A Study of the development of higher education programs in graphic arts technology according to the needs of the printing industry

Rochester Institute of Technology

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Theses

Thesis/Dissertation Collections

3-1-2003

A Study of the development of higher education

programs in graphic arts technology according to

the needs of the printing industry

Mahadzir Mohamad

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Recommended Citation

A

Study

of

the

Development

of

Higher Education Programs in Graphic

Arts

Technology

According

to the

Needs

of

the

Printing

Industry

by

Mahadzir Mohamad

A

thesis

submitted

in

partial

fulfillment

of

the

Requirements for

the

degree

of

Master

of

Science in

the

School

of

Print Media

in

the

College

of

Imaging

Arts

and

Sciences

of

the

Rochester Institute

of

Technology

March

2003

School of Print Media

Rochester Institute of Technology

Rochester, New York

Certificate of Approval

Master's Thesis

This is to certify that the Master's Thesis of

MAHADZIR MOHAMAD

With a major in Printing Technology

Has been approved by the Thesis Committee as satisfactory

for the thesis requirement for the Master of Science degree

at the convocation of

date

Thesis Committee

Edward Granger

.Jh-

~

3

Thesis Advisor

Taylor

J.

Cummings

3/2-1/0-2-Graduate Program Coordinator

Acknowledgement

This

thesis

would not

have been

possiblewithout great contributions of

my

thesis

advisor,

Prof. Dr. Edward Granger

and

his

wife

Mrs.

Mary

Granger

and alltheprofessors at

the

School

of

Print Media (2001-2002).

In

addition,

I

would

like

to

thank

the

following

people

for

their

help

andsupport:

My

motherand

my

family

Jerry

J.

Waite,

Ed.D.

Associate Professor

of

Technology:

University

of

Houston

President:

International

Graphic Arts Education Association

Distinguished

Educator:

Apple Computer

Department

of

Printing

Technology,

MARA

University

of

Technology,

Malaysia

Mr. Rob

Semsey

GATF

Regis J.

Delmontagne,

President,

Graphic Arts Education

and

Research Foundation

Gary

Walton, Co-Chair,

Graphic/Flexographic

Communications

Program,

Cincinnati State Technical &

Community

College

Malcolm G.

Keif,

Assistant

Professor

of

Graphic

Communication,

California Polytechnic State

University,

and

Board

Member

of

The

Association

for Graphic Arts Trainers

Permission Granted

A Study of the Development of Higher Education Programs in Graphic Arts

Technology according to the Needs of the Printing Industry

I, Mahadzir Mohamad, hereby grant permission to the Wallace Memorial

Library of the R.I.T to reproduce my thesis in whole or in part. Any

reproduction will not be for commercial use or profit

Signature of Author:

Date:

eO,

b-i

Ie:; ,

Contents

List

of

Figures

I

List

of

Tables

II

Abstract

III

Chapter 1 Introduction

1

1.1 Background

1

1.2 Research Objective

10

1.3 Problem Statement

12

1

.4

The Definition

of

the

Title

1 5

1.5 Overview

of

the

Goals

of

the

Thesis Project

18

Chapter 2 Theoretical Basis

of

the

Study

21

2.1 The

Philosophy

21

2.2 Education

and

Qualifications

23

2.2.1

Printing

as a career

25

2.2.2 Weakness

or

Opportunity

26

2.2.3

One

of

the

most

tolerant

industry

27

2.3 Educational Requirements

and

Options

29

2.3.1 Vocational

Training

and

Education

System

30

Chapter

3 Review

of

Literature

Chapter 4 Hypotheses

39

51

52

53

Chapter

5

Methodology

5.1

Experiment Procedure

and

Data

Collection

5.1.1

Questionnaire

for

Printing Company

5 3

5.1.2

Questionnaire

for

Association

60

5.1.3

Questionnaire

for

Universities

and

Colleges

62

5.1.3 Data

Analysis

64

Chapter

6

The Results

69

6.

1

Graphical

Display

of

Qualitative

Data

69

6.1.1 Section

1

of

the Questionnaires

69

6.1.2 Section

2

of

the

Questionnaire

85

Chapter

7

Conclusion

99

7. 1

Suggested

Areas

of

Concentration

103

7.2 Future

Study

105

Bibliography

* *

*

Appendix

A: The

Questionnaire

1 1 3

List

of

Figures

Figure 1

.

Size

of

Companies

that

Response

70

Figure 2. Production Sections/Areas

71

Figure 3a. Main

sectors

that

identified

by

the

respondents

(1)

73

Figure 3b. Main

sectors

that

identified

by

therespondents

(2)

73

Figure 4a. Number

of

Employees in Various Categories

(1)

74

Figure 4b. Number

of

Employees in Various Categories

(2)

75

Figure 4c. Number

of

Employee in Various Categories

(3)

75

Figure 5. The Workers

andthe

Qualification

76

Figure 6. Main Areas

of

Activities

of

GA Responded Association

78

Figure 7. Field

of

Interest

among

the

GA Associations

79

Figure 8. Main Sector

80

Figure 9: Number

of

Employee

andthe

Qualifications

80

Figure 10. Type

of

Degree That

Offered

by

the

Universities

and

Colleges

81

Figure 1 1

.

The Main Area

of

Study

in Graphic Arts Programs

82

Figure 12. Main

Concentration

of

Study

83

Figure 13. The Skills

those

Students Should Have

84

Figure 14. Number

of

Students in Degree Offered

84

Figure 15. The

knowledge

graduates should

have

87

Figure 16. Graduates

preferred

by

the

industry

89

Figure 17. Type

of skills preferred

by

the

industry

90

Figure 18. The

most

important

areas

92

Figure 19. Qualifications

preferred

by

the

Industry

94

Figure 20. The Important

areasof

study

96

List

of

Table

Table 1

:

"

1

"and

"0"

plotted

in

the spreadsheets

65

Table 2: Number

or value plotted

in

the spreadsheets

66

Table 3. ANOVA for Question

1

87

Table 4. ANOVA for Question 2

88

Table 5

.

ANOVA

for Question 3

90

Table

6. ANOVA for Question

4

9 1

Table 7. ANOVA for

Question

5

93

Table 8. ANOVA for Question 6

95

Table 9. ANOVA

for Question 7

97

Table

10. The

list

of

GA

school

by

Rank

102

Chapter

1

Introduction

1.1 Background

The printing

industry

is

a

very important

industry

and

it

provides themain source

for

education, communication,

dissemination

of

knowledge

and

information. Print is

still

by

far

thecheapest and most

direct

source of

information

and communication.

Besides

being

themostconvenient,

it is

also,

by

and

large,

easily

retrievable.

It is

alsothemain medium

for packaging food

and consumer products.

Thus

the

printing

industry

is

a

very

essential

industry

in

our

daily

lives.

Printing

is

one oftheelementsthatcovers and supports the

needs of

many

other

industries

suchasgraphic communication,

advertising,

publishing

and packaging.

The

creation of advanced

degrees in

graphic artseducation

becomes very

crucial

in

order

industries

thatmentioned

above,

and

it is important

toproduce graduates withthe

ability

tocope with problems

in

the

printing

industry

itself

andtherelated

fields.

Offset

and

packaging

printing

alone

employ between 65,000

to

70,000

people, the tin

manufacturing

sector employs morethan

5,000

to

7,000

workers andtheplastics sector

has

more than

25,000

workers.

The Malaysian Government is very

supportive towards

the

printing

industry

in removing

various

forms

oftaxesand

offering

incentives

to

help

the

industry

upgrade.

It

also

helps

the

industry

find

new markets

by

periodically

conducting

trademissions overseas.

The Malaysia External Trade

Development

Corporation1

(MATRADE)

was established on

March

1, 1993,

as theexternal trade

promotion arm of

Malaysia's

Ministry

of

International Trade

and

Industry

(MITT)

which

functions

as a source

for

traderelated

information for Malaysian

exporters and

foreign

importers.

By

providing

market research

information

and relevant_advice,

MATRADE

assists

Malaysian

exportersto

better

position theirproducts and services

in

the

highly

competitive global markets

The

wide and multi-faceted

printing

industry

in Malaysia

can

be

broadly

classified

into

major market segments2:

namely Pre-Press

companies

like Color

Separation,

DTP

and

imagesetters,

typesetters,

gravure cylinderstrade

house;

commercial printers such as

publicationprinters,

label

printers,

security

printers,

newspaper

printers,

electronicnon

impact

imaging

companies,computer

form

printers;

packaging/converting

companies

including

flexible packaging

orplastic

bags,

paper

bags,

_corrugated

manufacturing

and

folding

and

collating

books,

binding

and

finishing,

UV

coating,

lamination,

paper

converters and

die

_cutters; screen

printing;

flexo printing

andmetal printing.

In

this

Pre-Press

group,

thenumber ofemployees

usually

ranges

from 10

to

200

depending

on the size ofthecompany.

Far East Offset

(M)

Sdn. Bhd &

Engraving

employ

about

300

employees,

has 9

scanners,

6 high

end electronicpage

making

and

retouching

systems aswell as acomprehensive

desktop

publishing

section.

A high

percentageofwork

done is for

export such as

producing

_{advertising, magazines,}coffee

table

books

and generalpublication.

The

Pre-Press

companies will always

invest in

the

latest high

tech equipmentto achievethe

level desired

of

business.

They

are

usually

dedicated

and give a valueaddedservice.

Today

the graphic artand

printing

industry

is

at

an aspect oftechnical

versatility

never achieved

before. Excellence

means morethan

having

advancedtechnology.

Regular

training

and

retraining

plus a

dedicated

work

force

are a mustto

keep

abreast and ahead of changes

in

the

printing industry.

The

commercialprinters, apart

from

thenewspaper printers are

usually very

aggressive

withadvance state oftheart.

A majority

ofthem

have

multi color offset

printing

machines, and some ofthemeven

have

multicolor web offset

printing

machines.

They

employ from 20

to

50

workers.

The

technology

is

multicolor, andtheir

finishing

service

is done

by

outsidecontractors.

However,

there are companieswhich own

in house

binding

equipment.

Fewer

than

five

companies use computertoplate

printing in

Newspaper

printers

employ

web

technology

toprintthe

daily

newspaper.

They

employ

in

house DTP

publishing

systems and operatetheirownnetwork of

distribution.

Some

of

themeven

have

the

latest ISDN

transferof

files

tooffsite

locations.

The

work

is

carried

out

in

shifts and

the

workforce

is huge.

The

packaging/converting

industry

for flexible

or plastic

bags,

paper

bags,

corrugated

manufacturing

and

converting

carton

packaging is very large

and uses a

few

multi color

machinesto caterto the market.

Investment

is

usually

morethan

RM 2

million and

above.

A majority

ofthem

install

specialized

die

cutmachines,

folder

gluerand

embossing

machines toease

up

the

finishing

work.

In

this category,

many

ofthem

have

theirown

factories

and are

usually

concentrated

in

urban areas.

They

employ

about

150

workers

depending

onthe size ofthecompanies.

Currently

the

packaging

printers are

doing

very

wellto support

strong indirect

export markets.

The

post press companies

usually have

automatic

binding

machines,

trimmers,

stitches,

sewing

machines,

folding

machines,

hard

covercase makers and

casing in

machines.

Employment

ranges

from 10

to

40

workers.

Normal

time

for

binding,

depending

onthe

volumeofwork,will

be 2

to

3 days. In

finishing

work

using

calendering,

UV

coating,

spotcoating,pearl _coating,water

base

varnish,

lamination

andpattern

embossing,

most

companies

employ

the

latest

technology

tocope

up

withthe

high

customer

demand.

They

Silk

screen

printing

and

flexography

printing

operate on a small scaleand

they

cater

for

theneeds of

locals

only.

Usually

they

employ 10

to

20

workers.

(Malaysian

Printers

Directory

website)

The Malaysian printing

industry

affected

by

the economic slowdown since

July

1997

is

now

bouncing

back quickly

as evidenced

by

therecent

international printing

exhibition

held in

August3, 2002,

and

backing by

the supportivegovernmentto encourage

development.

Malaysia's GDP has been growing

at an

impressive

rate of

approximately 1 1.7%. The

economy

ofthe

country is gradually returning

to a

steady

growth path.

As

with other

rapidly

developing

nations,

Malaysia's

demand for

printing, packaging,

and paperboard

products

has

grown

in

tandemwithits'

GDP

growth.

Along

with

Malaysia's

growth

in

GDP,

demand for

and consumption of paper

&

paperboard products

has

risen

due

to

these

factors:

1

.

Increased

per capita

income has

created a push

for

consumergoods andthe

packaging

thatgoeswiththem.

2.

Education

and

literacy

rates

have

improved,

creating

and

further

need

for

books

and

printing

paper

in

schoolsand a

demand for

literacy

material.

3.

Growth

ofthemanufacture and export of goods

has

required

increased

In

America,

printing is

the

third

largest

manufacturing

industry,

employing

over

1

.2

million people

in

almost

46,000

establishments,

and

selling

over

$160

billion

ofproducts

in 2001 (PIA). But

that's

just

the

beginning

ofthestory.

Print

is

the original

information

technology

that

has

spanneda millennium.

It

represents andremains themost

widely

adopted, portable,

flexible,

economical

information

technology

ever

invented.

It

literally

touches

every human's life like

no other

information

technology.

Familiarity

with print as a medium

has devalued its

reputation,

but

not

its impact

or

significance.

Without

print,

other

revolutionary

information

technologies suchas the

telephone,

the

computer,

television,

andthe

internet

couldnot

have been invented. Print

is

atthecore of all

human

communication.

Educational

institutions

rely

onprint

to

begin

theprocess of

building

literate,

learned

members of our society.

Industries

rely

on printto

develop

and markettheirproductsand services.

Governments rely

on printto

communicate witheach and

every

citizen andto

fuel

the

economy

witha

secure,

reliable

currency.

Our

media useprint to

directly

inform

thepublic at

large

of news and

happenings.

Religious

institutions

emphasizetheprinted word

in

theirpracticesand

beliefs.

The

arts and sciences

disseminate

theirgreat works and

discoveries

via

this

medium with ease and acceptance.

This is

a good example

how

big

the

printing

industry

is,

and

how

very

important

it is

to educatepeople

to

serve this

industry.

Despite

the commonperceptionof an

antiquated,

dirty

conventional

process,

print

is

a

technologically

diverse

industry

where

digital

and

analog

worlds come

together to

collateral,

financial

documents,

instrumentation for

vehicles, catalogs,

aswellas

fine

art

lithographs.

Print

workers are

technology

workers.

The printing

process

demands

workers who

operate sophisticatedequipment

from

computerworkstationsto

digital

color

proofing

devices

and web pressesthatrun

thousands

of

feet

per minute.

The

typical prepress

employeemust

be knowledgeable in

at

least 13 different kinds

of software.

A

press

operator runs andmaintainsmulti-million

dollar

piece equipment and

is

requiredto

have

strong

computer, math,

and science skills

in

additionto mechanical and electrical

abilities.

Print

is driven

by

skilled workers

using

sophisticated

technology

which arecreatedthese

scenarios:

Printers

spend

billions

of

dollars

each year

in

newtechnologies such as

prepress equipment and_processes,press

technologies,

business

andprocess

controlsand

Internet

technologies.

A

modern,

high

performance

printing company

provides anaverageofaround

$100,000 in

technology

and equipmentper employee.

Payroll

per employee

in

the

printing

industry

averagesaround

$50,000

per

Print is

acornerstone of

the

US

andworld economies.

Like many

industries,

printing has

undergone a

technological

revolution overthepast

decade. In transitioning from

analog

technology

to

digital

technology,

printing

firms

have

takenadvantageof new equipment

and processes

to

increase

theirproductivity.

Industry

suppliers- _{pressmanufacturers,}

paper and

film companies,

computer_{manufacturers,}and others

-arestill

investing

in

sustainable

technology

that

helps

printers providetheircustomerswith

faster,

cheaper

and

higher quality

productsand servicesto compete with andcomplimentother media.

Although

print

is

now a mature

media,

thereare still some printsegmentsthatare

projectedto grow at rates

exceeding GDP

growth

for

the

foreseeable future. With

total

annual

industry

shipments of over

$160

billion,

growth

is

predictedat

3-4

percent per

year with yields of

approximately

$4 billion

to

$7 billion

of new print sales each year

for

printing firms.

In

addition,

printers are

rapidly moving into ancillary

services

beyond

traditional

ink

on

paper.

These

services

include data

asset

management,

fulfillment

and

inventory

management,

design

services,

andnewe-commerce services.

This

expansion

has

enabled

many

printers to

become

full-service

communications providers

for

their

customers,

Print

growth sectors

include:

Direct marketing

Specialty

magazines and periodicals

Shorter

run and

specialty

catalogs

Collateral marketing

materials.

Variables

data printing

Ancillary

services provided

by

many

printers

include:

Graphic design

and

publishing

services

Fulfillment,

inventory

management and

warehousing

Digital

database

management

Electronic

file

and photographic

image

storage.

CD ROM

and web

based

services

The

largest

tradeassociation

dedicated

to

printing in

the

world,

Printing

Industries

of

America

(PIA),

and

its

partner,

the

Graphic Arts Technical Foundation

(GATF),

launched

this campaign

to

unite an

industry

and championvalue of print

in

oursociety.

PIA/GATF

has

calledon

26

other printing-related

industries

andtheirassociations

to

join

forces

in

In

realization ofthe

importance

of skilled personnel

in

ensuring

continuous growth ofthe

industry,

the

Malaysian

government also

has

played

its

vital role

in

establishing

various

educational centers

to

enhancethe

knowledge

of

printing in

thecountry.

Courses

from

certificatesto

degree levels

are offeredat vocational

institutions

andat

institutions

of

higher learning. For

instance,

diploma

and

degree

courses areconducted

by

MARA

University

of

Technology. Certificate

courses

in printing

are nowavailable

in

Pusat

Giat

Mara,

Bangi,

Selangor. Basic

machine operationandmaintenancecourses are also

availableat

Industrial

Training

Institutes

in Kuala

Lumpur

and other

towns,

andat

Monfort Boys School in Shah

Alam,

Selangor.

The

private sector

namely

the

EAC Graphics

(now

known

as

Heidelberg

Sdn.

Bhd)

and

Intergrafica

Print

&

Pact

(M)

Sdn. Bhd

(formerly

known

as

Votra

(M)

Sdn.

Bhd)

has

also

played a role

dynamic

to

further

strengthenthe

development

and growth ofthe

industry.

The

centersserveto provide

training

and education

for its

customers

by

upgrading

their

skills, and

by introducing

total

quality

control systems

for

sensitometry,

production plant

layout

and systems

design,

and

printing investment

consultancy.

With

somuch of

technologicaland

training

backed

by

thepublic and private

sector,

without

doubt

the

Malaysian

printing

industry

will

be

technologically

advancedand

in

the near

future

should

be

one ofthe

leaders in

the

Asia Pacific

region.

1.2 Research Objective

It is very

clearthatstudents

in printing

school must prepare

themselves

with some

understanding

of and skills

in

management will

be

anextra valueto thestudent.

These

are

the

most

important

elementsrequired

by

the

printing

industry

and should

be

mastered

by

thestudents

during

theirstudies.

This

research,

by investigating

threemainelements,

the

industry,

GA

associations andthe universities,

is

trying

to

identify

what

is

being

taught

in US

thatarenottaught

in Malaysia

andwhat employer requirements are not

being

met

by

any

universities.

This is

a

preliminary study

which will

be

usedasa

guideline

for future

research onthe

development

of graphic artsprograms.

The

results of

this

study

will

be

usedtoreformatthe curriculum ofthe

university

in Malaysia (UiTM).

This

research will

study

the

development

of graphic arts education

by

looking

at

how

the

graphicarts environment

in

the

US

can

be

an example

for

the

development

of graphic

artseducation

in Malaysia. The Malaysian

government

for

thepast

thirty

years

has

sent

peopleto the

UK

andthe

US

to gain

knowledge

in printing

andto

build

a good graphic

arts education

base

thatcan servethe

industry

in

terms of

sharing knowledge

and

doing

a

researchand

development. MARA

University

of

Technology (UiTM)

is

the

biggest

university in Malaysia

that

is

trying

to

build

an education center

for

graphic artsand

printing in Malaysia. UiTM is

the

only university

that offersa

higher degree in printing

technology

and management.

The

School

of

Printing Technology

_or, as

it's known

the

Department

of

Printing

Technology

is

underthe

faculty

of

Art

and

Design. The

Printing

department

wasestablished

in

January

1

993

afterthegovernmentrealizedthe

printing

industry

needed people with

knowledge

and skillsto servethis

industry.

It

was planned

Malaysia,

the

National Vocational

Training

Council

of

Malaysia,

the Malaysian

Printing

Association,

Malaysian National

Printers

andthe

London College

of

Printing,

UK. After

almostten

years,

thisschool

has

givenasignificantcontributionto theprinting

industry

in Malaysia. What

is

being

taught

in Malaysia is

basically

thesame

in

the

US,

but

we

needto

identify

field

ofconcentration and

how

to

design

and

develop

new

fields,

or

courses

for

graphic arts programs.

This

research will

be

a

basic

to thedevelopmentof

graphic artseducation

in Malaysia

and will

demonstrate how

graphic artseducation

in

the

US

can contributeto this

development

generally.

1.3 Problem Statement

The

problems

became

apparent

during

the author

is

experience as aneducator

in

graphic

arts

technology

in Malaysia for four

years.

Since

becoming

astudent atthe

School

of

Printing

Management

and

Sciences

at

RIT,

there was aproblem of

identifying

course

requirements and which coursestochoose.

I

am

very

clear aboutwhat

kind

of coursewas

suitable

for

me.

For

a student withoutexperience

in

this

industry,

like

most ofthe

graduate students

in

themastersprogram

in

this school,

it is

a

very

hard

decision

tomake

because

they

have

to

identify

theirown _needs, what

they

wantto

be in

the

industry

_and,

most

important,

whataretheneeds ofthe

industry. In

otherwords,what

they

_will

The

trends

in

graphic arts

technology

or

printing

technology,

theterm that

has been

used

in Malaysia

andthe

UK

are

different

in

certain

ways,

but

thesame

in

generalneeds ofthe

printing

graphicarts

industry. Since

the

School

of

Printing Technology

atthe

London

College

of

Printing,

have

change their

degree

title

from B.A

(Hons) Printing

Management

to

B.A

(Hons)

Print Media

Management,

andalsothe

School

of

Printing

Management

and

Sciences

at

RIT,

has

changed

its

nameto the

School

of

Printing

Media;

it

seems

changes

in

theneeds ofthe

industry

alsowill changetheprogramthatwill

supply

the

graduates who will

become

the technocrats

in

this

industry

willcreate a new paradigm

in

theircurrent program.

The

rapidchangeof

technology

requires graduates with a

multi-skill

knowledge

ofthe

direction

ofthe

technology

changes.

A

change

in

graphicarts

programs

in

termof concentration and

analyzing

thenew

technology

in

the

industry

is

also required.

In

the

U.K,

most ofthe students enrolled

in

graphic arts programsare mature

students.

The

numbers of

institutions

thatoffer programs

in

graphic arts

technology

or

printing

technology

are also

very limited

comparedtothe

United

States. In

Malaysia,

most studentsthatenroll

for

a

diploma

or undergraduate

programarerecent

high

school graduates.

This is

similarto the trend

in

the

United

States,

where most oftheundergraduate studentsthatenroll

for freshman

yearare

directly

from high

school.

The similarity between Malaysia

andthe

higher

institutions involved

in

this

field.

My

experiencewith

U.K

and

U.S

trends

of graphic arts educationwill

be

the

basis for

thisresearch.

It

perhaps, can

be

a

guideline

for creating

a

higher degree

program

in

graphic arts

technology

thatcan

be

used

in

Malaysia.

The United State

will

be

a

primary

researchreference, and

The United Kingdom

will

be

a

secondary

researchreference and

Malaysia,

represented

by

the university4

that sent me

here

toget

my

masters.

There

are

plenty

of

training

optionsto

help

combat a skills shortage

in

the

industry

created

by

technological change andglobal competition.

Printing

education and

training

have

changed

considerably in

recent years.

The entry

profile of students

indicates

that the

average age of a new entrant

is 18+

with

25

year-olds not

being

uncommon5.

At

thesame

time,

rapidtechnologicalchanges

have led

collegesto undertakecurriculum

reviews,

almost on an annual

basis,

toensurethat students are aware of and receive appropriate

information

onthe

technology

that

they

will needtomaintaintheiremployment

in

the

industry.

New

entrantsand olderemployees areawarethat

if

they

wish tomaintaintheirplace

in

the

job

market

they

must

continually

updatetheir skills.

Employers

unabletoattractnew

skilled personnel are

looking

tocolleges andother

training

providersto offer

up-skilling

Most

ofthesecourses will

be linked

to aqualification structure.

For

thoseemployed

in

a

company

the mainchoice

is

the certificate

from

the

Malaysian National

Vocational

Training

Council.

Printing

colleges and some private

training

providers

in

Malaysia

are

now equipped to

deliver

thecourses that the studentand employer want.

These include

pre-press,

web page

design,

CD-ROM

production,

printing,

finishing

andmailroom

distribution.

The

industry

is

facing

a skillscrisis.

Companies

now must recruit and support a

training

andeducationstructurethatwill

carry

us

forward for

thenext

twenty

years.

That's why it

is important

to

identify

the

basic

needs ofthe

industry

before

designing

theprogram.

If

we

do

not work

together,

theskill

base

will continueto

decline

withthe

inevitable loss

of

work to

foreign

sources.

1.4 The Definition

of

the

Title

Terminology

is

an

important factor

when

discussing

the

meaning

of certain words or

phrases.

This

sub-chapterwill addressthe

definition

ofthe title ofthis

thesis, how it is

applied, and

why

this particularword

has been

chosen.

The meaning

ofthis andageneral

The

titleof

this thesis

is A

Study

of

the

Development

of

Higher Education Programs

in Graphic Arts

Technology

according

to the

Needs

of

the

Printing

Industry.

This is

a

basic study

ofthe

higher degree in

graphic

arts,

which will

involve

other

terminology

such as

printing

technology,

graphic arts

technology,

graphiccommunicationsand

publishing

technology.

Graphic

communications

is

aterm thatrepresentsthe

many different industries involved

in

thereproduction ofan

image. The

image,

a_{word, photograph,} or

illustration

can

be

transferred to paper, cloth,

metal, glass,

plastic or a

variety

of other materials sothatthe

message can

be widely

seen.

This

reproduction of messages

is

mostoften accomplished

with a

printing

press,

but

graphiccommunications

involves many

otheraspects of

printing.

This

industry

is

made

up

of not

only

_printers,

but

alsopublishers, packagers,

papermakers,

ink

makers,equipment_{manufacturers,}and

in-house design

and

printing

departments

withincorporations,

banks,

and even

department

stores.

The

highly

technical

yet craft-related graphics

industry

employsmen and women

working

as

chemists,

engineers, computerprogrammers,

writers,

editors,

artists,

designers,

desktop

publishers,

marketing

specialists, researchers, press

operators,

technicians,

educators,

salespeople,

managers, photographers,

bindery

workers,

and

administrators;

as well as a

variety

of

otherpositions.

The

educationalrequirements

for

thesecareers

vary according

to the type

Graphic

Arts

Technology

is

the

field in

whichtextand

image

areput

together,

multiplied

and

distributed. In

additionto verbal

communication,

printedmedia

have been

dominant

overthe

last five

centuries.

With

theevolutionofelectronics new media

have been

createdand established which

has

meantnew conditions

for

the

printing industry.

Graphic Arts

Technology

is

today

a

fast evolving field.

Technology

andproduction

have

changed

from

being

mechanical andmanualtocomputer

intense

and more

demanding

to

administrate.

Much is

happening

in

_prepress,or_{prepublishing,} where more computers

andmodern

information

technology

are

being

usedtoproduce originals

ready

toprint

and where customers ofthe

printing

industry

participate

in

a

larger

part ofthe production

themselves.

The

moretraditional

printing

and post press technologies are also

being

improved

withcomputerized

facilities,

new materials and new methods.

Printing

meansthe art and methods

by

which an original

is

reproduced

in

quantity6.

In

thephotomechanical processthis

is generally

accomplished

by

applying

an

inked image

carrierto the substrateas

it

travels througha

high-speed

press6.

(Glossary

ofgraphic

communication,

GATF). That

mean

it is

a process of

manufacturing

a printed matter

in

high

volume,

in

acertain

form

and

in

an appropriatemethod and process ofproduction.

It

is

clearthat

printing is

one oftheassociate

fields,

as well as graphic arts whichare

recoveredmore

widely

definition

ofthis

industry. The

graphic communications

industry

is bigger

thanwe might

imagine.

In

fact,

printing

and

publishing

companies alone are

industry

had

revenues of

$228

billion in 1998(PIA Source). The

industry

includes

small,

medium,

and

large

establishments

in both

smalltownsand

large

metropolitancities.

Graphic

communications

is

as much a partof our

lives

aswritten and spoken

language.

When

choosing

theircareers students cannotaffordtooverlook an

industry

thatemploys

approximately

1,600,000

people

in

over

60,000

establishments.

Since

2000,

total

employment

in printing

andgraphiccommunications

has

increased

by

16%

to

1,740,000.

The ongoing

rapidtechnologicaladvancementsmade

in

this

industry

are another reason

for

theexistence ofso

many

opportunities

for

college andvocational graduates.

1.5

Overview

of

the

Goals

of

the

Thesis Project

A study

ofthe

development

of graphic arts

understandably

represents the

study

ofthe

graphic arts

industry. This

research

focused

ontheneeds ofthe

printing

industry,

because

the

printing

industry

is

themain

manufacturing

industry

thatsupports thegraphic arts

industry

and graphic communicationas a whole.

Without

printing,

all

forms

of graphic

media would not

be

published or

delivered

tocustomers.

This

research

is designed

to

investigate

how

theneeds ofthe

printing

industry

can

be

met

by

graphic arts

higher

degree

programs offered

by

universitiesandcolleges.

The

purposes ofthisresearch

study

are,

first,

to

determine

the

needs ofthe

education_programs;

second,

to

identify

areasofconcentrationwhich can

be

use

to

design

and create a

base

model of a

higher degree

program

(master's

degree)

of

graphicarts education

that

perhapscan

be implemented in

the

MARA

University

of

Technology

in Malaysia. This

research will

be

usedas a generaloutline

for

a

development

ofgraphicarts education

in

the

future;

and

third,

to

correlate

between

what

is

found

in

terms

of

industry

needs and what

is currently

being

taught

in

universities.

In

other

words,

to

find if

the

current course work offered at

Endnotes

for Chapter 1

1

Annual Report 1999-2001. Malaysian External

Trade Development Coporation.

(Homepage).

http.V/www.matrade.

gov.my/about-matrade/reports.

html

2Yong,

K.S. (1999). The Professional Class Structure

andthe

Fundamental

Technology

ofthe

Malaysian

Printing

Industry.

Paper

Presented

in Malaysia Printers

Association Information Exchange

Meeting

and

Seminars,

Petaling

Jaya,

Malaysia

3Printing

&

Packaging

Malaysian

International

Printing

and

Packaging

Equipment

and

Materials Exhibition. Kuala

Lumpur, Malaysia,

6

Nov-9Nov2002

4Draft

Report

on

Scholarship

Application for Overseas Studies (U.K

and

U.S).

Printing Technology

Department,

Faculty

of

Art

and

Design,

UiTM. MARA

University

of

Technology

(UiTM),

Shah Alam

Selangor,

Malaysia

5Curriculum

Revised

and

Student Registration Report 2000-2001.

Printing

Technology

Department,

Faculty

of

Art

and

Design,

UiTM. MARA university

of

Technology

(UiTM),

Shah

Alam

Selangor,

Malaysia

Chapter 2

Theoretical Basis

of

the

Study

2.1 The

Philosophy

The

needs

for updating

education program

in

the graphicarts are

increasing

withthe

growth ofthe

industry. The development

of new

technology

andthescientificapproach

in business

andmanagement of

the

industry

require suitable personnel with extra

knowledge

and skillstocope with the

fast

and

dynamic

changes

in

the

printing industry.

Production

and application ofthe

printing

process

is

no

longer

amatter ofcraftsmanship.

The printing

process now arerelies ontechnology.

Technology

helps

transform

the

printed matter

from

a piece of artto atoolof

advertising,

of publicationand more often

of commercials

in

the

business

and communication era.

The printing

industry

needs

personnel thatcan adaptto the

development

of

technology

in printing

and graphic

arts,

who

know

the

basic

criteriaoftheoriginal

theory

of

printing reproduction,

who

understands

the

technology

from

the

very basic

conventional

printing

methods

to the

Graphic

arts education

began

when people

involved

in

the

industry

realizedthat

they

should

know

the

theory

behind

printing.

It

was

begun

witha

training

approach, which

is

still

being

applied

in

the

industry

nowadays.

The

development

of

training

in

the

printing

industry is

parallelwith

the

development

of

technology.

When

the

printing

industry

became

acompetitive

business,

_{educational efforts concentratedmore on}

business,

management,

marketing

and

financial

aspects.

Without

ignoring

technical

knowledge,

graphic arts needpersonnel withmore

balance

andmore

knowledge

tocompete

in

the

business.

Training

needs

to

become

more

organized,

andthe

industry

must start

looking

for

and recognize personnel with certainqualifications

from

the

development

of a

certificationprogram

to

a

higher degree. These

sortsof qualification

levels

werecreated

because

ofthe

development

ofthe

printing

industry

itself,

which

is

becoming

more

complex.

Students

not

only

must preparethemselves

for

the

printing

orgraphic arts

industry,

but

also

for

graphic communications andnew media applications.

Graphic

arts education now can

be divided

into

threemainareas:

technology,

business

and

management,

and scientific research.

This

is

themain

philosophy

of graphicarts

education

in

generalwhichcomes

from

the

development

of

the

industry

andthe

business.

An important

aspectof graphic arts educationto

industry

is

to

find

suitablepersonnelto

2.2 Education

and

Qualifications

In

the

modern world ofthe

printing

industry,

qualifications

have become very important.

In every

industry

or

business,

qualifiedstudents must

have knowledge

and an

understanding

ofaparticular

field. Since

the

printing business is

a

large business

that

produces profit

in

a

very

competitivemarket

place,

qualifications are neededto ensure

properly

filling

thevarious ranks

in

theorganization.

According

to

Steve

Hayden1,

managing

partner of

Print

Selection,

after

fifteen

yearsthe graphic arts

industry

found

there

is

always a great

demand for

good

candidates, particularly

in

sales,

technology

and

management.

Recruitment

specialists

from

a

variety

of

industries grossly

under-estimate

the

importance

ofthe

printing

and graphic arts sector.

It

is important

to goroundthe table

at atypical

industry

forum

and

discuss

thematter

from

atypical

industry

perspective.

The

graphicarts

industry

aswell asthe other

industries

needs capable candidates whocan

giveextra value and extra

benefit

to theorganization.

The

following

exampletaken

from Harrison Scott Associates

UK2,

will

illustrate

this

idea. "John

specializes

in IT

-everyoneatthe table

knows

at

least

twenty

software

houses

andsolutions providers.

James

runs a

headhunting

organization

specializing in

financial

services - _{we all} think_of

Scottish

Widows,

Friends

Provident,

Clerical Medical

_and

many

others"

George

Thompson,

Harrison Scott Associates

-specialist

area,

print.

"A

puzzled

the

silence,

my

standard response

is

to

tell them that

you cannotmove

five

feet

in

any

direction

without

coming

into

contact with someof

the

items

produced

by

the

industry

I

serve.

The group is

still

confused, but

at

least

I

have

their

attention'.

This

is

what

I

say:

"When

youopen your eyes

in

the

morning

_{and get outof}

bed,

the

first

thing

youmight

see

is

wallpaper-

it's

printed.

You

go

into

the

bathroom;

look

aroundyou- _your

toothpaste,

your

trendy

metallic shampoo

bottle,

the

flora

and

fauna

on your

Kleenex

Ultra

-are allprinted.

Let's

head

off

downstairs for

some

breakfast

- the

bacon,

eggs,

cornflakes andtheorange

juice

-these all come

in

printed

packaging

of various materials

and

design. You

might read your newspaper-

it's

_printed.

You

_go

to

yourcar and

look

at

your speedometer- _a

type

_of

print.

You

arriveat

the

office-

the

company brochure

you

send

to

the

client,

letters

you send

daily,

business

cards you give outandthestampson

the mail are all

printed3

At

this

pointsomeone

in

the

group

willsay:

"I've

neverthoughtabout

it like

that-

1

had

no

idea

the

industry

was sobig."

From

this example,

it is

clearthat

this

industry

is really

big.

So,

it is important

to

find

a good personthatunderstands

the

industry

well.

That

is

why in

the

printing

industry,

experienced personnel are valuable and

why knowledge

must

be

themain requirement

for every

graphic arts graduate.

It

is

also clearthatagood and

balanced

graphic arts program

is

essential

to

preparethe students

for

the

industry

and

2.2.1

Printing

as a career

From

the example,

if

a

group

ofmature and successful

business

people showsa

lack

of

appreciation

for

the

sheersize andscale ofthe

printing

industry,

it begs

the question

what

does

the average school

graduate,

student or

young

person

embarking

on a career

thinkofthe

printing industry?

For

someone

starting

a new career and

considering

which

industry

they'd

like

towork

in,

normal considerationsare:

Is

it

a

stimulating

industry

in

which towork?

Is

there a reasonable chance of

securing

alternative employment should

I

lose

my job?

Will

I

be

paid well?

Does

the

industry

have

a

future?

Will I

have

employment

in

later

years or

be

consideredemployable after age

45?

The printing

industry

is

one ofthe

few industries

that

can answer'yes'

to

all

these

2.2.2

Weakness

or

Opportunity

Under

closer

examination, it

appears

that

what

may be

the

printing

industry'sgreatest

weakness,

the

fact

that

it is very

fragmented,

actually

presentsa greatopportunity.

For

example,

in

pharmaceuticals

the

market

is

made

up

ofa smallnumber of

large

players.

A

small

company in

the

pharmaceutical

business

might

have

an annualprofitof

$40m,

whereas a small

company in

printwould make

$1.5m.

In

the

pharmaceutical

industry

the

staff

generally

receives a

higher level

of

training.

In

fact,

initial

research

has

shown

that

the

30-year-old

sales

executive,

who

has

spent

ten

years

working in

the

pharmaceutical

industry,

will

have

received seventimes more

training

thana sales executiveof

the

same

age and

length

of service

in

the

printing

industry

.

Ironically

when

comparing

the

sametwo

30-year-old

examples,

theprint executive will

achieve earnings of anywhere

from 20%

to

70%

morethan theexecutive

in

the

pharmaceutical

industry. (Harrison Scott Associates: http://www.harrisonscott.net/). It

almost

defies belief

that someonewho

is

trained to a

higher

standard receives

less

money

than

his/her

print counterpart.

The

main reason

for

this

is

that

if

aprint sales executive

leaves company A in any city in

the

US

to

join company

B,

he/she has

a

likelihood

of

generating business from

pastcontacts.

However,

if

apharmaceuticalrepresentative

leaves Glaxo

and

joins Unichem

there

is

no

possibility

of

bringing

clients,

_{who are}

loyal

By

understanding

thecharacteristics ofthe

industry

and

analyzing

one's

personality

type

and skills

base,

one can

determine if

executivesaremore suitedto the

printing

industry

than to

amore structured marketsuchas pharmaceuticals.

The fragmentation

ofthe

printing

industry

allows opportunities

for

self-motivated,

more entrepreneurial

individuals

who can

take

it

upon

themselves

towiden

their

rangeof skillsthrough their

own efforts.

One

factor

a number of

young

people

do

not often consider when

choosing

a career

is

what

is

the general opinion ofthat

industry

towards age.

It

might

be

the

last

thing

a

young

personthinks about.

2.2.3 One of

the

most

tolerant

industry

In

a

survey

organized

by

theresearch

department

of

Harrison

Scott Associates

with a

number of major recruitment companies

in

the

UK

andthe

US

found

the

following,

"Printing

was

found

to

be

the

thirdmosttolerant

industry,

with

packaging first

and

financial

services second.

At

the

bottom

ofthe

list

were

IT

and

telecommunications.

Many

recruitmentcompanies recognizethis

fact

"

One

of

the

advantages ofthe

printing

industry

is

the

fact

thatmost printersare

decent,

most

technologically

advanced

in

Europe

and

United

States,

two

examplesmarkets - _and

gives

its

employeesthe

opportunity

to

be

atthe

forefront

ofthecommunications

revolution.

Above

all,

it

is

friendly

and convivial.

People

who

join

theprint sector

become hooked

and seldom

leave

it.

An

analysis ofthe

printing industry's

educationand

training

system requires

that

one

examine thecharacteristics ofthe

industry

of whichthemostnotable are:

High labor

and capital

intensity

Small

tomedium-sized

business

structure.

Printing

could

certainly

be

classedas

manufacturing,

although as an operationthat

takes

on orders

it

could

be

classedas a

borderline

service sector

industry.

Furthermore,

the

greatand

fast

change

in

production

technologies,

systems,

andmarkets

for

communication productsshould

be highlighted

as a specialcharacteristicof

this

industry.

The printing

industry

is very

diverse,

andthe

printing

industry

is

labor-intensive,

which

consequently

reflectsthe

high

contributionof

labor

costs

to

theoveralltotalcompared

to

the

average

for

industry

as a whole.

The

main reason

for

this

high level

ofemployment

is

the

still

relatively low

degree

of

labor-intensive

are prepress and

finishing. The relatively high

wagespaid

in

the

printing

industry,

attributable

to the

traditionally

high

wage

level

and

the

large

proportionof

employees withspecializedvocational

qualifications,

notably

printers and prepress

employees,

add

further

to

the

level

of personnel costs.

According

to

PIA,

printing

industry

is

not

only

labor-intensive,

but

also capital-intensive.

The

six orseven

percent,

investment

(share

of

investment

to

turnover)

within

the

printing

industry

is clearly higher

than the average

for

industry

overall.

This primarily involves

investment in

modernization aimed at

achieving

a competitive edge over

direct

rivals,

investment

to

exploit new production methodsthatasadapt

to

the

growing

number of

suppliers

providing

alternative

products,

suchaselectronic

media5

Survey

by

PIA

shows

businesses in

the

printing

industry

is

characteristically

small to

medium-sized company.

In

other

words,

around

85%

of companies

have fewer

than

20

employees and

26%

of all employees work

in

companies with a workforce of

less

than

twenty6.

2.3 Educational Requirements

and

Options

When

looking

at

training

requirements one must rememberthatwork

structures,

fundamental

changes asaresultof

the

consolidation of mediaproductiontechnologies.

Traditional,

single-functionproduction

is ostensibly

breaking

down.

Text,

images,

graphics,andmost

recently

sound, video,

andanimation are

brought

together

by

multi-skilled

individuals. It

should

be

taken

into

account

that,

in reality

we are not

likely

tosee

"Media

Generalists"

who are skilled

in

all aspects of media

production,

startingwith

writing

the

storyboard,

via

CD-ROM

and video

production,

through togravure cylinder

production.

Thus,

as

before,

production requires specialistswho act as

information

processors

but

are also gearedtowards teamworkand cooperation.

Therefore,

what

is

needed

is

amixture of

broad-based

and specializedtraining.

In

additiontospecialist

expertise,

broader

based

qualifications such as creativeproblem

solving,

flexibility,

teamwork,

to

mention

just

a

few,

are conceptsthatcanaidreceptiveness

to

technical

developments

andcomplex organizational structures.

2.3.1

Vocational

Training

and

Education System

In England

and

Wales

the

NVQ

(National Vocational

Qualification)

systemwas

introduced in

the

1980s

and

has been widely

acclaimedon an

international

level.

In

1997,

3%

ofthe employed population qualified viathis system.

The

NVQ

and

SVQ

(Scottish

Vocational

Qualification)

systems

define

requirementsat

five

levels in

approximately

eight

hundred

occupations

spanning

eleven

industries7. The

idea is for

the

candidate

to

be

how

or

in

what ordertherequiredmodules

have been

attained.

However,

in

most

cases,

training

is

preceded

by

one-to-oneconsultation.

The

candidate

is free

tochoosetheplace

of

study,

whichcan

be in

or near

his

or

her

workplace,

at a

college,

apublic orprivate

training

center,

or a similar

institution.

Trainees may be

grouped

in

courses of

instruction;

however,

this

is

not a

necessity

and

in

thissense

they

are

dissimilar

to school orcollege

students.

The

sequence of

flexible

modules

is

geared

in

essenceto current

training

offers

orto

individual

needs.

Training

can

be

suspended andresumed at will.

Critics

ofthe

system

find fault

with

the

amount oftime spent on

exams,

especially for

small and

medium scale

companies,

and

the

lack

oftransparency.

Universities in Great Britain

and

Northern Ireland

are

independent,

self-governing

institutions.

Accordingly

they

are entitledtomaketheirown

decisions regarding

not

only

theadmissionof applicants andtheappointmentof

teaching

staff,

but

alsothe

development

and

introduction

of new courses andthe

awarding

oftheirown

degrees.

Courses

at

British higher

education establishments are

divided into yearly

levels8,

at

the

end of whichthe student

is

awarded a professional qualification.

One

year's

study leads

to the

Certificate ofHigher Education

andtwo

years'

study

to the

Diploma ofHigher

Education. On

completion of a

full

three

years'

study

the

Bachelor's

degree

is

awarded,

for

instance,

Bachelor

of

Engineering

(B.Eng)

or

Bachelor of

Science

(B.Sc). This

first

degree

can

be

awarded either as an

ordinary

degree

or asan

Honors

degree

(Hons);

degree (Honors

degree)

there

is

the

optionto takea

"postgraduate

course"

of

varying

length.

This

can

take the

form

of avocational courseof

between

nine andtwelve

months,

at

the

end ofwhicheithera

Postgraduate

Certificate,

a

Postgraduate

Diploma,

ora

Master's degree is

awarded.

With

a

Master's degree

thechoice

is between

ataught

Master's

degree

and aresearch

Master's degree. The

research master's

degree includes

the

preparation of athesis

in

addition

to

the taughtcourse element.

This

is

correspondingly

longer,

lasting

aroundtwo

years,

attheend of which an

M.Phil (Master

of

Philosophy)

is

awarded.

More

recently

a number of universities

have

also started

providing

science-based andtechnical

four-year

courses

leading directly

toa master's

degree.

Some

universitiesprovidethe

opportunity

to graduate one year earlier with a

bachelor's

degree,

and others offer a separate program

from

the third

year,

which

leads

to

a master's

degree.

The

final level

of academic

study is

the

doctorate,

which

leads

to

the

Doctor

of

Philosophy

(PhD

or

DPhil). The entry

requirement

is usually

a

very

goodmaster's

degree. The

academic year

in Great Britain is

traditionally

broken up into

three terms

of

ten to twelveweeks.

However,

an

increasing

number ofuniversitiesare

turning

to

semesters with

lecture-free

periodsaround

Christmas

and

Easter. The

academicyear

begins in September/

October,

andadmissionto the

spring,

or summer

terms

is only

position

is held

by

the

London

College

of

Printing

(LCP). The LCP is

the

largest

of

five

Colleges

(faculties)

thatwere merged

in 1986

undertheumbrellaof

"The

London

Institute". The London Institute itself is

internationally

one ofthe

largest

training

institutions

for Business

Studies,

Graphic

Design,

Media

(Film, Video,

and

Journalism),

Distributive

Trades,

and

Professional

Studies

(Tourism, Marketing,

and

Advertising).

The

required

level

of

English depends

on

the

purposeofthe

study

period.

On

an

exchange schemeunderthe

Socrates/Erasmus European

University

Co-operation

Program,

this

is less

than

for

a

full

study-period.

Students

admittedcan

improve

their

language

skills

by

taking

free language

classes

in

the

Language

Center both

before

and

during

theirstudies.

The IELTS (International English Language

Testing System)

test

may be

usedto assess general

language

skills as well as thoserequired

for

study

purposes.

These

testscan

be

takenat

varying

timesand

locations in

thestudent's

country

ofresidence.

Institutions

in Great

Britain

are

funded partly

through tuition

fees

totaling

a maximum of

1000

per annum

for

a

home

studentor a student

from any

other

EU country for

a

"Full-Time Undergraduate

Course"

In

thecase of

British

native students

it actually

depends

on

the

parents'

income. The increased level

of

fees for

international

students reflectsthe

actual costof

study,

set at

between

5000

and

10000

per annum

for

courses with

intensive

tuition

in

workshops and

laboratory

work.

its broad

base

and

variety

of

study

requirements

in

thestateaccreditedinstitutions of

higher

education9.

At

theend of

high

schoolthe

High School

Graduation

Diploma

is

awarded.

A

prerequisite

for

this

is

the election of at

least

sixteen unitsof

study,

as wellas

passing

a

final

written exam.

A

unit

lasts

an

hour

each

day,

five days

a

week,

for

thirty-six weeks

ofthe school

year,

in

other words

180 hours. The

examsareassessedas

follows:

A

excellent,

B

good,

C

average,

D

pass,

F

fail.

Grade C is

theminimum requirement

for

admissionto

study

at an

institution

of

higher

education.

On graduating from high

schoolat seventeento eighteen

years,

theoptions are

either

Two

years of

further

education,

possibly

leading

to achangeoverto an

institution

of

higher

education,

or

to

aprofessionalqualification

(two

yearcolleges orvocational and

occupational

institutions)

or

-Four-year liberal

arts colleges or

-Universities.

While

colleges

only

cover undergraduate

courses,

universities also offerpost-Bachelor

degree

education,

in

other words postgraduate

courses,

leading

to

a

Master 's degree

or

PhD (Doctor

of

Philosophy).

Awards. There

are

two

awards:

Bachelor's degree. A Bachelor's degree

requires

four

study

elements:

-A

major orconcentrated areaof

study,

-

General

education,

generally encompassing

mathematics, physics,

English

and perhaps

a modem

language,

and a social science and

humanities

subject,

-A compulsory

subject as part ofthe

major,

-An

elective.

The

student chooses

the subjects,

which mustthen

be

approved

by

the

institution.

Master's

degree. Admission

to a

Master's

degree

program requires arelevant

Bachelor's degree. In many

cases

the

candidatemustalsotake astandardized

test,

perhaps produce evidence of relevant work

experience,

and submit anacademic

testimonial.

The study

period

is

usually

one year which often

extending

to

two,

and

The Master's degree usually

involves deeper exploration,

through

acombinationof

seminarsand

independent

work,

of a subject

already

_covered

by

_aBachelor's

degree.

The

study

period concludes with a

final