MONDAY NOTES
(Spelling, Punctuation & Capitalization)
Spelling – Spelling rules can be found in Chapter 16 of your Holt Handbook.
Capitalization
Capitalize the first word in every sentence.
Traditionally, the first word of a line of poetry is capitalized.
Capitalize the first word of a directly quoted sentence.
Capitalize the first word in both the salutation and the closing of a letter.
Capitalize the pronoun I and the interjection O.
Capitalize proper nouns and proper adjectives.
o Capitalize the names of persons and animals.
o Capitalize initials in names and abbreviations that come before or after names.
o Capitalize geographical names.
o Capitalize the names of organizations, teams, government bodies, and institutions.
o Capitalize the names of historical events and periods, special events, holidays, and other calendar items.
o Capitalize the names of nationalities, races, and peoples.
o Capitalize the names of religions and their followers, holy days and celebrations, sacred writings, and specific deities.
o Capitalize the names of businesses and the brand names of business products.
o Capitalize the names of planets, stars, constellations, and other heavenly bodies.
o Capitalize the names of ships, trains, aircraft, and spacecraft.
o Capitalize the names of awards, memorials, and monuments.
o Capitalize the names of particular buildings and other structures.
Do not capitalize the names of school subjects, except the names of language classes or course names that contain a number.
Capitalize titles.
Commas
CS: Compound Sentence
o I love cake , but Jim loves cookies .
ITEMS: Items in a Series
o I love cookies, cake, and ice cream.
ADJ/ADJ: Adjectives in a Series
o Your sweet, tiny kitten is sleeping.
APP: Appositives
o Ms. Jones, my teacher, is challenging.
DA: Direct Address
o Listen, Joe, I do what I want!
IntroW/IntroP: Introductory Words or Phrases o Well, I’ll check on it. (Intro word)
o Quite frankly, I do not see your point. (Intro Phrase)
o After the football game, let’s grab some dinner. (Intro Prep Phrase 4+words) o Running the marathon, Mary listened to her iPod.(Intro Participial Phrase) o To be a scholar, one must study hard. (Intro Infinitive Phrase)
InterW/InterP: Interrupting Words or Phrases o His name, by the way, is Mr. Tanner.
IC DC/DC, IC
o Bill was the hero when he hit the game-winning homer. (IC DC) o When Bill hit the game-winning homer , he was the hero. (DC, IC)
EC/NC: Essential Clause vs. Non-essential Clauses
o Anyone who gets the answer will get a homework pass. (Essential – no comma)
o Spaghetti, which I love, is my mom’s least favorite food. (Non-essential - comma)
Semi-Colons
Used to join clauses
o My bike is old; I need a new one.
Used to join clauses with a conjunctive adverb (CA)
o My bike is old; however, I cannot afford a new one.
Used with a coordinating conjunction (CC) if the clause has commas.
o I love to play football, baseball, and hockey; but my brother, Joey, loves soccer, basketball, and cross country.
Used to separate items in a “monster list”
o My favorite cities are Chicago, Illinois; Atlanta, Georgia; and Boston, Massachusetts.
Colons
I’m going to buy the following items: a pencil, an eraser, and a notebook.
I’ll tell you what I’m going to do: I’m going to quit!
Apostrophes
To show possession: Jim’s hat
To omit letters (contractions): Don’t use contractions in your writing.
Quotation Marks
In quotations: In Hemingway’s The Old Man and the Sea, Santiago states, “I wish the boy were here” (80).
In dialogue: Mary said, “You don’t know anything, Jimmy!”
When writing the titles of short works: the poem, “O Captain, My Captain”
o ** Be sure to use proper punctuation.
o ** Do not use quotations (or anything else for that matter) around titles of your essays.
TUESDAY NOTES
(Parts of Speech)
The way a word is used in a sentence determines what part of speech it is.
NOUN
A person, a place, a thing, or an idea.
A common noun: not capitalized (city)
A proper noun names common noun and is capitalized (Atlanta)
A concrete noun can be perceived by one or more of the senses (desk)
An abstract noun names an idea, a feeling, a quality, or a characteristic (freedom)
A compound noun consists of two or more words used together as a single noun (fire truck, father-in-law, toothpaste)
A possessive noun shows ownership (girl’s, or girls’)
PRONOUN
A word that is used in place of one or more nouns or pronouns.
A personal pronoun refers to the one speaking (first person), the one spoken to (second person), or the one spoken about (third person)
o I gave it to her before you arrived at my party.
A reflexive pronoun refers to the subject of a sentence and ends in –SELF o I cut myself on the scissors this morning.
An intensive pronoun emphasizes its antecedent and ends in –SELF o I myself finished that jigsaw puzzle.
A demonstrative pronoun (this, that, these, those) is used to point out a specific person, place, thing, or idea.
o You will need this pen and that book for those classes.
An interrogative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, what) introduces a question.
o Who let the dogs out?
A relative pronoun (who, whom, whose, which, that) introduces a dependent clause.
o The teacher is the person who can answer that question.
An indefinite pronoun refers to one or more persons, places, things, or ideas that may or may not be specifically named
o Singular: another, anybody, anyone, anything, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, little, much, neither, nobody, no one, nothing, one, other, somebody, someone, something
o Plural: both, few, many,, several
o Singular or Plural: all, any, more, most, none, some Agreement (Holt Handbook, chapter 8)
Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement
o A hero has tremendous influence on the people around them. (incorrect) o Correct: A hero has tremendous influence on the people around him.
ADJECTIVE
A word that is used to modify a noun or a pronoun.
It tells Which one? What kind? How many?
o The red car o I have two pens o A covered wagon
Includes articles: a, an, the
Can be proper, and therefore capitalized (American flag)
VERB
A word that is used to express action or a state of being.
A transitive verb is a verb that expresses an action and has a direct object
An intransitive verb expresses an action, but does not have a DO
An action verb expresses either physical or mental action.
A linking verb connects the subject to a word or word group that identifies or describes the subject.
A verb phrase consists of a main verb and one or more helping verbs.
Agreement (Holt Handbook, chapter 8)
Subject-Verb Agreement
o High levels of air pollution causes damage to the lungs. (incorrect) o Correct: High levels of air pollution cause damage to the lungs.
ADVERB
An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
It tells How? (quickly) When? (yesterday, often) Where? (here, there) Why? (** to avoid the rocks) To what extent? (almost)
Conjunctive Adverbs (CA) A CA is not a true conjunction, but it often functions as a conjunction in joining two independent clauses. It serves as a transitional device between one main thought and another.
o Common conjunctive adverbs are accordingly, again, also, besides consequently, finally, furthermore, however, indeed, moreover, nevertheless, otherwise, then, therefore, and thus.
PREPOSITION
A preposition is a word that shows the relationship of a noun or pronoun to another word.
CONJUNCTION
A conjunction is a word that joins words or word groups.
Coordinating Conjunctions (CC) are the FANBOYS
Correlative Conjunctions (work with a partner: either/or neither/nor not only/but also)
Subordinating Conjunctions (SC) start dependent clauses (after, since, while, because, if)
INTERJECTION
An interjection is a word that expresses emotion. An interjection has no grammatical relation to the rest of the sentence. (Hey! Eek! Aww,)
WEDNESDAY NOTES
(Parts of a Sentence)
A sentence is a word or word group that contains a subject and a verb and expresses a complete thought.
SUBJECT
The subject tells whom or what the sentence is about, and the predicate says something about the subject.
The complete subject consists of the simple subject and any words, phrases, or clauses that modify the simple subject.
A compound subject consists of two or more subjects that are joined by a conjunction and that have the same verb (Slim and Chance are my cats)
Here and there are never the subjects of the sentence (Here is the pencil.).
The Understood You can be (Bring me the remote.).
VERB/PREDICATE
The predicate, or verb, is the main word or word group that tells something about the subject.
The predicate may be a one-word verb or a verb phrase (I love English. I am learning more every day.).
A compound verb consists of two or more verbs that are joined by a conjunction and that have the same subject (Jack ran and jumped over the log.).
COMPLEMENT
A complement is a word or word group that completes the meaning of a verb.
Predicate Nominative
o follows a linking verb & renames the subject
o answers the question: SUBJECT-LINKING VERB-WHAT?
o Johnny is a nice guy.
Predicate Adjective
o follows a linking verb & describes the subject
o answers the question: SUBJECT-LINKING VERB-WHAT?
o Johnny is very nice.
Direct Object
o follows an action verb
o answers the question SUBJECT-ACTION VERB-WHO/WHAT?
o is never in a prepositional phrase o Johnny hit the ball out of the park.
Indirect Object
o follows an action verb
o comes before a DIRECT OBJECT o is never in a prepositional phrase
o answers the question SUBJECT-ACTION VERB-DIRECT OBJECT TO/FOR WHOM/ TO/FORWHAT?
o Johnny gave me a flower.
THURSDAY NOTES
(Phrases)
A phrase is a group of related words that is used as a single part of speech and does not contain both a verb and its subject.
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
A prepositional phrase includes a preposition, the object of the preposition, and any modifiers of that object.
Adjective Prepositional Phrase o modifies nouns/pronouns
o must follow the noun/pronoun it is modifying o is “automatic” if it falls directly after the subject
The man in the blue hat waved.
o but can fall at the end…
I waved at the man in the blue hat.
Adverb Prepositional Phrase
o modifies verbs/adjectives/adverbs o can be found anywhere in the sentence
o is “automatic” if it starts the sentence or follows anything but a noun/pronoun
Before class, Johnny grabbed his supplies. (beginning)
Johnny was sore from yesterday’s long football practice. (after adjective)
Feeling lazy, we only ran around the block. (after verb) o Occasionally, it will follow a noun.
We tried the spicy salsa at Tito’s Taco Palace. (doesn’t describe salsa, but tells where we tried)
PARTICIPLES & PARTICIPIAL PHRASES
A participle is a verb form used as an adjective. The phrase contains modifiers.
they end in –ing,, –d, –ed, -nt, -n
can be found anywhere in a sentence
will be followed by a comma at the beginning of the sentence o I love my new running shoes.
o The pond, frozen since January, is now safe for ice-skating.
o Frightened by a dog, Johnny ran down the street.
GERUNDS & GERUND PHRASES
A gerund is a verb form used as a noun. The phrase contains modifiers.
they end in –ing
they can function as any noun: S, DO, IO, PN, OP, APP
at the beginning of a sentence, it will NOT be followed by a comma.
o I am not really interested in skiing. (OP)
o Cramming for tests is not a good study strategy. (S) o Johnny enjoys swimming in the murky lake. (DO) o I gave jumping from the cliff a chance. (IO)
o His favorite hobby is dancing with the wolves. (PN)
o Johnny’s talent, running up trees, has earned him no money. (APP)
INFINITIVES & INFINITIVE PHRASES
An infinitive is a verb form that can be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. The phrase contains modifiers
Most infinitives begin with to, although the to can be omitted.
Adjective Infinitives follow the same rules as adjective prep phrases.
o Her plan to study a little every night helped her ace her final exams. (ADJ – modifies the subject)
Adverb Infinitives follow the same rules as adverb prep phrases o Johnny went to college to become a veterinarian.
o To understand Professor Peterson’s lectures, you must listen carefully and take a great deal of notes.
Noun Infinitives follow the same rules as gerunds o To stay awake in class is my only goal.
o Johnny hopes to win the approval of his coach by staying after for more practice.
Omitted or ELLIPTICAL “to”
o He helped us paddle the rowboat.
APPOSITIVES & APPOSITIVE PHRASES
An appositive is a noun or a pronoun placed beside another noun or pronoun to identify or describe it. The phrase contains modifiers.
Can have a comma:
o My teacher, a very good chess player, has won several tournaments.
Can be an infinitive or gerund:
o Johnny’s goal in life, to become a veterinarian, is within his grasp.
Does not need a comma if the phrase is essential:
o My brother Steve is a great golfer.
FRIDAY NOTES
(Clauses & Sentence Type)
A clause is a word group that contains a verb and its subject and that is used as a sentence or as part of a sentence.
An independent clause (IC)
every sentence needs at least one
expresses a complete thought and can stand by itself as a sentence
A dependent (or subordinate) clause (DC)
does not express a complete thought and cannot stand by itself as a sentence
starts with a relative pronoun or a subordinating conjunction
An adjective clause is a dependent clause that modifies a noun or a pronoun.
o starts with a relative pronoun
o must follow the noun it is modifying
She likes the guy who sits in front of her.
An adverb clause is a dependent clause that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.
o starts with a subordinating conjunction o can be found anywhere in the sentence
o At the beginning of the sentence, an adverb clause is followed by a comma, but not at the end
When the bell rings, we will eat.
We will eat when the bell rings.
A noun clause is a dependent clause that is used as a noun.
o usually starts with a relative pronoun o acts like a noun
I hope that you understand the rules.
My only wish is that I will win a million dollars.
That you enjoy English class is obvious.
COMMON ERRORS
Run-on (RO) - two or more ICs together with no punctuation o Michael loves to draw he is a talented artist.
Comma Splice (CS) - two or more ICs together with only a comma o Michael loves to draw, he is a talented artist.
Fragment (FRAG) - an incomplete thought/sentence o Leaving us alone for dinner.
TYPES
A simple sentence contains one independent clause and no subordinate clauses. It may have a compound subject, a compound verb, and any number of phrases.
o I wrote my first novel last year.
A compound sentence contains two or more independent clauses and no subordinate clauses.
o I wrote my first novel last year, but nobody has read it.
A complex sentence contains one independent clause and at least one subordinate clause.
o If I pay you a lot of money, will you read my novel?
A compound-complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause.
o I will pay you if you read it, but you have to tell me that you loved it.
