The Darwin Chinese : a study of assimilation

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OF ASSIMILATION

by

Christine Brenda Inglis

XI

SUBMITTED for partial fulfilment of the degree of Master of Arts in Sociology in The Australian National University.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The first thanks must go to the Darwin Chinese but for whose help and cooperation this study would not exist. Although impossible to mention by name all those who willingly gave

cooperation and hospitality I would in particular like to mention Mr and Mrs H. Chan, Mr G.S.H. Chin, Mr. W.Lee, the Rev. S.K.Lo, Mr J. Low and Mr W. Wong. In addition many other past and present

Darwin residents gave generously of their knowledge and time; among them were Mrs S. Hassan, Mr P.

Spillet, Mr F. Walker and Mr R. Tambling.

The officers of the Department of Immigration and the Commonwealth Bureau of Census and Statistics gave me every help in obtaining much of the basic imformation used in this study.

Special thanks must go to my

supervisor, Dr. F»L. Jones, for the considerable help he gave me at all stages of the research.

But neither he, nor Dr. C.A.Price nor Mr.E.A. Huck who generously made available their knowledge in

the area of research, can be blamed for the shortcomings of this study which occurred in spite of their efforts.

Last, but not least, I should like to thank Mr A.O.H.Roberts for his help in the

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Title Page.

1

A c k n o w l edgements. _Ü

Table of Contents, iii

List of Tables, iv

List of Maps, vi

Chapter One Introduction 1

Chapter Two The Chinese in Darwin and the

Northern Territory^ 1 874-1 942 )

20

Chapter Three Some Demographic and Social

Characteristics of Darwin aixd the Chinese (1942-1966)

53

Chapter Four The Economic Position of the

C h i n e s e •

79

Chapter Five Cultural Assimilation 94

Chapter Six Structural Assimilation 1 3 7

Chapter Seven Marital Assimilation 1 54

Chapter Eight Conclusion 166

Appendix I The Questionnaire I

AppendixII Coding Categories V I I I

Appendix I I I Some Important Events in the

History of the Northern Territory

X I I

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

; 10

11 1 2 1 13 1 4 13

LIST OF TABLES

Title Page

Spatial Distribution of Sample 13

in Collectors' Districts(1964)•

Population of the Northern 21

Territory (I8 7I-I9 1I).

Masculinity of the Northern 26

Territory Chinese.

Concentration of Northern 29

Territory Chinese in Darwin.

Numbers of Chinese and Europeans 3 6

Employed in the Mining Industry (1881-1909).

Occupations of Northern Territory 3 8

Chinese• 1911*

Chinese Religion in the Northern 41 Territory (1 8 9I-I9 3 3).

Population of Darwin(1881-1964). 51

Population of the Northern 32 Territory (1911-1938).

Population of Darwin (1947-1966). 33 Some Characteristics of Darwin's 3 6

Population(1947-1964).

Residence in Darwin and the 6 7

Northern Territory.

Residence in Australia-apart 68 from Darwin.

Birthplace of Respondents and 70 their Chinese Spouses.

Residence in China. 74

Some Characteristics of Darwin 7 6

Collector's Districts 1 9 6 1 & 1964. Occupational Distribution of

Sample.

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18 O c c u p a t i o n a l M o b i l i t y of Sample 83 19 E d u c a t i o n a l Level of Sample. 85 20 A s s e s s e d S ocial Class of Sample 9 }

of Chinese Males,

21 Income Level of Sample, 92 22 R e l a t i o n s h i p of F o o d H a b i t e 99

to Other Variables.

23 R e l a t i o n s h i p of L a n g m a g e Usage 101 to Other Variables.

24 R e l a t i o n s h i p of L e i sure A c t i v i t i e s 105 to Other Variables.

25 R e l a t i o n s h i p of R e l i g i o n to 111 Other Variables.

26 R e l a t i o n s h i p of A l t a r to Other 113 Va riables.

27 R e l a t i o n s h i p of C h i nese F e s t i v a l 116 Obser v a n c e to Other Variables.

28 F r e q u e n c y of H o u s e h o l d Types. 118 29 R e l a t i o n s h i p of H o u s e h o l d Type 121

30 F a m i l y Siae of D a r w i n Chinese. 123 31 R e l a t i o n s h i p of N u m b e r of C h i l d r e n 1 2 4

32 R e l a t i o n s h i p of M a r r i a g e A r r a n g e - 128 ment to O t her Variables.

33 R e l a t i o n s h i p of W i f e ’s B i r t h p l a c e 131 to Oth e r Variables.

R e l a t i o n s h i p of Club A f f i l i a t i o n 143 to O t h e r Variables.

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T a b l e T i t l e P a g e

35 N a t u r e o f S o c i a l C o n t a c t s , 1 4 5

3 6 R e l a t i o n s h i p o f S o c i a l C o n t a c t s t o O t h e r V a r i a b l e s ,

1 4 6

37 R e l a t i o n s h i p o f I n t e r m a r r i a g e to O t h e r V a r i a b l e s #

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Map One: Kwangtung. Between pages 27-8

'Darwin* as defined Between pages 5^-3

at the censuses 19^7-660

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

The large-scale migration of Chinese to Australia

in the nineteenth century h~s had a significant influence on the political and ethnic structure of Australian

society. The reaction to their immigration is

institution-alized in the White Australia policy or, as it is officially

termed, the policy of restrictive immigration, a policy

sometimes described as a •settled issue of Australian

politics•.1 The essential feature of this policy is the

refusal to allow non-European immigration to Australia.

In recent years public discussion qf the White

Australia policy has increased and, in fact, there have

been relaxations in its administration.2 However the

debate is seriously handicapped by the dearth o~

informa-tion on Chinese and other non-Europeans who are ·living

1

P.B. Westerway, "Pressure Growps" in Forces in Australian Politics, ed. J. Wilkes, Sydney, Angus and Robertson, 1963, pp.130-1.

2

see A.C. Palfreeman The Administration of the White Australia Policy, Meibourne, Melbourne University Press

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i n A u s t r a l i a . W h i l e t h i s i s p a r t i a l l y a r e s u l t o f t h e

p r i o r i t y g i v e n t o s t u d i e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e l a r g e - s c a l e i n f l u x

o f i m m i g r a n t s e n t e r i n g A u s t r a l i a a f t e r W o r l d War I I and a

n e g l e c t o f l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d e t h n i c g r o u p s , t h e r e h a s a l s o

b e e n a f a i l u r e t o a p p r e c i a t e t h e i m p a c t o f C h i n e s e and o t h e r

n o n - E u r o p e a n s r e s i d e n t i n A u s t r a l i a .

Huck ha s shown t h a t s i n c e 1 9 4 7 t h e r e has b e e n a

s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e n u m b e r s o f C h i n e s e l i v i n g i n

2

A u s t r a l i a . T h i s r e s u l t s , n o t o n l y f r o m n a t u r a l i n c r e a s e

i n t h e e s t a b l i s h e d C h i n e s e p o p u l a t i o n b u t a l s o , f r o m t h e

r e l a x a t i o n s i n e n t r y r e s t r i c t i o n s a l l o w i n g t h e e n t r y o f

A p a r t f r o m t h e w o r k o f L ee S i e w Eng t h e r e ha s b e e n no s t u d y o f t h e a s s i m i l a t i o n o f C h i n e s e s e t t l e r s i n A u s t r a l i a . Lee S i e w E n g , ’’ The E c o l o g y o f t h e S y d n e y C h i n e s e ” , B . A .

T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f S y d n e y , 1 9 6 3 . A r t h u r Huck h a s c o l l e c t ed t h e f i n d i n g s o f v a r i o u s s t u d i e s on t h e C h i n e s e i n A u s t r a l i a i n t o an u n p u b l i s h e d m a n u s c r i p t , ’’ The C h i n e s e i n A u s t r a l i a ” . I n a d d i t i o n , C h a r l e s P r i c e i s a t p r e s e n t w o r k i n g on n o n - E u r o p e a n , p a r t i c u l a r l y C h i n e s e , i m m i g r a t i o n . B e s i d e s t h e s e w o r k s t h e r e h a v e been a f e w s t u d i e s on C h i n e s e and A s i a n s t u d e n t s i n A u s t r a l i a , e . g . D.W. A r m s t r o n g e t a l . , ’’ C h i n e s e S t u d e n t s i n M e l b o u r n e ; A S t u d y o f Two M e t h o d s o f A n a l y z i n g t h e I n t e r r e l a t i o n s B e t w e e n R e f e r e n c e G r o u p B e h a v i o u r and C h a n g e s i n V a l u e S y s t e m s ” , m o n o g r a p h , D e p a r t m e n t o f P s y c h o l o g y , U n i v e r s i t y o f M e l b o u r n e , 1 9 6 1 , and a l s o , M a r y C. H o d g k i n , ’’ When A s i a n s M a r r y ” , Q u a d r a n t 8 , N o . 3 ( 1 9 6 4 ) p p . 1 9 - 2 7 . The r e m a i n d e r o f t h e w o r k d o n e on t h e C h i n e s e i n A u s t r a l i a has b e e n h i s t o r i c a l and e i t h e r c o n c e r n e d w i t h C h i n e s e i n

p a r t i c u l a r a r e a s o r e l s e w i t h t h e W h i t e A u s t r a l i a p o l i c y . Some f e w s t u d i e s h a v e m e n t i o n e d t h e C h i n e s e i n a p a r t i c u l a r c o m m u n i t y b u t t h e y h a v e n o t been t h e c e n t r a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n e . g . P . D a l t o n , ’’ B r o o m e : a M u l t i r a c i a l C o m m u n i t y . A S t u d y o f 5 o c i a l and C u l t u r a l R e l a t i o n s i n a Town i n t h e W e s t e r n

K i m b e r l e y s W . A . ” M . A . T h e s i s , U n i v e r s i t y o f W e s t e r n A u s t r a l i a , 1 9 6 4 .

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3

f a m i l i e s o f A u s t r a l i a n c i t i z e n s and t h e a d m i s s i o n o f

t e m p o r a r y r e s i d e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y s t u d e n t s * The p r e s e n t

C h i n e s e p o p u l a t i o n i n A u s t r a l i a t h u s c o n s i s t s o f t h r e e

m a i n e l e m e n t s : A u s t r a l i a n b o r n C h i n e s e , t h o s e who h a v e

s e t t l e d p e r m a n e n t l y i n A u s t r a l i a a f t e r m i g r a t i n g , and

s t u d e n t s who h a v e e n t e r e d A u s t r a l i a f o r s h o r t t e r m r e s i d e n c e .

The a i m o f t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y was t o o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n

2 on t h e a s s i m i l a t i o n o f one p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p o f C h i n e s e

i n A u s t r a l i a - t h o s e l i v i n g i n D a r w i n i n t h e N o r t h e r n

T e r r i t o r y . T h i s g r o u p had f o r a n u m b e r o f y e a r s r e m a i n e d

a r e l a t i v e l y s e l f - c o n t a i n e d c o m m u n i t y , w h i c h , w i t h t h e

r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l s i z e o f D a r w i n ’ s p o p u l a t i o n ( 2 0 , 2 6 1 i n

J u n e 1 9 6 6 ) , m e a n t t h a t t h e y w e r e a p a r t i c u l a r l y a p p r o p r i a t e

s u b j e c t f o r a s t u d y o f l i m i t e d d e p t h and d u r a t i o n .

^ I b i d . , p . 3 3 .

2

• C h i n e s e ’ as u s e d h e r e r e f e r s n o t t o b i r t h p l a c e b u t t o

r a c e a n d , u n l e s s s p e c i f i e d , r e f e r s t o t h o s e o f p r e d o m i n a n t l y C h i n e s e a n c e s t r y . A l t h o u g h Huck i n h i s u s e o f c e n s u s d a t a i n c l u d e s C h i n e s e - E u r o p e a n s i n t h i s c a t e g o r y t h i s p r a c t i c e w i l l n o t be a d o p t e d h e r e u n l e s s s p e c i f i c a l l y s t a t e d .

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A l t h o u g h t h e D a r w i n C h i n e s e a r e a - t y p i c a l o f

A u s t r a l i a n C h i n e s e g r o u p s i n a numbe r o f r e s p e c t s , ' *

a s t u d y o f t h e i r p a t t e r n o f a s s i m i l a t i o n p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a

t i o n n o t o n l y on t h e a c t u a l a d j u s t m e n t o f an A s i a n g r o u p

i n A u s t r a l i a n s o c i e t y b u t a l s o on a l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d e t h n i c

c o m m u n i t y , a t y p e s o m e w h a t n e g l e c t e d i n a s s i m i l a t i o n

2

r e s e a r c h i n A u s t r a l i a , M o r e o v e r , i t was h o p e d t h a t a

s t u d y o f a l o n g - e s t a b l i s h e d m i n o r i t y g r o u p w o u l d t h r o w

some l i g h t on t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f l o n g t e r m f a c t o r s i n

a s s i m i l a t i o n a n d , a t t h e same t i m e , p r o v i d e some a s s e s s m e n t

o f c o n c e p t u a l f r a m e w o r k s d e v e l o p e d p r i m a r i l y i n r e l a t i o n

t o f i r s t and s e c o n d g e n e r a t i o n i m m i g r a n t s .

S t a t e d b r i e f l y , t h e a i m s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t

w e r e , f i r s t , t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e c u l t u r a l and s o c i a l

a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e D a r w i n C h i n e s e t o t h e d o m i n a n t

-j

W h e r e a s i n 1 9 6 1 t h e m a s c u l i n i t y r a t i o f o r C h i n e s e i n A u s t r a l i a was 233 men t o e v e r y 100 women, t h e f i g u r e f o r t h e D a r w i n C h i n e s e was 1 12 men t o e v e r y 1 0 0 women w h i c h was e v e n l o w e r t h a n t h e A u s t r a l i a n and D a r w i n f i g u r e s o f 1 2 2 and 1 3 0 men t o e v e r y 100 women r e s p e c t i v e l y . A l s o , t h e C h i n e s e c o n s t i t u t e d 3 . 3 % o f t h e t o t a l D a r w i n p o p u l a t i o n i n 1 9 6 1 , t h e g r e a t e s t u r b a n c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f C h i n e s e i n A u s t r a l i a ( H u c k , o p . c i t . , p . 3 1 . ) A f u r t h e r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e N o r t h e r n T e r r i t o r y C h i n e s e ( 4 0 9 o u t o f 45 8 l i v e i n D a r w i n ) was t h a t 76% w e r e A u s t r a l i a n b o r n i n c o n t r a s t w i t h t h e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 30% i n t h e w h o l e o f

A u s t r a l i a . ( I b i d . , p . 4 5 . )

2

C , A . P r i c e , e d i t o r , A u s t r a l i a n I m m i g r a t i o n : A B i b l i o g r a p h y an d D i g e s t , C a n b e r r a , A u s t r a l i a n N a t i o n a l U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 6 , p . A 2 6 .

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5

.

1A n g l o - A u s t r a l i a n ’ e t h n i c g r o u p ; and s e c o n d l y , t o u s e

t h e s e r e s u l t s t o e v a l u a t e c r i t i c a l l y t h e o r e t i c a l f o r m u l a t i o n s

c o n c e r n i n g a s s i m i l a t i o n .

The C o n c e p t o f A s s i m i l a t i o n .

B e f o r e g o i n g f u r t h e r i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o s p e c i f y w h i c h

o f t h e many m e a n i n g s and a p p r o a c h e s t o a s s i m i l a t i o n h a s b e e n

a d o p t e d i n t h i s s t u d y , and t h e way i n w h i c h t h i s d e c i s i o n

i n f l u e n c e s t h e c h o i c e o f r e s e a r c h t e c h n i q u e s .

I n s p e a k i n g o f a s s i m i l a t i o n , t h e r e i s f i r s t o f a l l ,

no i n t e n t i o n o f a d o p t i n g a p a r t i c u l a r n o r m a t i v e v i e w as t o

t h e f o r m w h i c h i t i s d e s i r a b l e f o r an e t h n i c g r o u p s a d j u s t

m e n t t o t a k e i n i t s r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e A n g l o - A u s t r a l i a n 1

c o m m u n i t y . R a t h e r , a s s i m i l a t i o n i s u s e d t o r e f e r t o t h e

v a r i o u s p r o c e s s e s w h i c h c u l m i n a t e i n t h e d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f an

e t h n i c g r o u p as a s e p a r a t e e n t i t y i n t h e l a r g e r s o c i e t y .

T h i s d i f f e r s f r o m P a r k ’ s u s a g e o f a s s i m i l a t i o n t o r e f e r t o

2

t h e l a s t s t a g e o f h i s ’ r a c e - r e l a t i o n s c y c l e * . A s s i m i l a t i o n

3 i s u s e d as e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e t e r m s ’ c u l t u r a l i n t e g r a t i o n *

A l t e r n a t i v e n o r m a t i v e v i e w s a r e t h o s e o f ’ c u l t u r a l p l u r a l i s m * and t h e ’ m e l t i n g p o t * . T h e s e a p p r o a c h e s a r e

o u t l i n e d i n M i l t o n M. G o r d o n , A s s i m i l a t i o n i n A m e r i c a n L i f e . New Y o r k , O x f o r d U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 4 , e s p e c i a l l y c h a p t e r s 3 - 6 •&. P r i c e , o p . c i t . , p p . A 3 - 4 .

2

See e . g . R . E . P a r k , Race &. C u l t u r e . G l e n c o e , The F r e e P r e s s , 1 9 5 0 . p p . 1 4 9 - 1 5 1 , 1 8 9 - 1 9 5 .

3

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1

and A b s o r p t i o n * t o w h i c h i t i s h o w e v e r p r e f e r r e d

b e c a u s e o f t h e ’ c o r e o f m e a n i n g * w h i c h has become

2 a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t .

Even g i v e n t h i s ’ c o r e o f m e a n i n g * t h e r e a r e s t i l l

a w i d e v a r i e t y o f p r o c e s s e s - p s y c h o l o g i c a l , c u l t u r a l a nd

s o c i a l - w h i c h a r e h e l d t o be i m p o r t a n t s t a g e s i n

a s s i m i l a t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n t h e s e p r o c e s s e s c a n t a k e

e i t h e r g r o u p s o r i n d i v i d u a l s as t h e i r r e f e r e n c e p o i n t

and a l s o t h e r e s p o n s e s o f e i t h e r t h e d o m i n a n t , o r m i n o r i t y ,

e t h n i c g r o u p s .

F o r t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y G o r d o n ’ s f o r m u l a t i o n was 3

a d o p t e d as an i n i t i a l f r a m e w o r k . I n t h i s , s e v e n s t a g e s

o r s u b p r o c e s s e s o f a s s i m i l a t i o n a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d as

4 f o l l o w s :

-l

5 . N . E i s e n s t a d t , The A b s o r p t i o n o f I m m i g r a n t s . L o n d o n , R o u t l e d g e and Kegan P a u l , 1 9 5 4 .

2

P r i c e , o p . c i t . , p p . A 5 - 8 .

op.cit.

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7

Sub-processes or conditions. Change of cultural patterns to those of host society. Large-scale entrance into cliques, clubs and institu tions of host society, on primary group level.

Large-scale intermarriage. Development of sense of peoplehood - based exclu sively on host society. Absence of prejudice.

Absence of discrimination.

Types or stages of assimilation Cultural or Behavioral

Assimilation (Acculturation). Structural Assimilation.

Marital Assimilation (Amalgamation)•

Identificational Assimilation.

Attitude Receptional Assimilation. Behavior Receptional

Assimilation. Civic Assimilation. Absence of value and power

conflict.

Some would no doubt want to lay greater stress on the psychological or social-psychological aspects of the

assimilation process such as identification, satisfaction and the like.'*' However, Gordon*s emphasis on the

cultural and structural changes necessary within the ethnic group if assimilation is to occur, seemed more appropriate to a sociological study of assimilation. Apart from this it was felt that many of the social-psychological factors such as * satisfaction1 were not relevant to a consideration of assimilation in an ethnic community the majority of whose members were at least third generation residents.

Among these would be the group working in Western Australia whose studies have been recently summarised in R. Taft,

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P r a c t i c a l l i m i t a t i o n s a l s o m e a n t t h a t a s y s t e m a t i c

s t u d y o f t h e e x i s t e n c e o f p r e j u d i c e and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n

a g a i n s t t h e C h i n e s e c o u l d n o t be a t t e m p t e d » Wher e a s s e s s

m e n t s o f p r e j u d i c e , d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , c i v i c a s s i m i l a t i o n and

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a r e m a de , t h e y a r e b a s e d n o t on a n y s p e c i f i c

s a m p l i n g p r o c e d u r e s b u t r a t h e r , on p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n

and s e l e c t i v e i n t e r v i e w i n g »

I n t h e p r e s e n t s u r v e y a t t e n t i o n was f o c u s e d on t h r e e

a s p e c t s o f t h e a s s i m i l a t i o n p r o c e s s - c u l t u r a l , s t r u c t u r a l

and m a r i t a l a s s i m i l a t i o n . I n a d d i t i o n a f u r t h e r i m p o r t a n t

s t a g e n o t d i s c u s s e d by G o r d o n was i n c l u d e d . T h i s i s

e c o n o m i c a s s i m i l a t i o n w h i c h i s c o m p l e t e when t h e memb er s

o f an e t h n i c g r o u p a r e d i s p e r s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e e c o n o m i c

s t r u c t u r e o f t h e s o c i e t y .

By a d o p t i n g G o r d o n ' s f o r m u l a t i o n as a f r a m e w o r k f o r

s t u d y i n g a s s i m i l a t i o n i t was p o s s i b l e t o t e s t some o f t h e

h y p o t h e s i z e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n t h e v a r i o u s s u b - p r o c e s s e s .

A s s i m i l a t i o n was d e f i n e d o p e r a t i o n a l l y i n t e r m s o f d i s p l a y e d

b e h a v i o u r r a t h e r t h a n r e p o r t e d o p i n i o n s , p a r t l y b e c a u s e o f

1

P r i c e , o p . c i t . , p . A 4 D , m e n t i o n s t h e t h e o r y ' s i n a b i l i t y t o d e a l w i t h ' e c o n o m i c a b s o r p t i o n ' . M a p s t o n e i n t h e w o r k c i t e d b y P r i c e p p . 3 6 4 f f . d e f i n e s t h i s so as t o i n c l u d e n o t o n l y a b i l i t y t o make a l i v i n g ( t h e m e a n i n g g i v e n t o ' e c o n o m i c a b s o r p t i o n ’ i n t h i s s t u d y ) b u t a l s o , f r e e d o m t o move i n t o v a r i o u s j o b s . I t i s t h i s m o v e m e n t i n t o a v a r i e t y o f j o b s w h i c h i s h e r e u n d e r s t o o d as ' e c o n o m i c a s s i m i l a t i o n ' . The r e a s o n f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g b e t w e e n e c o n o m i c a b s o r p t i o n and e c o n o m i c a s s i m i l a t i o n i s t h a t t h e l a t t e r p r o c e s s o f t e n o c c u r s i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e f o r m e r w h i c h i s n o t a s u f f i c i e n t

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9

the greater objectivity obtained by measuring assimilation in these terms. However, such an approach concentrates on the advanced stages of assimilation where dispositions have been transferred into social action.

Although Gordon’s formulation is primarily concerned with assimilation at the group level, it can be extended to the individual level to measure the extent to which an individual has progressed through the various stages of economic, cultural, structural and marital assimilation. This extension is implicit in the present use of these

stages not only in ascertaining the extent of Chinese assimilation in Darwin, but also, in identifying the factors involved in the process of assimilation itself. Research Methods.

To assess and understand the contemporary

assimilation of the Chinese in Darwin it was necessary not simply to conduct a survey of those Chinese currently resident in Darwin, but further, to study the growth and development of this community. Before discussing the sources used in writing this social history, some account will be given of the survey techniques adopted.

(i ) The Questionnaire.

A questionnaire was administered during a two month stay in Darwin in May and June 1966. Although circumstances did not permit a pilot study, this did not appear to have

j

‘

-- -

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been a serious handicap. This was because it was possible, when constructing the questionnaire, to draw on the considerable volume of work available on other

overseas Chinese communities and on assimilation generally* Even the failure of certain items on the questionnaire to

1

discriminate between respondents was in itself an interesting finding.

Apart from items measuring the four stages of the assimilation process, information was also sought on a number of other variables including socio-economic status, proximity to Chinese cultural influences and general

background characteristics.

The items measuring cultural assimilation were designed mainly to elicit the extent to which particular Chinese traits were maintained, rather than the extent to which particular A u s t r a l i a n ’ traits had been adopted.

The questionnaire schedule was administered to respondents during structured interviews. The original intention was to interview respondents in their homes but this was not always practicable. Some were interviewed either at work, or else, at some other suitable place. Only in two instances was it necessary to use an

interpreter and, in each case, he was well known to the respondents. The presence of the interpreter did not

seem to inhibit the responses, perhaps because the questions

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were such that the answers 'would not be novel to the interpreter.

The population from which the sample was drawn

were adult (over 20) full-blood Chinese living in Darwin. It was confined to full-blood Chinese partly because of the difficulty of constructing an adequate listing, or

1

even initial estimate, of the part-Chinese population. A more important reason for exclusion was that these people, by reason of the social factors associated with their mixed ancestry, necessitated the consideration of additional f a c t o r s if t h e ir assimilation was to be studied.

Until 1961 the Australian census figures on race failed to give any indication of the numbers of persons with some Chinese ancestry, except for individuals with one parent Chinese and the other European. These persons were classed as Chinese-Eropeans. Those with one parent Chinese and the other from another non-European race were classed as belonging as a full-blood to the race of their father. Hence, if the father was Malay they classed themselves as Malay but, if he was Chinese,

they classed themselves as Chinese. The obvious difficulties in this form of classification caused the Bureau of Census and Statistics to adopt a new classification in which

respondents were asked to state not their race, but rather their racial composition. The 1964 Population Count

conducted in Darwin is based on this classification and it does give a more valid indication of the numbers of

persons with a significant proportion of Chinese ancestry -all those with more than 50% of Chinese blood were classed as Chinese. This was the definition of *full-bload* used in selecting respondents. However, those who have only 50% Chinese blood plus the blood of some other non-European race and/or less than 50% European blood were still not clearly distinguished as they were classified as *Mixed

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I n common w i t h o t h e r p a r t s o f A u s t r a l i a , t h e n u m b e r s

o f C h i n e s e - E u r o p e a n s i n D a r w i n was n o t l a r g e n o r , i t

seemed w e r e t h e r e many o t h e r p e r s o n s who m i g h t h a v e had

2 s i g n i f i c a n t a m o u n t s o f C h i n e s e a n c e s t r y .

A c t u a l l y t h r e e s e p a r a t e l i s t s p r o v i d e d t h e p o p u l a t i o n

f r o m w h i c h a s a m p l e was f i n a l l y s e l e c t e d . The f i r s t l i s t

c o n s i s t e d o f C h i n e s e - s o u n d i n g names d r a w n f r o m t h e m o s t

3

r e c e n t C o m m o n w e a l t h E l e c t o r a l R o l l . T h i s c o v e r e d t h o s e

C h i n e s e who w e r e A u s t r a l i a n c i t i z e n s - a p a r t f r o m C h i n e s e

women m a r r i e d t o n o n - C h i n e s e . On a r r i v a l i n D a r w i n , t h e

names o f t h o s e on t h i s l i s t who p r o v e d t o be n o n - C h i n e s e -

f o r e x a m p l e , E u r o p e a n s w i t h t h e s u r n a m e L e e - and t h o s e

who had s i n c e l e f t D a r w i n , w e r e r e m o v e d . A s e c o n d l i s t ,

b a s e d on i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m l o c a l C h i n e s e , t h e n e w s p a p e r s

and t e l e p h o n e d i r e c t o r y , c o n s i s t e d o f t h o s e C h i n e s e who

w e r e n o t A u s t r a l i a n c i t i z e n s . The c o m p l e t e n e s s o f t h i s

l i s t was a s s e s s e d by c o m p a r i s o n w i t h f i g u r e s , made a v a i l

a b l e by t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f I m m i g r a t i o n , o f C h i n e s e a l i e n s

r e s i d e n t i n D a r w i n . A t h i r d l i s t c o n s i s t e d o f t h e names

o f C h i n e s e women m a r r i e d t o n o n - C h i n e s e . T h i s g r o u p ,

w h i c h was i n c l u d e d b e c a u s e o f t h e n ee d t o i n c l u d e an

H u c k , o p . c i t . , p p •19 and 178

2

I n 1 9 6 4 t h e r e w e r e 498 C h i n e s e i n D a r w i n and 71 C h i n e s e - E u r o p e a n s . A l t o g e t h e r , t h e r e w e r e o n l y 1 7 5 M i x e d - B l o o d s n o t a l l o f whom w o u l d ha ve a n y l a r g e a m o u n t o f C h i n e s e

a n c e s t r y • i v .

3

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13 adequate sample of Chinese who had married out of the community, was constructed from marriage registrations, newspapers, and local information* Although it had been intended that the number of women included in the sample should be proportional to the numbers of men who had intermarried, as indicated by the marriage records, it was impossible to do this because, after the sample had

been selected, it was discovered that more men in the sample had married non-Chinese than was first realised.

All the names thus obtained were grouped into

140 addresses, from which a random sample of ’households* was drawn. The heads'^ of the first 52 households in the sample were subsequently approached for interviews.

In three instances the results of the interviews were not 2

included in the final analysis while in another three cases there were refusals. Thus the final sample used contained 46 cases.

The composition of the sample was as follows: Australian citizens (male): 40

Chinese aliens (male): 1

Chinese women married to non-Chinese: 5

^ In one instance, due to insufficient information, it was impossible to designate the household head correctly prior to interviewing. The person interviewed was the one who appeared to be the head. Where there had been intermarriage the Chinese spouse was always the one interviewed.

2

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Representativeness of the Sample.

In the absence of external criteria it is difficult to test the representativeness of this sample. It was drawn randomly from as complete a list of households as could be constructed. One possibility was to compare the residential distribution of the Chinese actually interviewed with the results of the 1964 population count. This revealed a good fit with approximately 30% of the Chinese living in each of the Collectors* Districts at the time of the population count being

represented by those interviewed.^ This suggests that spatially the sample was representative. It might be argued that the two year time lag renders this comparison invalid, but except perhaps for some movement to recently developed areas, the Chinese show very little residential mobility and it is unlikely

that their distribution would have changed significantly in the two year interval. A further possibility would be to base a comparison on the congruence between the occupations of the sample and the information given on the Electoral Roll. However, it soon became apparent that in many cases the Electoral Roll information on occupations was unreliable.

^*5ee Table 1. p. 15.

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TABLE 1 . SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION DF SAMPLE IN COLLECTORS» DISTRICTS (CDs) 1964.

15

.

CD

No .of Respond

ents .

Chinese Popula

tion

Chinese Represent

ed in Sample

Chinese- Europ-ean Popu lation

Chinese-Europeans Represented in Sample.

A 3 62 17 1

-B 8 99 31 8 4

Ci 1 9 6 2

-cii. 1 1 1 2

-D 7 40 24 9 6

E 3 36 12 6 2

F 5 56 26 3 2

G 2 44 7 4

-H 3 75 19 9

-Ii - - - 1

-Iu 3 11 14 5

-Ji - 9 - -

-Ju 4 14 15 6 2

K 1 9 1 4

-Li 1 16 5 -

-Lii 2 8 8 2 2

M 1 9 1 9 6

N 1 4 1 6 3

[image:22.544.89.528.9.697.2]

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One p o s s i b l e c r i t i c i s m o f t h e s a m p l e i s i t s

1 u n d e r - r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e y o u n g e s t age g r o u p .

T h o u g h t h i s may a f f e c t an e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e l e v e l o f

a s s i m i l a t i o n i n t h e c o m m u n i t y i t w o u l d n o t p r e v e n t an

a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e r o l e o f age i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e

i n d i v i d u a l s l e v e l o f a s s i m i l a t i o n .

M e t h o d s o f A n a l y s i s .

I n o r d e r t o t e s t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e

v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e d i n t h e s u r v e y t h e C h i s q u a r e t e s t

o f s i g n i f i c a n c e was g e n e r a l l y u s e d . T h i s was c h o s e n

b e c a u s e o f i t s s u i t a b i l i t y f o r n o n - p a r a m e t r i c d a t a .

G i v e n t h e s m a l l s a m p l e s i z e i t was o f t e n n e c e s s a r y t o

c o m b i n e r e s p o n s e c a t e g o r i e s t o o b t a i n a m i n i m u m e x p e c t e d

2

v a l u e o f 5 i n e a c h c e l l . I n a d d i t i o n i t was o n l y

p o s s i b l e t o u n d e r t a k e t w o - w a y a n a l y s e s . A f u r t h e r

O n l y 9 o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e u n d e r 30 y e a r s w h e r e a s 19 w e r e b e t w e e n 30 and 44 and 18 w e r e o v e r 4 4 . P a r t i a l l y t h i s may be a c c o u n t e d f o r by t h e p r e d o m i n a n c e o f h o u s e h o l d h e a d s i n t h e a b o v e 30 age g r o u p s i n t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n .

^ T he d e t a i l s o f t h e c a t e g o r i e s u s e d a r e c o n t a i n e d i n A p p e n d i x I I .

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IT

limitation imposed by the size of the sample was that only the very strongest relationships could be expected to be significant at the conventional levels of statistical significance. Given the essentially exploratory nature of this study and the limitations imposed by sample size, the decision was made to adopt the practice suggested by Skipper, Guenther and Nass of indicating the probability level of the relationships which were not necessarily excluded from consideration if they did not reach the .05 level.

A number of items were then combined to form four scales as follows;

1. Socio-economic status scale; occupation, education, husbandTs income, family income, and assessed social class.

2. Proximity to Chinese cultural influences; Chinese

education, residence in China, generation in Australia, Chinese relatives in Darwin, Chinese neighbours and contact with Chinese outside Darwin.

3. Cultural assimilation; measures on food habits, language usage, size of family and composition of household, Chinese leisure activities,

celebration of Chinese festivals, possession of an ancestral altar, religion and arrangement of marriage.

J.K. Skipper, A.J. Guenther, and G. Nass "The Sacredness of .05; A note concerning the uses of statistical levels of significance in social sciences", The American Sociologist

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---4, Structural assimilation: membership of voluntary associations and in a variety of

friendship groups - with neighbours, co-workers and others. The items in each scale were initially scored

from 0 to 2 with a score of 2 indicating high socio economic status, greater distance from Chinese influence or * assimilationf• The items were then weighted on the basis of their relationship with a criterion item selected on the basis of face validity and its relationship with other variables on the scale. As a result of this process scores on an item could range from 0 to 2, 4 or 6.

After the scale scores were obtained they were then correlated with each other, and with type of marriage, mixed race or not, occupation and age.

Other Sources

Additional information on contemporary Darwin

came from an analysis of Census information, both published and unpublished, information contained in the Department of Immigration^ files, contemporary accounts of Darwin and

perusal of the local newspaper, The Northern Territory News, from its commencement in 1952. Also, during two months field work in Darwin it was possible to undertake a considerable

amount of participant observation both among the Chinese and also the larger community. While this was not con

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19

information on the social organization of the Chinese and on Darwin generally.

(iii) The Social History of the Chinese.

This part of the research was based mainly on

public sources such as official reports, census information, and other contemporary primary and secondary sources* One limitation of these, however, is that all of them contain information on the Chinese as reported by non-Chinese*

While this might be unimportant in a fairly well integrated society where the accuracy of the knowledge and its lack of bias can be fairly easily ascertained, this was not the case in Darwin. In fact, even during field work in Darwin in 1966, when the amount of contact between Chinese and non-Chinese was far greater than prior to 1942, it was apparent just how little the non-Chinese knew about the Chinese population.

The only possible Chinese source of information on the Darwin Chinese would have been in the Australian

Chinese language press, the first of which began publication in 1894. As no Chinese paper was ever published in Darwin, and as the connection of the Darwin community with the rest of Australia always appeared to be weaker than with China, it was decided that the task involved in examining all possible Chinese newspapers was not warranted. To compen sate for the deficiencies in the written records, informa tion was obtained by interviewing past and present (Chinese) residents of Darwin, and by obtaining their corrections

and additions to a draft history which was circulated among them.

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THE CHINESE IN DARWIN AND THE NORTHERN TERRITORY

1874-1942. 1

The first Chinese to reach the Northern Territory 2

arrived in 1Ö74 from Singapore under txvo year contracts

3

with the $outh Australian Government , mainly as a result of pressure from mining companies who wanted a supply of cheap labour to work the recently discovered

gold deposits in the Pine Creek area,4' There was at

that time only a small non-Aboriginal population,^

reflecting the areaTs isolation and inhospitable nature.

^Appendix III sets out the more important events in the history of the Territory.

^Margaret Rendell, "The Chinese in South Australia and the Northern Territory in the Nineteenth Century", M.A. Thesis, University of Adelaide, 1952, p.49.

^The Northern Territory was under South Australian control from 1Ö63 to 1910.

^Rendell op. cit._jp.45. Also F. H. Bauer, Historical

Geography of White Settlement in Part of North

Australia Part 2. The Darwin-Katherine Region,

Canberra, C.S.I.R.O., 1964, p.34. This contradicts

LyngTs view that the main aim was to promote tropical

agriculture. J.S. Lyng, Non-Britishers in Australia,

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TABLE 2

POPULATION OF THE NORTHERN TERRITORY 1371-1911

21

Year Source Chinese Total

1871 Census - ₂₀₁

1876 Census N.A. 743

1877 Bauer 174 710

1878 Bauer 634-1200a 1384-2906

1879 GRR 10.5.79 3,162

-1880 GRR 5.3.80 2,490 2,890

1881 Census 2,723 3,451

1882 GRR 1909 2,921 3,594 1883 GRR 1909 2,839 3,477 1884 GRR 1909 2,637 3,277 1885 GRR 1909 2,586 3,443

1886 GRR 1909 3,210 4,450

1887 GRR 1909 5,337 7,145 1888 GRR 1909 6,122 7,533 1889 GRR 1909 4,432 5,727 1890 GRR 1909 4,141, 5,366

1891 Census 3,507b 4,898

1892 GRR 1909 3,714 4,732 1893 GRR 1909 3,661 4,728 1894 GRR 1909 3,566 4,543 1895 GRR 1909 3,443 4,467 1896 GRR 1909 3,396 4,567 1897 GRR 1909 3,359 4,518 1898 GRR 1909 3,296 4,681 1899 GRR 1909 3,204 4,608 1900 GRR 1909 2,928 4,302

1901 Census 2,600 3,581

1902 GRR 1909 2,516 3,873

1903 GRR 1909 2,254 3,610

1904 GRR 1909 2,143 3,557

1905 GRR 1909 1,983 3,379

1906 GRR 1909 1,878 3,208

1907 GRR 1909 1,833 3,166

1908 GRR 1909 1,629 2,973 1909 GRR 1909 1,475 3,014

1910 31.12.1910

External Affairs 1,387 2,846

1911 Census c 1,331 3,310

d _1,165 .

a, A variety of figures are available. b. Census figures do not balance.

c m Based on race (all other Chinese figures based on birthplace).

d. Based on birthplace.

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These factors continued to hinder its development up

to World War II. In fact when the first Chinese

arrived Darwin1 was virtually the only settlement in the Northern Territory and had itself been founded

only in 1369.2

Of the 136 Chinese who arrived in Darwin in

August, 1374, only 21 returned to Singapore when their

contracts expired in July, 1076. With the high

3 mortality rate among the Chinese on the goldfields^

and the apparently small numbers of new arrivals, there were only 110 Chinese on the goldfields in

1377.^ In that December an influx began with the

arrival of over 90 Chinese from Hong Kong and by the following April there were 1200 Chinese in the

Territory, many of whom must have come from Hong Kong

5

and possibly the Victorian goldfields.

1 Until 1911 Darwin was known as Palmerston or Port Darwin.

2

There had been four previous attempts to settle the north coast of Australia. Bauer, op.cit.

^ Government Residents Report (GRR) 1379. This is mentioned in most reports.

^ Rendell op.cit p.56. p Ibid., pp 56-7.

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The Union Goldmine, Northern Territory, November, 1879* Source: P.H.M. Foelsche Collection, National

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The numbers of Chinese in the Northern Territory fluctuated seasonally, with many returning to Hong Kong in the "Dry" when alluvial gold was difficult to find.“12**5" Even so their numbers increased until by 1878 they outnumbered the European population, a

2 situation which continued until 1909.

Until 1888 there were no restrictions on the entry of the Chinese into the Northern Territory and

their numbers continued to increase. By 1888

5,201 of the 7,533 Chinese in the Territory were

working on the Darwin-Pine Greek railway which was

started in 1887^ and of these only 300 were brought

to the country by the contractors.^ In this year

the population of the Territory reached a level not equalled again until the Second World War.

After 1887 a period of population decline began. Its most frequently mentioned cause was the introduction of a Bill by the South Australian Parliament in December 1888 imposing a £10 poll tax on Chinese arriving in the Northern Territory without anexemption certificate

and, in addition, allowing only one Chinese to every

£

500 tons of a ship!s weight. The effectiveness

^ Rendell, op.cit. pp 59-60 2 See Table 2, p. 21.

^ GRR, 1909. Intermittent work had been done prior to 188'

^ GRR. 1912. . . p . A .

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of this measure is evidenced by the decreasing numbers of Chinese entering without exemption certificates•J' Other factors which should be taken into account were an increase in fares from Hong Kong to Darwin following

this legislation, and also the fact that, by 1889,

the second brief boom in the Territory* s economy was

over. Many Chinese were doubtless content to return

home with the results of their toil especially as the unfriendly attitude among the Europeans made it

3

increasingly difficult for them to obtain a living. Until 1901, the year of Federation, there was no improvement in the Territory*s economy which would

have attracted further Chinese immigrants. Federation

brought immigration under the control of the Common wealth, which immediately enacted the Immigration Restriction Act which effectively prevented further

Chinese immigration to Australia, After 1901 there

was a marked decrease in the Chinese population of the Northern Territory which continued until 1947. This was caused not only by emigration to China, but

1 Rendell, op.cit., pp, 210-1. 2 GRR, 1839.

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also by migration to the Australian states which had

been closed to the Northern Territory Chinese before

Federation. There is difficulty in assessing the

number of departures for other parts of Australia'^ but apparently those who did go tended to be the

2

»youngest and most energetic». Another factor

accounting for the decrease was the mortality among many of the Chinese who had arrived 20 or 30 years

previously. This is also important in the decline

3

of the masculinity ratio.

The Chinese who migrated to the Northern Territory were similar in a number of respects to those migrating to other areas in that nearly all were men and most were sojourners who intended to stay only long enough

to make their fortunes. Another common characteristic

was the predominance of the form of migration organized by Chinese merchants and known as ’»The Credit Ticket System 1T^

G Apart from an intrepid few who attempted to go over land to Queensland they all left by ship and the returns in the Resident’s Reports do not indicate where these were bound.

2 GRRs* 1902-4. ^ See Table 3, p.26

^ GRR, 1ÖÖ7. See Persia Campbell, Chinese Coolie

Emigration to Countries within the British Empire"]"

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26

TABLE 3 a

MASCULINITY OF THE N.T. CHINESE

Year Total N.T. Chinese _Masculinity

1381 _{2,723 b} _99.9$

1891 3,507 b 98.3$

1901 2,572 b _97.5$

1911 1,331 d 92.0 $

1921 722 d _84.4$

1933 452 d 0 69.2$

1938 _{759 e} _N.A.

1947 250 d 61.6%

1934 323 d _52.3%

1961 _{458 d} _54.6$

a. Based on Census returns, 1001,1091, 1901

South Australia; 1911-1961 Commonwealth of

Australia.

b. Based on birthplace.

c. Census also gives total of 462.

d. Based on race.

e. Report on the Northern Territory; figure is

[image:34.544.74.528.30.711.2]

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The Chinese intermarried infrequently^ and a generation of Australian born Chinese grew up slowly providing a limited supply of wives for the immigrant

2

Chinese«, One important point to note is that after 1888 and especially after 1901 the number of new

Chinese arrivals was limited, even though there was no doubt some trafficking in exemption certificates. However, these controls on Chinese entry to Australia did not apply to those with established residence or

3

who were Australian born," and those who could afford were able to return to their villages for visits.

Some were also able to bring their families to

Australia for short visits and sometimes schooling.^“

J‘ Prior to 1942 there were 7 marriages between Chinese and other non-European and 6 involving Chinese and

Europeans. Apart from these figures based on the

marriage records the only other indication of unions (whether casual or permanent) between Chinese and non-Chinese are the figures for Chinese-Europeans

(8 in 1911 and 16 in 1933). In 1908 of 95 half-

caste Aborigines, 12 were half Chinese. G R R , 1908.

2 Marriage records indicate the tendency of first generation men to marry second generation women. 3

This was not always the case«, See Palfreeman,

o p .cit.

^ Six Chinese students were attending the Darwin

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28

The majority of the Darwin Chinese migrated from Toi Shan (in the Sze Yap district) Chungshan and perhaps Tung Kuan"1 districts in Kwangtung, and

from the n e w Territories of Hong Kong* The

importance of Tchain m i g r a t i o n 1 in the immigration of the Chinese to Darwin cannot be ascertained from

records. However, among the present families in

Darwin, there are a number who are members of two different lineage groups in Lukchun village in Toi Shan.

The history of Chinese settlement in the

Territory^ has been described at some length because it serves as a basis for their pre-war'' assimilation. However, we must also look at the attitudes of the

A club called the Kung-Yee-Tung existed in Darwin (Rendell, op.cit. p. 198) and in Sydney a club with the same name was founded by settlers from Tung Kuan. G. F. Yong, tTThe Chinese in N.S.W. and Victoria

1901-1921", Ph.D. Thesis, Australian National University, 1966, p. 325.

p

It is impossible to separate the Chinese in Darwin from those elsewhere in the Territory because of the extremely close links between them and in fact as

Table L p.29 shows the Northern Territory have

tended to concentrate in Darwin.

^ ’Pre-war1 is used throughout this study to refer

[image:36.544.78.539.30.705.2]

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TABLE 4 a

CONCENTRATION OF N.T.

CHINESE

IN DARWIN

Year

Total N.1

?. Chinese

Darwin Chinese

%

Chinese

in Darwin

1881 2,723 b 351 1 2.9%

1891 3,507 b 830 2 0.8%

1901 2,572 b 525 20.5%

1911 1,331 d 423 c 34. 5%

1921 722 d 352 d 4 8.8%

1933 452 d f 316 d 69.9%

1938 759

e

737 e 97.1%

1947 250 d 134 d 53.6%

1934 323 d 301 d 93.2%

1961 458 d 409 d 89.3%

1964 N.A. 458 d

N.A.

a. Based on Census returns, 1ÖÖ1, 1Ö91, 1901 South Australia; 1911-1964 Census and Population Count.

b. Based on birth place.

c. Based on religion (Confucian), no figure available for race. N.T. figure for Confucians is 1,220. d. Based on race.

e. Northern Territory Report. Figure is for * Asiaticst.

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30

European'” population to the Chinese and the nature of the adjustment they required of the Chinese, since as Eisenstadt and Gordon emphasize, this is

2

important in determining the limits of assimilation.

European Reactions to the Chinese.

Legislation by the Australian colonies and later by the Commonwealth controlled not only the entry of Chinese into the country but also their naturalization once they had arrived. Thus it was apparently against the policy of the South Australian government to naturalize Chinese, and by 1ÖÖÖ only 102 had been naturalized in the Territory. The last of these naturalizations had taken place in

3

1ÖÖ5. Similarly, in practice the Commonwealth Government did not naturalize Chinese between 1903 and 1 9 5 6 Although these last measures were

European attitudes are emphasized because of their relevance in understanding the extent to which the Chinese were assimilated to Anglo-Australian society. Although there was considerable hostility between the Aborigines and the Chinese this is largely ignored because of the lack of any indication that the

Chinese ’favoured’ assimilation with the Aborigines.

2

Eisenstadt, op.cit., p. 1Ö. Gordon, op.cit., p. 66-7. 3 Rendell, op.cit., p. 163.

^ Palfreeman, op.cit., Chapters 6 and 9.

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Australia wide they may be seen as representative of a broad range of opinion hostile to the Chinese in the

Northern Territory as well. This was expressed in

a number of other -ways such as the practice of holding public protest meetings after the arrival

of each new shipload of Chinese.1 *3 Although opposition

to the Chinese often referred to their use of opium, unsanitary housing conditions and general danger to public health as well as their gambling, in fact, fear of economic competition appears as the basic

element in this hostility. This can be seen in the

practice of economic discrimination and in the strong hostility shown by the labouring classes who saw

2

themselves threatened by cheap Chinese labour. This economic hostility was institutionalized in a variety of legislation limiting the access of

the Chinese to the mining industry, preventing

1 Rendell, op.cit., pp. 61-3. ^ loc.cit.

3 Ibid., pp. 97-8, 170, 176, 182-3. Legislation

in 18$5 barred Asiatic aliens from new goldfields for two years unless these had been dis covered by

them. 1Ö95 legislation prevented any Asiatic

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32

Asiatics from holding land in Tee simple"^ and

preventing them employing Aboriginal labour (this was considered a protection against the moral corruption of the Aborigines, especially through opium).12

When the Commonwealth government took control of the Northern Territory in 1911 economic discrim ination continued and was extended by the Federal

authorities. One of the first actions by the

Federal authorities was the replacement of all Chinese cooks employed at the Overland Telegraph

3

stations. Chinese were discharged wherever

possible from all Government works, and Europeans, when they could be found, were hired in their place.^ Not until late in the 1930s was the first Chinese employed in a clerical position in the Northern

Territory Administration. While the English

schooling of many Chinese was not very extensive, this exclusion from clerical jobs was without doubt

connected to racial discrimination. Apart from

administrative and legislative discrimination, the

1 Ibid., p. 169. o

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33

.

local very powerful1 trade union (The North

Australian Workers Union - N.A.W.U.) did not admit

Chinese as members until the late 1930s. This

exclusion from membership meant that the Chinese were unable to obtain jobs controlled by the Union, including those on the wharves and the roads which were the main outlet for unskilled labour in the Territory.

Discrimination against the Chinese found other,

non-economic expression. Until the thirties an

Asiatic ward existed at the Darwin hospital, apparently because Europeans refused to share a ward with Chinese (but not, interestingly enough,

1 See G.L.A. Abbott, Australia1s Frontier Provincet

Sydney, Angus and Robertson, 1950. Also Bauer,

op.cit. 11.

The change in the N.A.W.U. Constitution was not approved by the Industrial Registrar until 9.11.AÖ. However, in 1940 Chinese were listed as members of

the Union. This suggests that at some time after

September 1936 (the last change noted in the Consti tution) there must have been a change in the member ship rules and the war had interfered with their

approval. ^With the loss of most of the UnionTs

records during the war it is impossible to clarify this matter further.

3

There was, however, a clause which allowed Chinese and others debarred from membership through belonging

to a coloured race to obtain a permit. "Provided

that any person so debarred may be given a permit to work on any job if he satisfied a general meeting that he is a fit and proper person to hold such a

permit." Constitution 1936. How often this clause

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with Aborigines),^ Chinese were also refused admission to a number of Darwin sporting clubs and eventually in the 1920s formed their own club. Having done so they were able to compete against

teams of Europeans in some sports. Discrimination

against Chinese also extended to other voluntary associations in the European community, and only in exceptional circumstances were Chinese admitted.

The reasons for European discrimination and prejudice against the Chinese in the Territory may at first appear to be largely connected with the unsanitary nature of Chinatown with its consequent public health risks and with the evils of gambling and opium, although the Chinese were law-abiding in

other respects. However, underlying these fre

quently made complaints was the more basic fear of

Chinese competition. This can be seen in the

reaction to the opening of a night school for the

Chinese in 1ÖÖ6. A public protest meeting was held

at which the feeling was expressed that rthe Chinese already knew too much for the good of the whites in the Territory and if they were educated they would

2 completely supplant all clerks and professional men1•

^ W. J. Sowden, The Northern Territory As It Is, Adelaide, W. K, Thomas and Co., 18$2, pp. 134-5«

p

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Nineteenth Century Chinese Market Garden, Darwin, Source: P.H.M, Foelsche Collection, National

Library of Australia,

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It might be thought that after 1909 when the

Chinese ceased to outnumber the European population the discrimination and prejudice against them might have declined but this does not seem to have

occurred until at least the late 1930s.

The Extent of Chinese Assimilation.

The most urgent adjustment required of the

Chinese on arrival in Darwin was economic. Although the Chinese often lived very frugally, and there are reports of men seeking relief in the TDryT or of men too old for work having to be provided for by the State, the Chinese did in time become economically absorbed. Occupying as they did a number of 1 nicheT occupations they were not, however, economically assimilated.

Gold was important in attracting the Chinese to the Territory and for a long period Chinese dominated mining.1 Except for the pearling and pastoral industries, the Chinese provided the main source of unskilled labour in the Territory and were responsible for much of the construction work,

including the building of the Darwin-Pine Creek railway. Some Chinese became market-^gardeners or fishermen, and Chinese were favoured as domestic servants. They also came to dominate personal