i l i t y of S o v i e t d e t e r r e n c e . It w o u l d a l s o s t r e n g t h e n , at l e a s t t e m p o r a r i l y , the S o v i e t U n i o n ' s s t a t u s as th e l e a d e r of the C o m m u n i s t bloc, as it c o u l d s h o w i t s e l f as s e l f l e s s l y o f f e r i n g c o m r a d e l y help to its w e a k n e i g h b o u r .
We see, t h e r e f o r e , th a t b o t h Mao and S t a l i n e n t e r e d the d i s c u s s i o n s , f u l l y a w a r e of the p o s s i b l e b e n e f i t s of the p r o p o s e d treaty. Thus, in the c a s e of b o t h parti e s , the c o m m o n a n t a g o n i s m t o w a r d and fear of the U n i t e d S t a t e s u n d e r w r o t e all o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s in n u r t u r i n g the a l l i a n c e .
The A l l i a n c e o f f i c i a l l y laid the f o u n d a t i o n s for the p e r i o d of S i n o - S o v i e t c o o p e r a t i o n w h i c h was to follow. T h o u g h the t e r m s we r e not p a r t i c u l a r l y f a v o u r a b l e to China, the T r e a t y d id p r o m i s e C h i n a a S o v i e t ’’n u c l e a r u m b r e l l a ” a g a i n s t an a t t a c k by J a p a n or a n y of its allies, m e a n i n g the U n i t e d States. Th i s r e f l e c t s the s u s p i c i o n of b o t h C h i n a and the S o v i e t U n i o n that the
U.S. was p l a n n i n g to a s s e r t its p o w e r in Asia, p o t e n t i a l l y t h r o u g h r e a r m a m e n t of Japan. In a d d i t i o n
to S o v i e t s t r a t e g i c a s s u r a n c e s , C h i n a was to r e c e i v e m i l i t a r y , t e c h n i c a l and e c o n o m i c a s s i s t a n c e .
C h i n e s e . 10 U n d e r the t e r m s of the 1950 aid a g r e e m e n t s , C h i n a r e c e i v e d $300 m i l l i o n of a s s i s t a n c e in the f o r m of l o a n s w h i c h were to be r e p a i d by C h i n a w i t h e x p o r t s of r a w m a t e r i a l s , t h u s t y i n g C h i n e s e e x t r a c t i v e i n d u s t r i e s to S o v i e t p r o c e s s i n g f a c i l i t i e s and S o v i e t m a rk e t s , an d d e e p e n i n g C h i n a ’s e c o n o m i c d e p e n d e n c e on the S o v i e t U n i o n . 11 E v e n more e x p l o i t a t i v e was the j o i n t — s t o c k r a r e m i n e r a l s c o r p o r a t i o n set up near U r u m c h i in S i n k i a n g p r o v i n c e . S o v i e t d o m i n a t i o n of this v e n t u r e r e s u l t e d in all of the u r a n i u m p r o d u c t i o n r e t u r n i n g to the U S S R . 12
The u n e x p e c t e d U.S. i n t e r v e n t i o n in the K o r e a n War s h i f t e d the S i n o - S o v i e t m i l i t a r y r e l a t i o n s h i p into a n e w phase. U n w i l l i n g to c l a s h d i r e c t l y w i t h U.S. forces, S t a l i n c a l l e d upon the PLA to s e r v e as his p r o x y to m a k e g o o d S o v i e t mi s e a 1c u 1 a t i o n s and to r e s c u e the N o r t h K o r e a n C o m m u n i s t gov e r n m e n t . In r e t u r n for the s u c c e s s f u l C h i n e s e i n t e r v e n t i o n in Korea, S t a l i n e x t e n d e d n e w o f f e r s of m i l i t a r y a s s i s t a n c e to the PRC. I n s t e a d of r e c e i v i n g o n l y o b s o l e s c e n t S o v i e t La-9 and
La-11 p i s t o n - e n g i n e d f i g h t e r s and Tu-2 twin p i s t o n -e n g i n -e d l i g h t b o m b e r s , the C h i n e s e r e c e i v e d M i G jet 10. Z a g o r i a , o p , c i t . , p .150. ” In the e a r l y 50's,
S t a l i n i m p o s e d an u n e q u a l t r e a t y on C h i n a which h a d m a n y e x p l o i t a t i v e a s p e c t s . ”
11. F a i r b a n k R e i s c h a u e r an d Craig, A. M. , East_Asi^a^The M o d e r n _ T r a n s f or mat i^on , Boston, 1965, Vol . 2 of A H i s t o r y of E a s t A s i a n C i v i l i z a t i o n , p. 871.
J o h n s o n , C h ar l e s , ’’C h i n a ' s ’M a n h a t t a n P r o j e c t ’” York _Xi.l5ö s _ M a g a z i.nex Octob e r , 25, 1964, p. 2 3.
f i g h t e r s . By D e c e m b e r 1951, C h i n a had a b o u t 700 M i G
-15s. By 1952, it had 11-28 jet light b o m b e r s a n d
later, at a b o u t the end of the war, it a l s o p o s s e s s e d so m e T u - 4 ' s (B-2 9 - t y p e p i s t o n - e n g i n e d m e d i u m
b o m b e r s ).13
The rise in the C h i n e s e b a r g a i n i n g p o s i t i o n , h o w e v e r ,
did not c h a n g e the n a t u r e of S o v i e t m i l i t a r y ai d to China. S t al i n c o n t i n u e d in his e f f o r t to k e e p the PRC in a c o n d i t i o n of d e p e n d e n c e by r e f u s i n g to p r o v i d e C h i n a a s s i s t a n c e in m i l i t a r y p r o d u c t i o n . The C h i n e s e were he l d on a s h o r t leash: The M i G ' s and I l y ushins, and the f e w o b s o l e s c e n t S o v i e t s u b m a r i n e s and d e s t r o y e r s , w o u l d need to be r e p l a c e d in a f e w years, and t h e i r r e p l a c e m e n t s c o u l d come o n l y f r o m the U S S R . 1 4 S t a l i n c o u l d not d i r e c t l y p r e v e n t the C h i n e s e f r o m b u i l d i n g t h e i r own m i l i t a r y i n dustry, but he c o u l d w i t h h o l d a s s i s t a n c e w h i l e a r g u i n g that it was m o r e e c o n o m i c a l to b u y S o v i e t - p r o d u c e d weapons. And by s a d d l i n g the C h i n e s e with o u t l a y s as h e a v y as t h e y c o u l d bear, S t al i n f u r t h e r he l d back the C h i n e s e f r o m
b u i l d i n g an i n d e p e n d e n t m i l i t a r y e s t a b l i s h m e n t . To e n s u r e the a t t a i n m e n t of his goal, S t a l i n ev e n f o r c e d the C h i n e s e to p a y for the w e a p o n s u s e d in the K o r e a n
13. G a r t h o f f , R a y m o n d L . , " S i n o - S o v i e t M i l i t a r y R e l a t i o n s , 1 9 4 5 - 6 6 ” in 5 i^nq-Sovi^e t ___ Mql^qtary R e l a t i o n s > ed. by G a r t h o f f , N e w York, F r e d e r i c h , A. P r a e g e r , 1966, p.85.
12
W a r .15
A s t r o n g c h a l l e n g e to the c r e d i b i l i t y of the S o v i e t d e t e r r e n t to a U.S. a t t a c k on C h i n a was i s s u e d by P r e s i d e n t E i s e n h o w e r in 1953, in the f o r m of a c o v e r t t h r e a t to e m p l o y n u c l e a r w e a p o n s a g a i n s t m a i n l a n d C h i n a if a t r u c e w e r e not s o o n r e a c h e d in K o r e a . 16 S h o r t l y t h e r e a f t e r , on 24 F e b r u a r y , C h i n a ' s l e a d i n g n u c l e a r p h y s i c i s t a r r i v e d in Moscow. V e r y p r o b a b l y , at this m e e t i n g the C h i n e s e r e q u e s t e d o u t r i g h t the i m m e d i a t e t r a n s f e r of n u c l e a r w e a p o n s and d e l i v e r y s y s t e m s , a c c o m p a n i e d by a s t r o n g a s s u r a n c e of S o v i e t suppo r t . 17 The d e a t h of S t a l i n s h o r t l y f o l l o w e d , t h e r e b y l e a v i n g the q u e s t i o n of h o w much s u p p o r t the S o v i e t U n i o n w o u l d o f fer C h i n a for the n e w S o v i e t l e a d e r s h i p to decide.
15. L e t t e r of CPC CC to CP S U C C , F e b r u a r y 29, 1964, Peo^l^e^s_Dai_]^y, M a y 9, 1964.
'...As fo r the S o v i e t loans to China, it mu s t be p o i n t e d out that C h i n a u s e d t h e m m o s t l y for the p u r c h a s e of war m a te r i a l f r o m the S o v i e t Union, the g r e a t e r part of w h i c h was u s e d up in the war to r e s i s t US a g g r e s s i o n and aid Korea. In the war a g a i n s t US a g g r e s s i o n , the K o r e a n p e o p l e c a r r i e d b y fa r the h e a v i e s t b u r d e n and s u s t a i n e d by far the g r e a t e s t losses. The C h i n e s e people, too, m a d e g r e a t s a c r i f i c e s and i n c u r r e d vast m i l i t a r y e xp e n s e s . The C h i n e s e C o m m u n i s t P a r t y has a l w a y s c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h i s was the C h i n e s e p e o p l e ' s b u r d e n i n t e r n a t i o n a l i s t d u t y and that it is n o t h i n g to boast of. For m a n y y e a r s we have been p a y i n g the p r i n c i p a l and i n t e r e s t on t h e s e S o v i e t loans, w h i c h a c c o u n t for a c o n s i d e r a b l e part of ou r y e a r l y e x p o r t s to the S o v i e t Union. Thus even the war m a te r i a l s u p p l i e d to C h i n a in the war to r e s i s t US a g g r e s s i o n and aid K o r e a has not been g i v e n gratis. . . . '
16. H i n t o n , H. , C h i n a ^ s __T u r b u l e n t __ Q u e s t , I n diana U n i v e r s i t y Press, 1973, p.56.
13
It s o o n b e c a m e a p p a r e n t th a t S t a l i n ’s s u c c e s s o r s were no m o r e w i l l i n g than he had been to risk a n u c l e a r c o n f r o n t a t i o n w i t h the U n i t e d S t a t e s o v e r K o r e a or a n y t h i n g else. Indeed, in C h i n e s e eyes, the n e w S o v i e t
l e a d e r s h i p s e e m e d even less i n c l i n e d than S t a l i n to take the r i s k of war w i t h the U n i t e d States. L a c k i n g S o v i e t s u p p o r t , C h i n a was f o r c e d to si g n an a g r e e m e n t wi t h the U n i t e d Nations. C h i n a lost 2 0 0 , 0 0 0 s o l d i e r s i n c l u d i n g P O W s , in a d d i t i o n to b e a r i n g the e x p e n s e s of the war. C h i n a thus s u f f e r e d a g a i n f r o m its d e p e n d e n c e on the S o v i e t Union.
In S e p t e m b e r - O c t o b e r of 1954, a h i g h - l e v e l S o v i e t d e l e g a t i o n h e a d e d by N i k i t a K h r u s h c h e v , the then F irst S e c r e t a r y of the C P S U , N i k o l a i B u l g a n i n , D e f e n c e M i n i s t e r , a n d A n a s t a s Mi k o y a n , M i n i s t e r for Trade, w e n t to Beiji n g . In an e f f o r t to r e d u c e t e n s i o n s w h i c h r e s u l t e d p a r t i a l l y f r o m S t a l i n ’s g r o s s m i s t r e a t m e n t of the PRC, K h r u s h c h e v , in hi s m e s s a g e of g r e e t i n g on the eve of the f i f t h a n n i v e r s a r y of the PRC, c a l l e d the PRC a ’’g r e a t p o w e r ” and d e c l a r e d that ’’a f t e r the O c t o b e r S o c i a l i s t R e v o l u t i o n , the v i c t o r y of the C h i n e s e p e o p l e ’s r e v o l u t i o n is the m o s t o u t s t a n d i n g e v e n t in w o r l d h i s t o r y , ” with ’’i m m e n s e ” s i g n i f i c a n c e for the p e o p l e s of A s i a . 18 He p r a i s e d the C h i n e s e for h a v i n g ’’c r e a t i v e l y a p p l i e d ” M a r x i s m - L e n i n i s m and p r o c l a i m e d that ’’the U S S R a n d the PRC are the i n v u l n e r a b l e b a s t i o n
of the c a m p of peace, d e m o c r a c y , and s o c i a l i s m . "19
In a d d i t i o n , the S o v i e t s ma d e s u p p l e m e n t a r y a g r e e m e n t s to the S e p t e m b e r 1953 S i n o - S o v i e t A g r e e m e n t R e l a t i n g to S o v i e t Aid for N i n e t y - o n e A d d i t i o n a l I n d u s t r i a l
E n t e r p r i s e s in China. The O c t o b e r 1954 a g r e e m e n t s p r o v i d e d for t he r e t u r n of Port A r t h u r by 31 May, 1955, and the t r a n s f e r of full o w n e r s h i p of the e x p l o i t a t i v e j o i n t - s t o c k c o m p a n i e s in S i n k i a n g to the PRC by 1 Janua r y , 1 9 5 5 . 2 0 O f f e r s of l o n g - t e r m i n d u s t r i a l c r e d i t of $ 1 3 0 milli o n , an d more i m p o r t a n t l y t e c h n i c a l
a s s i s t a n c e in d e v e l o p i n g p e a c e f u l a t o m i c p o w e r we r e a l s o e x t e n d e d . 21
The n e w S o v i e t p r o g r a m of ’’s c i e n t i f i c and t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e ” to C h i n a for the d e v e l o p m e n t of ’’a t o m i c e n e r g y for p e a c e f u l p u r p o s e s ” s t a r t e d in e a r l y 1955. F r o m the C h i n e s e p o int of view, t h i s last o f f e r f r o m M o s c o w r e p r e s e n t e d a l o n g - t e r m o p p o r t u n i t y to d e v e l o p an i n d e p e n d e n t C h i n e s e n u c l e a r c a p a b i l i t y a nd hope of
19. Ibid.
20. The j o i n t - s t o c k c o m p a n i e s of the s a m e n a t u r e in East E u r o p e were a l s o to be a b o l i s h e d . See 0 i ^ _ a n d the R o m a n i a n State, b y M a u r i c e Pe a r t o n , O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1971, p p . 273-286.
l i b e r a t i n g the PRC f r o m its c o n d i t i o n of s t r a t e g i c d e p e n d e n c e . P r o g r e s s in this d i r e c t i o n q u i c k l y f o l l o w e d . In F e b r u a r y 1955 a c h e m i c a l s e p a r a t i o n p l a n t was set up in S i n k i a n g with S o v i e t aid, t h o u g h the
R u s s i a n s for the t i me bei ng p r o b a b l y r e t u r n e d the e n r i c h e d fuel to thei r own r e a c t o r s . In A p r i 1 an I n st i t u t e for A t o m i c E n e r g y was e s t a b l i s h e d in Beijing, and M o s c o w a g r e e d to s u p p l y it w i t h an e x p e r i m e n t a l h e a v y w a t e r reactor. 22 On 29 April the S o v i e t s s i g n e d an a g r e e m e n t p r o v i d i n g C h i n a w i t h a react o r , c y c l o t r o n , f i s s i o n a b l e m a t e r i a l and r e q u i r e d t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e .23 Soon after, C h i n e s e s c i e n t i s t s and t e c h n i c i a n s were t r a i n e d at the D u b n a n o n - m i l i t a r y r e s e a r c h c e n t r e near Moscow.
It s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t K h r u s h c h e v , w h i l e m a k i n g c o n c e s s i o n s to C h i n a in r e t u r n for its s u p p o r t in his internal s t r u g g l e for p o w e r , by no m e a n s t r u s t e d the Chinese. Like his p r e d e c e s s o r , K h r u s h c h e v a l s o d e s i r e d to m a i n t a i n C h i n a ' s s t r a t e g i c d e p e n d e n c e upon the S o v i e t d e t e r r e n t , and t h e r e b y to e x e r t an i n f l u e n c e on C h i n e s e f o re i g n policy. As e a r l y as 1955, if not earlier, he b e g a n to v i e w C h i n a as ’’the b i g g e s t p r o b l e m
for the S o v i e t U n i o n ” .24 He even t o l d C h a n c e l l o r 22. Cleme n s , Jr. , W a l t e r C. , The Arms_Race_and_Si_no-Sovi^et R e ^ a t i ^ o n s H o o v e r I n s t i t u t i o n P u b l i c a t i o n s , USA, 1968, p . 15.
23. J o h nson, C h a l m e r s , o p . , cit. p. 23.
A d e n a u e r of the Fed e r a l R e p u b l i c of G e r m a n y in a p r i v a t e talk, w h ile the l a t t e r was p a y i n g a v i s i t to the U S S R in 1955, that C h i n a was the b i g g e s t p r o b l e m for the Sovi e t Union. K h r u s h c h e v ' s s u s p i c i o n of the C h i n e s e was seen to g r o w with the e m e r g i n g d i s a g r e e m e n t s b e t w e e n hi m and Mao o v e r i d e o l o g i c a l and s t r a t e g i c issues. E v e n t s d u r i n g 1956 b e gan to m a n i f e s t the s t r e s s in S i n o - S o v i e t rela t i o n s .
17
C h a p t e r T w o
The s i n g l e most important, e v e n t of 1956 t h a t had g r e a t impact on the i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o m m u n i s t movem e n t , p a r t i c u l a r l y the S i n o - S o v i e t a l l i a n c e , was the T w e n t i e t h C o n g r e s s of the C P S U , w h i c h was h e l d in F e b r u a r y 1956. By then, K h r u s h c h e v had r e a c h e d a v e r y c o m m a n d i n g p o s i t i o n , t h o u g h not yet s u p r e m a c y , with i n the S o v i e t h i e r a r c h y . 1
K h r u s h c h e v o p e n e d the c o n g r e s s w i t h a formal General Rep o r t and in the c o u r s e of it made a s e c r e t s p e e c h on Stalin. In his G e n e r a l Report, K h r u s h c h e v made c l e a r three points. F i r s t of all, he s t a t e d that war b e t we e n C o m m u n i s m a nd c a p i t a l i s m was no l o n g e r i n e v i t a b l e , b e c a u s e the ’’m i g h t y social and p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s ” p o s s e s s e d b y the C o m m u n i s t bloc c o u n t r i e s w o u l d d e t e r the i m p e r i a l i s t s f r o m u n l e a s h i n g an attack.
T h e r e f o r e , p e a c e f u l c o e x i s t e n c e b e t w e e n the C o m m u n i s t and n o n — C o m m u n i s t w o r l d s c o u l d be c o n c e i v e d as a l o n g t e r m p o l i c y , or a ’’f u n d a m e n t a l p r i n c i p l e ” , r a t h e r than a mere t a c t i c for s h o r t - t e r m survi v a l . T h e r e was no a l t e r n a t i v e to p e a c e f u l c o e x i s t e n c e . The s t r u g g l e
b e t w e e n C o m m u n i s m and c a p i t a l i s m w o u l d s h i f t more and
18
m o r e in t o p e a c e f u l e c o n o m i c c o m p e t i t i o n . This was K h r u s h c h e v ' s s e c o n d point.
L a s t l y p e a c e f u l t r a n s i t i o n to s o c i a l i s m in m a n y s t a t e s was n o w p o s s i b l e as the i m p e r i a l i s t s w o u l d be less r e a d y to o p p o s e n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n m o v e m e n t s by v i o l e n t m e a n s . 2
In a word, K h r u s h c h e v r e v e r s e d a f u n d a m e n t a l p r e m i s e of t r a d i t i o n a l C o m m u n i s t i d e o l o g y at the 2 0 t h Congress. T h e s e m o d i f i c a t i o n s , t r a n s l a t e d into s t r a t e g i c c a l c u l a t i o n s , m e an t that it was b o t h n e c e s s a r y and p o s s i b l e to r e a l i z e the t r i u m p h of w o r l d C o m m u n i s m w i t h o u t r e s o r t to an a r me d h o l o c a u s t .
The n e w S o v i e t global s t r a t e g i c line e n u n c i a t e d at the 2 0 t h C o n g r e s s was not at all a c c e p t a b l e to the Chinese. F i r s t of all, the C h i n e s e did not rule out war with c a p i t a l i s t c o u n t r i e s , a l t h o u g h t h e y b e l i e v e d that a w o r l d war c o u l d be avoided. T h e y argued, ” It is one t h i n g to p r e v e n t a w o r l d war an d a n o t h e r to e l i m i n a t e all wars. I m p e r i a l i s m and r e a c t i o n a r i e s are the s o u r c e s of war. In c o n d i t i o n s w h e r e i m p e r i a l i s m and r e a c t i o n a r i e s still exist, it is p o s s i b l e that wars of
one k i n d or a n o t h e r m a y o c c u r . ”3 W h a t t h e y m e a n t was For the t e x t of K h r u s h c h e v ' s s p e e c h at the 20th C o n g r e s s of the CPSU, see P r a v d a , 15 Febru a r y , 1956.
”The D i f f e r e n c e s B e t w e e n C o m r a d e T o g l i a t t i and
Us ” , ___ Dad 1_ y , 31 D e c e m b e r , 1962, and
t h a t it w o u l d be p o s s i b l e to e l i m i n a t e all wars and to r e a c h ”a v/orld w i t h o u t w a r ” o n l y a f t e r the i m p e r i a l i s t
s y s t e m was o v e r t h r o w n .
S e c o n d l y , the C h i n e s e s a w the w o r l d s i t u a t i o n c h a n g i n g in f a v o u r of the s o c i a l i s t c o u n tries. M a o ' s w e l l - k n o w n a n a l y s i s of the w o r l d s i t u a t i o n g i v e n at the m e e t i n g of C h i n e s e s t u d e n t s and t r a i n e e s in M o s c o w in 1957, was ’’the E a s t wi n d p r e v a i l s over the West w i n d ” and "the f o r c e s of s o c i a l i s m are o v e r w h e 1 m i n g l y s u p e r i o r to the f o r c e s of i m p e r i a l i s m . "4 So C o m m u n i s t s s h o u l d not be a f r a i d of war but "make up m i n d s ” and "fight to f i n i s h ” . T h e i r a r g u m e n t was that o n l y r e s o l u t e and u n i t e d a c t i o n b y the S o c i a l i s t camp c o u l d p r e v e n t n u c l e a r war, not e f f o r t s to a p p e a s e the w e s t e r n
p o w e r s .
F i n a l l y , " p e a c e f u l t r a n s i t i o n to s o c i a l i s m ” was not se e n b y the C h i n e s e as the best w a y for na t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n . C o m m u n i s t g o v e r n m e n t s c o u l d be e s t a b l i s h e d o n l y by r e v o l u t i o n , not b y a p e a c e f u l t a k e o v e r of power, as c a p i t a l i s t s w o u l d a l w a y s use f o r c e to keep
t h e i r rule. T h e s e views on the q u e s t i o n of p e a c e and war, and ’’t r a n s i t i o n to s o c i a l i s m ” were f i r m l y held by
the C h i n e s e then, t h o u g h not v o i c e d p u b l i c l y until two
Be ^^i_ng_Rev i_e w , VI, No. 1 , 4 J a n uary, 1963, pp.12 — 13.
y e a r s later. As a m a t t e r of fact, the d i f f e r e n c e in i d e o l o g y b e t w e e n the C h i n e s e and the S o v i e t s was one of the m a j o r f a c t o r s u n d e r l y i n g the S i n o - S o v i e t dispute.
B e f o r e the 2 0 t h C o n g r e s s was over, K h r u s h c h e v made a s e c r e t speech. In the speech, K h r u s h c h e v d e n o u n c e d S t a l i n for his ’’c r i m e s ” a g a i n s t his own c o l l e a g u e s in
the C P S U a n d the R ed A r m y c o m m a n d . 5 K h r u s h c h e v ' s u n v e i l i n g of S t a 1 in 's c r i m e s and m e g a l o m a n i a , w i t h o u t any p r e v i o u s d i s c u s s i o n with the C h i n e s e and o t h e r C o m m u n i s t p a r t i e s , a n n o y e d the C h i n e s e i m m e n s e 1y . D i s a g r e e m e n t s w e r e v o i c e d p u b l i c l y , a l t h o u g h w i t h caution, s o o n a f t e r the c ongress.
In the a r t i c l e ”0n the H i s t o r i c a l E x p e r i e n c e s of the D i c t a t o r s h i p of the P r o l e t a r i a t ” p u b l i s h e d in April, the C h i n e s e d e f e n d e d S t a l i n by s t a t i n g t h a t : 6
A f t e r L e n i n ' s death, as the c h i e f lea d e r of the p a r t y an d the state, he (Stalin) c r e a t i v e l y a p p l i e d and d e v e l o p e d M a r x i s m - L e n i n i s m . In the s t r u g g l e to d e f e n d the l e g a c y of L e n i n i s m and a g a i n s t its e n e m i e s . .. S t a l i n e x p r e s s e d the will an d w i s h e s of the p e o p l e and p r o v e d h i m s e l f to be an o u t s t a n d i n g M a r x i s t - L e n i n i s t fighter.
5. K h r u s h c h e v , N i k i t a S . , ”0n the Cult of
P e r s o n a l i t y an d Its C o n s e q u e n c e s " , in X^e _St a l_pn DXct§.t^r s h i^p_,__ K h r u s h c h e v a s __ " S e c r e t __ S p e e c h ”__ an d O t h e r D o c u m e n t s , ed. by T.H. Rigby, S y d n e y U n i v e r s i t y Pres s , 1968, pp. 23-89.
6. For the t e x t of the a r t i c l e in En g l i s h , see the E d i t o r i a l D e p a r t m e n t of P e o p l e ' s D a i l y , ”0n the H i s t o r i c a l E x p e r i e n c e of the D i c t a t o r s h i p of the P r o l e t a r i a t ” , B e ij i n g , F o r e i g n L a n g u a g e s P r e s s ,
The C PC f e l t an u r g e n t ne e d to limit the a t t a c k on Stalin. T h e i r d e s i r e to limit the a t t a c k was c e r t a i n l y not for s e n t i m e n t a l reasons, as the CPC had p l e n t y to c o m p l a i n a b o u t wh e n it came to K r e m l i n i n t e r f e r e n c e . What t h e y f e a r e d was that g r a v e c o n s e q u e n c e s w o u l d e n s u e in th e C o m m u n i s t w o r l d f r o m K h r u s h c h e v ' s d e-S t a 1 i n i s a t i o n c a m p a i g n .
In p r i n c i p l e , th e CPC did not b e l i e v e in c o n t r o l o v e r one s o c i a l i s t s t a t e b y another, e v e n b y the S o v i e t Union, and p a r t i c u l a r l y not when the S o v i e t l e a d e r s h i p was one t h a t ha d just made its e l f g u i l t y of s e r i o u s d e p a r t u r e s f r o m wh a t the CPC r e g a r d e d as s o u n d policy. But the C P C h a d no d e s i r e to see a d i s r u p t i o n of the W a r s a w Pact, nor an e n d to S o v i e t l e a d e r s h i p in E a s t e r n E u r o p e w h e r e m a t t e r s of f o r e i g n p o l i c y we r e c o n c e r n e d .
It w a n t e d to m a i n t a i n the u n i t y of the C o m m u n i s t world, a l t h o u g h a l l o w i n g for some d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n of C o m m u n i s t p o w e r w h i c h had been g r o w i n g s i n c e S t a l i n ' s last years. In o t h e r words, the CPC m e r e l y w a n t e d to see a d e c l i n e , bu t no t the e l i m i n a t i o n , of S o v i e t i n f l u e n c e on the s t r i c t l y internal a f f a i r s of the East E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s . S o when r i o t s b r o k e out in P o l a n d and H u n gary, d e m a n d i n g g r e a t e r i n d e p e n d e n c e f r o m Moscow, a f t e r K h r u s h c h e v ' s u n v e i l i n g of S t a l i n ' s
w i t h K h r u s h c h e v and made e f f o r t s to help the C P S U to deal with its p r o b l e m s wi t h the c o m m u n i s t p a r t i e s of P o l a n d and Hungary. For the f i r s t time in the h i s t o r y of the international, c o m m u n i s t movem e n t , the CPC p l a y e d an i m p o r t a n t role w h i c h the C P S U was not in the p o s i t i o n to play.
L a t e r the C h i n e s e c l a i m e d c r e d i t for g i v i n g a s s i s t a n c e when the S o v i e t s were in trouble. T h e y did not k n o w until 1959 that K h r u s h c h e v was not at all g r a t e f u l to them. At the time, K h r u s h c h e v was t r o u b l e d not o n l y b y what was g o i n g on in P o l a n d and Hunga r y , but al s o by the e x t e n t to w h i c h he had b e c o m e b e h o l d e n to B e i j i n g for help in E a s t e r n Europe. He did not like to see the CP C l e a d e r s p l a y i n g an i n c r e a s i n g l y i m p o r t a n t role in the C o m m u n i s t world, and he was p a r t i c u l a r l y u n h a p p y a b o u t the C P C ' s c r i t i c i s m of the Soviets. The CPC o p p o s e d the S o v i e t i n t e n t i o n to move t r o o p s into P o l a n d and r e g a r d e d it as an " e r r o n e o u s m e t h o d of g r e a t p o w e r c h a u v i n i s m " . K h r u s h c h e v felt the C P C ' s lack of r e s p e c t for the C P S U and the i n c r e a s i n g d i f f i c u l t i e s he m i g h t have to face in d e a l i n g wi t h the CPC l e a d e r s who c o n s i d e r e d t h e m s e l v e s s e n i o r to him and his S o v i e t col 1e a g u e s .
o n l y b e c a u s e the CP C was s e e k i n g to p l a y a g r e a t e r role
w i t h i n the C o m m u n i s t bloc, but also, and more
i m p o r t a n t l y , b e c a u s e it was b e c o m i n g too milit a n t , in K h r u s h c h e v ’s eyes, to h e l p i m p l e m e n t his global strategy.
In 1957, a f t e r m a t t e r s were s e t t l e d in E a s t e r n Europe, K h r u s h c h e v ' s m a i n c o n c e r n s were s h i f t e d to S o v i e t - U S rela t i o n s . " P e a c e f u l c o e x i s t e n c e ” was, as K h r u s h c h e v u n d e r s t o o d it, the "general p r i n c i p l e ” for all o t h e r c o m m u n i s t p a r t i e s as well as for the CPSU. To him, the CPC s h o u l d f o l l o w the s a m e prin c i p l e . He did not s h a r e with the C P C the C h i n e s e a s p i r a t i o n of " l i b e r a t i n g ” T a i w a n and o t h e r o f f s h o r e i s l a n d s an d d i d not wish the Soviet U n i o n to b e c o m e i n v o l v e d in c o n f l i c t s with the US over C h i n a ’s a m b i t i o u s plans, s u c h as t a k i n g o v e r Taiwan, w h i c h was p r o t e c t e d by the A m e r i c a n fleet. T h e r e was no b e t t e r w a y to p r e v e n t the C h i n e s e f r o m b e c o m i n g t oo a m b i t i o u s than s l o w i n g d o w n S o v i e t m i l i t a r y a i d to China, e s p e c i a l l y aid to n u c l e a r d e v e l o p m e n t in China. By d o i n g so, the S o v i e t Union m i g h t be a b l e to c o n t r o l its i n c r e a s i n g l y m i l i t a n t and u n t e n a b l e n e i g h b o u r s t r a t e g i c a l 1y. It was a p p a r e n t that C h i n a w o u l d not u n d e r t a k e m a j o r risks, such as a t t a c k i n g T a i w a n , w i t h o u t S o v i e t n u c l e a r backing.
24
i n t o power. He n e v e r b e l i e v e d that the S o v i e t l e a d e r s h i p s , f r o m S t a l i n to K h r u s h c h e v , ever d e s i r e d an i n d e p e n d e n t C h i n e s e n u c l e a r c a p a b i l i t y . What Mao s e e m e d to h a v e b e e n d o i n g s i n c e K h r u s h c h e v ' s a s c e n t to power, if not e a r l i e r , was to p r e s s the S o v i e t s for w h a t e v e r a s s i s t a n c e C h i n a c o u l d get w i t h o u t c o m p r o m i s i n g C h i n e s e i n d e p e n d e n c e .
Mao k n e w e x a c t l y the d e s t r u c t i v e n e s s of n u c l e a r weapo n s . It wa s o n l y v/ise for h i m not to e m p h a s i z e the m i g h t y f o r c e of n u c l e a r w e a p o n s when C h i n a di d not have the bomb. But Ma o b e l i e v e d that to make C h i n a a s t r o n g n a t i o n in the world, a c q u i s i t i o n of n u c l e a r t e c h n o l o g y was a h i g h p r i o r i t y . His d e s i r e to p r e s s a h e a d as q u i c k l y as p o s s i b l e in d e v e l o p i n g n u c l e a r w e a p o n s p r o d u c t i o n in C h i n a had been the d r i v i n g f o r c e p u s h i n g h i m to p r e s s his S o v i e t c o u n t e r p a r t for aid in this regard. But M a o had to h a n d l e the m a t t e r with care. C h i n a n e e d e d the p r o t e c t i o n of the S o v i e t n u c l e a r u m b r e l l a as well as S o v i e t aid to its own n u c l e a r p r o d u c t i o n .
On 15 O c t o b e r , 1957, an a g r e e m e n t on ’’n e w t e c h n o l o g y for n a t i o n a l d e f e n s e ” was f i n a l l y c o n c l u d e d b e t w e e n the USSR a n d the P R C . 7 The p r e c i s e t e r m s of the a g r e e m e n t
25
t h e y were v a g u e and g e n e r a l . 8 The C h i n e s e d i s c l o s u r e (in 1963) of the a g r e e m e n t di d not s p e c i f y its c o n t e n t , but s t a t e d that, in June, 1959, ’’the S o v i e t G o v e r n m e n t u n i l a t e r a l l y tore up the a g r e e m e n t ” and ’’r e f u s e d to
p r o v i d e C h i n a wi t h a s a m p l e of an a t o m i c b o m b a nd t e c h n i c a l da t a c o n c e r n i n g its m a n u f a c t u r e . "9
T h e r e is v e r y l i t t l e m y s t e r y a b o u t C h i n a ’s m o t i v a t i o n in p r e s s i n g for i n c r e a s e d S o v i e t a s s i s t a n c e in the
C h i n e s e e f f o r t to d e v e l o p an i n d i g e n o u s n u c l e a r w e a p o n s p r o d u c t i o n c a p a b i l i t y . G i v e n t h e i r d e s i r e s for a more c r e d i b l e d e t e r r e n t a g a i n s t A m e r i c a n attack, an i n c r e a s e d i n f l u e n c e w i t h i n the C o m m u n i s t world, and a d d i t i o n a l m e a n s of s u p p o r t i n g wars of n a t i o n a l l i b e r a t i o n , the C h i n e s e w o u l d w e l c o m e S o v i e t a s s i s t a n c e to their n u c l e a r p r o d u c t i o n , p r o v i d e d that t h e r e was no S o v i e t control. In a d d i t i o n , the C h i n e s e were on the v e r g e of l a u n c h i n g t h e i r G r e a t Leap Forwa r d , an d were a l r e a d y in a m o o d to d e v e l o p a m b i t i o u s p l a n s for industry, s c i e n c e and t e c h n o l o g y . T h e y were r e a d y to c o n t e m p l a t e an a c c e l e r a t i o n of t h e i r n u c l e a r p r o d u c t i o n p r o g r a m with or w i t h o u t s u b s t a n t i a l S o v i e t a s s i s t a n c e .
K h r u s h c h e v ’s m o t i v e s in y i e l d i n g at l east p a r t i a l l y to the C h i n e s e d e m a n d s and s t e p p i n g up S o v i e t a s s i s t a n c e
to the C h i n e s e p r o g r a m are mu c h more obscure. W h y
8. eg. R a y m o n d G a r t h o f f a n d A l i c e Hsieh.
26
s h o u l d the S o v i e t s be w i l l i n g to e n t e r into s u c h an
arrangement, when t h e y d id not have p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l or m i l i t a r y p r e s e n c e in C h i n a as t h e y had in East E u r o p e ? B e s i d e s t h e r e is no e v i d e n c e that the S o v i e t s ever
c o n t e m p l a t e d s h a r i n g n u c l e a r w e a p o n s with a n y of their East E u r o p e a n allies, so w h y did t h e y p r o v i d e such
s t r a t e g i c w e a p o n r y and t e c h n o l o g y w h e r e t h e r e was no co n t r o l over its e v e n t u a l end use? H e r e s e veral p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s can be a t t e mpted:
1. K h r u s h c h e v was f a c e d w i t h a s i t u a t i o n in w h i c h the C h i n e s e were d e t e r m i n e d to go a h e a d w i t h the d e v e l o p m e n t of n u c l e a r w e a p o n s w i t h or w i t h o u t e x t e n s i v e S o v i e t a s s i s t a n c e . If the S o v i e t s c o o p e r a t e d with the C h i n e s e in c a r r y i n g out the C h i n e s e n u c l e a r program, at least t h e y v/ou 1 d have a c h a n c e to get their t e c h n i c i a n s i n volved, thus get c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n on what. the C h i n e s e were d o i n g an d s o m e d e g r e e of con t r o l o v e r the e v o l u t i o n of the C h i n e s e w e a p o n s d e v e l o p m e n t program.
2. D u r i n g 1957, K h r u s h c h e v was still e n g a g e d in a power s t r u g g l e for the l e a d e r s h i p of the S o v i e t C o m m u n i s t Party. In June, t h e r e was the p u r g e of the a n t i - p a r t y g r o u p an d then in N o v e m b e r that of M a r s h a l Zhukov. K h r u s h c h e v u n d o u b t e d l y was a n x i o u s to se e k the s u p p o r t
