Amanda Beard Columbus State University,

Columbus State University

Columbus State University

CSU ePress

CSU ePress

Theses and Dissertations

Student Publications

2010

Historically Informed Performance Practice of the Baroque Era

Historically Informed Performance Practice of the Baroque Era

Amanda Beard

Columbus State University, [email protected]

Follow this and additional works at:

https://csuepress.columbusstate.edu/theses_dissertations

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Recommended Citation

Recommended Citation

Beard, Amanda, "Historically Informed Performance Practice of the Baroque Era" (2010). Theses and

Dissertations. 133.

https://csuepress.columbusstate.edu/theses_dissertations/133

Digitized

by

the

Internet

Archive

in

2012

with

funding

from

LYRASIS Members

and

Sloan Foundation

Historically InformedPerformance Practiceofthe

Baroque

Era

by

Amanda

Beard

A

Thesis Submitted in PartialFulfillment of

Requirements ofthe

CSU

Honors

Program

For

Honors

in the degree of

Music

in

Music

Education.

Schwob

School ofMusic,

Columbus

StateUniversity

Thesis Advisor

jMX\c<<s^4n

I

i^q-Committee

Member

Committee

Member

CSU

Honors

Committee

Member

Director,

Honors Program

In recent years,

much

debate has ensuedregarding the level of consideration that should be

givento the historicalcontextofmusical compositions thatwere written and performed during the

Baroque

era,

which

extends

from

1600 to 1750

CE.

The

question arises asto

how

closely

we

should

strive to emulatethe performance conditions that

would

have been presentduring the

Baroque

era.

Robert Donington, an English musicologist andauthorof

two

definitive texts

on

Baroque

performance

practice, suggests inhis Performer's

Guide

to

Baroque

Music

that

we

can

meet

theexpectations ofthe

Baroque composers

to a greaterdegree than

many

modern

performers suppose. Regardless ofwhether

one is able to invest in period instruments, or to study

Baroque

musicextensively, a performerat any

level can strive to understandand toapply the universal principles ofhistorically informedperformance

practice.

The

rich

body

ofmusic produced duringthe

Baroque

period should notbe restrictedto the

enjoymentof

Baroque

scholars alone, nor should it be abused

by

those performers

who

are unwilling to

explore the traditionsthat place the

works

within aunique historical context.

Every

work

ofartbelongs

within a specific culturalcontext, and our

enjoyment

can be

enhanced

ratherthan deterred

by

learning

toappreciate theelements

which

make

the

work

unique.

While

the misconceptionexiststhat the

performance of

Baroque

music is

somehow

limiting orunemotional, in reality the opportunity for

personal expression and individualized performance in the

Baroque

era is unrivaled

by most

other

periods ofmusic history. Ifone will truly seek to understandand toapply

some

ofthe basic elements of

Baroque

performance practice, a treasuretrove ofartistic options are available to the performer.

Through

the

works

ofG. F. Handel, one ofthe

most

prolific

composers

ofthe

Baroque

era, the flutist

can learnto appreciate the rich language ofthe

Baroque

era, and begin to apply the specific elements of

this language that can facilitate a historically informed performance.

The

many

instrumental

works

of

G. F. Handel, includinghisSonata in

G

major

op. 1, no. 5

(HWV

363b), provide an excellent starting

point forthose instrumentalists

who

would

endeavor toexplore the elementsthat

make

the

Baroque

traditionunique, including the production ofadesirable characteristic sound, astylistically appropriate

tempos, the application ofthe inigale style, anda sensitive performance ofa varietyofdistinct musical

styles.

George

Frederic Handel

was

one ofthe

most

influential and prolific

composers

ofthe

Baroque

era, and his

works

provide performers of

many

instrumental and vocal

mediums

with a wealth offinely

crafted

works

which

exemplifythe spirit ofthe age.Although

Handel

was

born in Halle,

Germany

in

1685 and spent

some

time in

Hamburg

and in Italy,he enjoyed his greatest success in England,

where

he

became

anaturalizedcitizen.

The

operas and oratorios that

Handel

wrote in the English vernacular

meritedthe admiration andrespect ofthe nation,

and

Handel's legacypersists asone ofthe

most

beloved English

composers

ofall time.

Employed

by

many

wealthy patrons, including the Electorof

Hanover,

who

would

later

become

King George

IofGreat Britain,

Handel

was

obligatedto produce

great variety of instrumental andvocal works.

The

scope ofhis requiredduties

may

havecontributed to

his notable practiceofselfborrowing andthe use of interchangeable instrumentation in his

instrumental

works

which

was

common

atthe time (Streatfield, 130-136).

While

stronglyinfluenced

by

the Italian

Baroque

style,

Handel

successfullyincorporated a varietyofnational styles in his works. His

operas, probablythe clearest

examples

oftheinfluence ofthe Italian style

on

Handel's writing,

dominated

much

ofthecomposer's attention throughouthis lifetime. His mastery ofthe oratorio,

clearly manifested in beloved

works

such as the Messiah, is one ofhis

most

notablecontributions,

althoughthe popularityof such

works

has oftenunfairlydetracted

from

the position ofhistorical

importancethat

Handel

holds in all genres (Hicks).

While

often

overshadowed by

Handel's notable accomplishments in theopera genre andin the

development ofthe oratorio, hisinstrumental

chamber works

made

significant strides in theevolution

ofsonata

form

and in advancing the quality ofthe instrumental music available (Streatfield 330).

Sonata

form

was

one ofthe

most

universallyused forms ofthe Classical era and continued well into

the

20

century, and is used in almost every major

symphony

or instrumental

work

with

which

we

are

which

two

to threebasic melodic themes are presented, adevelopment section,

which expounds upon

these basic themes, and a recapitulation,

which

reiteratesthese themes in the tonic key(Webster).

Many

ofthe individual

movements

of Handel's sonatas, including thesecond

movements

ofthe Sonatas in

A

major

(HWV

361) and

D

major

(HWV

378),

conform

to thebasic structure ofsonata form, and provide

some

ofthe clearest

examples

ofhis contributionto the development ofthe sonata

form

(Streatfield

330).

Handel can becredited withthe supply ofa vast

body

ofrepertoire fora

number

of solo

instruments. Although

Handel was

oftenpreoccupied with the compositionofopera, the obligations

that he hadto hispatron required that heproduce a substantial

amount

of instrumental music.

The

flutist ofthe

Baroque

era

would

haveperformed

upon

thetransverse flute,

which

was blown from

the

side, in contrastto its frequently used counterpart, the

end-blown

recorder.

The

term 'transverse',or

'traverso' flute is used broadly todayto signifya side

blown

flute.

The

characteristic instrument ofthe

Baroque

era

was

constructedof

wood

orivory and hadholes

where

the fingers

were

tobe placed

and

often a single key

which

resembles our

modern

D

sharpkey. This instrument

had

a cylindricalbore

and produced a softer,

more mellow sound

than the flutes to

which

we

are accustomed. It

was

used

most

frequently in small

chamber

settings,

which

served asthe

most

practical

and

appropriate context

for the instrument.

Handel

wrote twelve sonatas thatcould be performed

upon

the transverse flute,

although

most were

written with nonspecific instrumentation

which

could be performed

interchangeably

by

various treble voiced instruments. Featured in yourhandout areimages

which

depict the transverse flute designed

by Johann

Quantz.

Handel'sSonata in

G

major,

HWV

363B, while

somewhat

unusual because ofits five

movement

structure, provides abrilliant

specimen

ofthis skilled instrumental writing. This

work

was

composed

between

1712

and

1716, shortly after his residence in Italy. Handel's time in Italy,

which

spannedtheperiod of four years,

between

1706

and

1710,

was

crucial in his

development

as a

Cardinal Peitro OttobonialongsideAlessandro Scarlatti and ArchangeloCorelli,

among

the

most

notable and influential

composers

ofthe Italian

Baroque

style. Handel's compositional technique,

which

shared

many

characteristicsofItalian

Baroque

writing,

was

shaped unmistakeably

by

their

influence. Handel adopted the four

movement

form

ofthe sonata

da

chiesa,

which

was

established

by

Corelli. This model,

which

featured the

movements

ofthe sonata in the consecutive order of slow,fast,

slow, fast, served asabasis for

many

ofHandel's sonatas.

The

Sonata in

G

major

(HWV

363B),

unusual

among

Handel's sonatas because ofits five

movement

form, features aBourree and aMinuet.

This

work

resemblesthe suites ofstylized dances

which formed

a significant part ofthe"bodyof

instrumental repertoire for

some

time. This suiteand others featured populardance forms and their

stylistic features, but

were

intendedto be performed

upon

instrumentsratherthan danced.

The

identification ofa

movement

as a stylizeddance should shape the performer'sinterpretation ofthe

work, because ofthe specific considerations unique toeach dance.

Perhaps the

most

valuable tools thatthe

modern

performer possesses in attemptingto rendera

historically informed performance of

Baroque

music arethe treatises that

were

authored

by

influential

performers andteachers oftheday. There are

no

recordings to

which

we

can refer, so

we

must examine

these treatises to ascertain details about appropriate performance practice.

Two

ofthe treatises

which

provide a solid foundation forthose seekingto perform

Baroque

music are the

works

On

Playing the

Flute

by

Johann

Quantz

andthe Essay on the TrueArt of Playing

Keyboard

Instruments

by

Carl Philip

Emanuel

Bach.

On

Playing the Flute

was

written

by Johann Joachim

Quantz, an influential

German

flutist, flute

maker

and

composer

who

servedat thecourt of Frederick IIof Prussiafor

much

ofhis life. Histreatise

has

become

oneofthe

most

authoritative sources on

Baroque

performance practice, partlybecause of

its thoroughness andpracticality.

The

treatise outlines in greatdetail almostevery consideration that

faced the

Baroque

performer,

from

theelements oftasteful ornamentation tothe discussionofpractical

quality flute

embouchure

orofthe

complex

fingering system ofthe

Baroque

flute, theuniversal

applicationofthe sectionson rhythmic alterations, ornamentation, and ofthe roles of concertante

accompanistsprovides valuable insight for all musicians.

Quantz

provides

many

musical

examples

that

can provide a solid foundation for the beginner

who

would

seekto

ornament

a

Baroque

work

or to

perform a tasteful cadenza(Quantz).

Carl Philip

Emanuel

Bach, the authoroftheEssay on the TrueArt of Playing

Keyboard

Instruments,

was

the sonofJ.S.

Bach

and served as a crucial figure inthe transition

from

the

Baroque

to the Classical era.

A

virtuosic harpsichordist as well ascomposer, C.P.E.

Bach

wrote KisEssay with

much

experience andauthority, providing a definitive pedagogical source for keyboardplayers

and

Baroque

performers in general. This text is especially useful forthose

who

would

seek tolearn the

harmonic languageofthe

Baroque

era, as itprovides detailed,practical guidelines forthe realization of

figuredbass. There are sections within the treatise that specificallyaddress the performance of

keyboard instruments, such asthose dedicated to suggestedfingerings, but

much

ofthe text is useful

for all performers, includingthe extensivesection

on

ornamentation.

Beforeendeavoring to perform

any

work

from

the

Baroque

era, it is important to explore the

dialect ofthe

Baroque

musical language andthe desired characteristic

sound

ofthe instrument tobe

played.

As

mentioned previously,

we

possess

no

recordings

from

the

Baroque

erabut

we

can

form

conclusions about thedesirable

sound

quality ofthe

Baroque

flute through careful examination of

period instruments.

While few

purchaseand learn the

complex

fingeringsystem ofthe

Baroque

flute,

all flutists should strive to understandthe unique qualities ofthis instrument to guide the musical

decisions thatthey make.

Nancy

Hadden,

who

teaches at theGuildhall School of

Music

in

London

and

has produced several internationallyacclaimed recordings

on

the

Baroque

flute, describes

some

of

these necessaryconsiderations.

She

claims that the intense

and

powerful

sound

which

flutists striveto

produce

on

a

modern

instrument

would

be impractical and uncharacteristic

on

the

wooden

instrument

accompanied

bythe harpsichord,

which

lacks the

dynamic

capabilitiesofthe

modern

piano (Borst

Jones).

The

mellow, sweet sound ofthe

Baroque

flute is the sound to

which

Handel

would

have been

accustomed.

To

think that thischaracteristic sound is limitingto the expressiverange ofthe fluteis a gross

misconception. In fact,

Nancy Hadden

applauds

some

oftheunique expressivecapabilities ofthe flute,

statingthat the

Baroque

flute has a"tremendous rangeofexpression", and that it is capable ofdoing

"things that the

modern

flutecannot do, such as theflattement, orfinger vibrato, and

messa

di voce, or

swelling ofthe sound,

which Quantz

prizes so highly"' (Borst Jones, 29).

While

vibrato is

now

considered a crucial element of aflutist's core sound, it

was

notextensively used

by

flutists in the

Baroque

era. Flattement, orfinger vibrato,

was

consideredan

ornament

to colorthe

sound

at

appropriate times in the music. Flattementis produced

by

a quick

movement

ofthe finger

above

the

tone hole, without actuallycoveringthe hole. This slight

wave

in the air

was

not intendedto

perceptiblychange the pitch, butrather

was

to introduce a

new

colorto a musical passage, usually

on

a

sustained note.

Quantz

does not advocate a straight orunexpressive tone. Rather, heinstructs flutists to

strive for arich, full soundthat imitates the chest voiceofa contralto,

enhanced by messa

di voce, or

the swelling ofthe sound,

on

long notes.

He

also suggests that musicians "early

accustom

themselves

to singing andplaying neithertoo simply nor toocolourfully, always

mixing

simplicityand brilliance"

(Quantz 99). Donington furtherdescribes this balance,claiming thatthe discipline present inbaroque

music is a "disciplineof strong feeling,strongly ordered.

Cold

formalityandcautious reticence have

noplace in a

good

performing style"(Donington Performer's 17). I willdemonstrate

messa

di voce, the

swelling ofthe sound

by

playing an excerpt

from

the beginningof Handel'sSonata in

G

major.

A

light, crisp articulation

was

deemed

appropriate forthe

Baroque

flute in livelyor dance-like

pieces or

movements

(Donington Performer's37). Inhis treatise,

Quantz

describes a

complex

system

ofarticulation,

which

involves using specific syllables to

form

the articulation

which

areappropriate to

liveliness tothe music being played (Quantz 71). Particularly in quick, lively pieces, the articulation

was meant

to

convey

a sense ofgaiety and brilliance.

Even

in lyrical, legato pieces or

movements,

a

more

incisive articulation

was

useful to bring out important elementsofthe music, including

appoggiaturas, strong beats in the music, beginningsofphrases, and dotted notes. Furthermore,

Nancy

Hadden

describes the practical limitations ofthe

Baroque

flute, including the

complex

cross fingerings

oftheflute and the inequalityof

sound

on various notes.

These

considerations

make

the abilityto

articulate with greatclarity a crucial asset for the performerof

Baroque

flute music to possess.

While

modern

flutists strive to achieve an evennessofstrength and colorthroughout all

registers astheyarticulate, the system oftonguingthat

Quantz

outlines inhis treatiseemphasizes the

hierarchyofbeats

which

was

appropriate during the

Baroque

era. For example, whilethe

modern

flutist might use syllables similar tothe syllables 'tuku' to double tongue quick passage work,

Quantz

asks that flutists usethe syllables 'did'll' to perform fastpassages. Flutists today

may

spend hours

strengthening the 'ku'syllable, attempting to

make

the syllables,

which

areboth relatively strong

syllables,

sound

equally important.

However, Quantz

states that to

"conform

with

good

tastethey

must

be alittle unequal" (Quantz 74). It

was

considered important in

Baroque

music to distinguish

between

'goodbeats' and 'badbeats'. Beatsone and three

were

considered 'good beats' in

common

time,

and

beats

two and

four

were

considered 'bad beats'.

The

syllables

which Quantz

suggest require emphasis

on

the strong beats,and less weight

on

the beats that

were

considered tobe passing beats (Quantz 123).

While

it

may

becounterintuitive to the

modern

musician, studying and using Quantz's system as a

frame of reference canbenefit anyflutist

who

would

seekto render a

more

historically informed

performance. Iwill

now

perform anexcerpt

from

the second

movement

ofthe

Handel

Sonata in

G

major

twice.

The

first time Iperformthe work, Iwill use the syllables 'tu ku' andthe secondtime Iwill

demonstrate the use ofthe syllables 'did'll'.

An

important extension ofthe expressive intentof

Baroque

music

was

the practiceof

8

pieces that he or she performedtastefully.

Donington

states in his Performers'

Guide

to

Baroque Music

that

"The Baroque

ideal, likeone

modern

ideal,

was

to

depend

upon

the individuality ofthe performer

tofill out the implications ofa sketchily notated text" (Donington 15). This furtherconfirms the fact

that

Baroque

music, ratherthan limiting the performer, allows the performertoexplore thevast

possibilities for personal expressionavailable tothem.

Quantz

strongly stated that theornaments that

were available to the

Baroque

performer

were

"absolutelynecessary for

good

execution" (Quantz 99).

However,

allornaments

were

intended to be chosencarefullyand knowledgeably, andthe

overuseof

them was

considered frivolous. In their treatises,

Quantz

and C. P.

E

Bach

continually

reinforce theirdisdain for those

who

would

make

a

melody

unrecognizable through excessive

ornamentation. It

was

considered offensive to tamperwith the inherent qualities ofthe music.

Quantz

suggests practicing the melodies without alteration first, andthen filling inthe ornamentationin a

manner

that enhancesthe original intent ofthe composer, ratherthan detracting

from

it. C.P.E.

Bach

stresses the importance of ensuringthat all ornaments have an expressivepurpose (Bach79).

Perhapsthe

most

important ornamental option available to the

Baroque

performer

was

the

appoggiatura. Literally translated

from

the Italian "to lean", the appoggiatura

embodies

the spirit of

baroque music, providingtheopportunity fortension

and

release,

and

conveying a senseofdeep

longing thatdispels any notion that baroque music is unemotional.

Most

frequentlythe appoggiatura

introduced adissonance to the harmony,

and

it

was

intended to beperformed

on

thebeat. It

was

an

auxiliarynote that could eitherbetaken

from above

or

below

the

main

note.

While

notalways notated

inthe music, it

was

frequently implied, and it

was

no

less essential in those places of inference than in

the notation.

When

notated in the music, it

was

represented

by

the appearance ofa small note.

The

most

frequently occurring appoggiatura, the long appoggiatura,

was

tobe played half the lengthofthe

main

note. In the case ofdotted notes, the note

was

divided into three parts withthe appoggiatura

being held for the duration of

two

of those parts, and the

main

note being held forone (Quantz 92-95).

9

notated in the music, and secondas it

would

have been interpreted in reality.

The

short appoggiatura,

sometimes

appropriate in later

Baroque

music,

was

not notated anydifferentlythan its counterpart, but

was

deemed

stylistically preferable in

some

cases depending

on

the context ofthe music. C.P.E.

Bach

describes

some

ofthe possible scenarios

when

the useofthe long appoggiatura

would

have been

desirable. It

was

appropriate before veryquick notesorbeforelong notes that were repeated or syncopated, or ifthe appoggiatura

formed

an octave with the bass. In figure two, an

example

is

providedthat depicts the proper interpretation for

some

of these exceptions (Donington Baroquel85).

Besides interpreting notated appoggiaturascorrectly, it

was

the responsibilityoftheperformer to insert

them where

they

were

contextually implied.

Quantz

statesthat it is not

enough

to understand the

rhythmic tendencies ofeach appoggiatura, but that the performer

must

know

where

to insert

them

in

the music.

Quantz

provides amusical

example which

is reproducedin figure 3 thatpresents the

appearance ofthe appoggiaturain a variety ofcontexts.

Because

the appoggiatura provideda musical device fortension and release, the

manner

in

which

one performedthis crucial

ornament

was

important as well.

The

beliefof

many

Baroque

musicians, includingQuantz,

was

the idea that music

was

aprocess that

was

meant

to arousethe

passions

and

then to soothe

them

again (Quantz 98).

The

appoggiatura served as a

microcosm

ofthis

philosophy, providing both longing andresolution within a short period oftime.

The

performer should

strive to lean

on

the appoggiaturaand tode-emphasize the following note, as ifsighing.

From

a

technical standpoint,

Quantz

suggests thatappoggiaturas be "tipped gently with the tongue, allowing

them

to swell in

volume

iftime permits; thefollowing notes are slurred alittle

more

softly" (Quantz

91). It

was

also considered appropriate to allow aslight space before the appoggiatura is played, in

ordertohighlight the

ornament

even

more

(Donington). Iwill

now

play abriefexcerpt

from

Handel's

Sonata in

G

major, in

which

Ihave chosen to incorporatethe use of appoggiaturas.

Another

ofthe

most

frequentlyoccurring ornaments is the trill or'shake',

which

has very

upper neighbor,

which

may

be a

whole

stepor a half step higher than the

main

note (Donington 195)

The

execution ofthe

Baroque

trill can be differentiated

from

the trill to

which

we

are

accustomed

today

by

the additional

components

that are implied bythe occurrence ofa

Baroque

trill. In

most

cases, the

Baroque

trill had three parts, the appoggiaturathat preceded it, the trill itself, and the 'termination' of

the trill.

As

was

the case with allappoggiaturas, the appoggiatura

was

considered anecessary part of

any trill thathad a specific harmonic function in the music(Quantz).

So

important

was

the

appoggiatura to the trill itself, thatoften a trill

was

implied

by

the presence ofan appoggiatura in the

music.

The

performer

was

expected toplace special emphasis

on

the appoggiatura, asit

was

seenas the

most

colorful element, acclimating the listener's ears to the dissonance introduced

by

the trill.

The

trill

was

intended tosound

unmeasured

and free, and could be performed atvarious speedsdepending

on

the musicalcontext (Donington Performer's).

Quantz

suggests that in "melancholy"orlyrical pieces,

the trill should be played slowly and that in spirited, gaypieces the trill should be performed

more

quickly (Quantz 101).

The

"termination" ofthetrill, as

Quantz

calledit, consisted of

two

additional

notesplayed at the

end

ofthetrill,

which

created aquickturn. This turnedending

was

usually

obligatory, but could be omitted at times

when

thetrill occurred onnotes that

were

very short in

duration orappeared inquick succession with othertrilled notes. In figure 4, the interpretation ofa trill

is depicted, including the three parts ofthe trill that

were

implied. I will play an

example

ofthethree

parttrill.

The

cadential trill, performed in the

same manner

asdescribed above,

had

a strong harmonic

function

and

was

consideredessential atalmost everycadence. Likethe appoggiatura, whetherornot

the

ornament

was

notated inthe music, the performer

was

expectedto execute the trill at all appropriate

cadences. Cadential trills served a similarpurpose as thecadenza in a

more compact

form. It provided

an unwritten alterationofthe

dominant

harmony, introducing dissonance into thechord before its

resolution tothe tonic chord. Robert

Donington

states that the

most

important note ofthetrill is the

chord, and should be heard as the accentofthe trill.

Donington

suggests that, aboveall, theperformer

must be aware ofthe obligatory nature of boththe appoggiaturaand the cadential trill in orderto render

a historically informed performance of

Baroque

music (Donington 178). Figure 5

shows

a cadence as

itmight appearin the music andthe implied cadential trill immediately following. I will

now

playan

excerpt

from

the Handel Sonata in

G

Major

that features this implied cadential trill.

The

mordent, like the trill,

was

an

unmeasured

alternation

between two

notes.

The

inverted, or

upper mordent, featured the

main

noteand the note a half step or

whole

step higher.

The

mordent,

which

was

typically accented

on

the

main

note, primarilyserved a rhythmic function. Usuallyplayed

on the beat,mordents consistofonly three notes, and

were

often intended toenhance therhythmic

driveofthe pieceratherthat to sustain a particular note.

Neumann

describes anadditional musical

function for the

mordent

asa melodic connector. In this case, he statesthat the

mordent

can "anticipate,

straddle, or avoidthe beat altogether

by

delayed entrance"

(Neumann

416). In figure 6 Ihave included

some

possibilitiesof execution for those mordents

which

occur

on

the beat,

and

those

which

occur

before thebeat asdepicted

by

Neumann.

C.P.E.

Bach

suggests incorporating the use ofmordents

when

apassage ascends

by

step or

by

leap, or

on

notes thatare the high point ofaphrase (Donington

Performer's 203).

The

turn

was

anotheruseful ornamental devicethat

was

available to theperformer.

The

turn

featured a group ofnotes

which

circled around a main, principal note.

The

standard turn

began

with the

upper neighbor ofthe principal note,

which

then

moved

to the principal note, to the note a

whole

step

orhalf step

below

it,

and

back

up

to theprincipal note.

The

inverted turncould also be used,

which

was

just theopposite, beginning with the note

below

the

main

note,passing through the

main

note followed

by

the upperneighbor,

and

then returning tothe principal note. Turns

would

eitherbe placedon the

beat,

which

typicallyserveda harmonicpurpose, as well as melodic, oroff the beat,

which

was

often

usedto enhance the

melody by

providing additional color(Donington Performer's 204-206).

The

latter

purpose, while the former

was

effective inaccentuating the principal note and adding rhythmic

intensity

(Neumann

465).

While

turns

were most

commonly

performed evenlyas a group offour notes,

many

otherrhythmic possibilitiesexisted, includingthe use oftriplet rhythms and the unequal rhythms

that will soon be discussed in greaterdetail (Donington Performer's 204-206).

Neumann

provides a

depiction of

some

these rhythmically diverse options,

which

is featured in Figure 7. I will

now

perform

a

few

excerpts

from

Handel's Sonata in

G

Major,

which

feature turns ina

few

differentcontexts.

Determiningthe appropriate

tempo

for any given pieceofmusic is one ofthe

most

difficult

interpretative decisionstoobjectively quantify.

Tempo

markings in

Baroque

music

were

often

more

indicative ofthe

mood

orgeneral characterofthe music than oftempo. Specific

metronomic

indications were rare andchoices oftempi

were

left to the discretion oftheperformer. Slight variations

in the

tempo were

acceptable, providing the performerwith yet another opportunity forcreative

personal expression.

To

furthercomplicate the issue, tempi often varied based

upon

theacoustical

setting in

which

the

work

was

performed or

upon

the sizeofthe

ensemble

performing the work. In a

resonant acoustical setting, the performers

would

often slow

down

the

tempo

toenhancethe clarity of

theperformance, while in adry setting the performersmight increasethe

tempo

to

compensate

for the

lackof resonance.

An

additional factorthat guided theperformer's choice of

tempo was

the proportional

relationship that oftenexisted

between

changing meters within sections or

movements

ofa work.

A

complex

systemexistedcalled the 'mensural' or 'proportional notation',

which

attempted to relate all

meters to one anotherthrough diminutionor augmentation. Ideally, the primarynote value forall

movements,

often called the 'tactus',

was

to remainconstant as the meterchanges.

The

tactus

was

to

bechosen at amoderate speed, sothat the fast

movements

would

not soundhurried orfrantic, andthe

slow

movements

would

not lose theirmelodic flow. For example, the first

movement

ofHandel's

Sonata in

G

major,Adagio, might guidethe choice of

tempo

forthe second

movement,

theAllegro

thesecond

movement

(Veilhan 1-10). This complicatedsystem, however,

was

not intended to beexact.

Mary

Cyr

even states thatthe relationship between cut time and

common

time,

which

seems

the most

obvious,

was

not typically

two

toone. Rather, cut time

was

usually played onethird the speed of

common

time (Cyr 30). Nevertheless, aloose adherence to these basic proportions can bring unity and

balance to

multi-movement

works.

The

performer could also use their

knowledge

of populardance forms to guide theirchoices of

tempo.

Many

sonatas andsuites

from

the

Baroque

era, including Handel's Sonata in

G

major

incorporated the useof dance forms.

A

useful approach

when

apiece or

movement

takesthe

form

ofa

dance, is toconsiderthe practical

tempo

fordancing thedance

from

which

it isderived. Although

variations existeven in the speedofthe dances, this approach canprovide a solid frameof reference for

theperformer.

Each

dance has specific stylistic parameters

which

govern the character

and

tempo

of

the piece.

Some

ofthese will be discussedin furtherdetail asthey applyto the performance of

Handel's Sonata in

G

major.

Furthermore, withinthe contextofa specific tempo,the performer could advance orpull back

the time asthe stylistic

and

structural elementsofthe music allowed. Rigidity had no place in

Baroque

music and a certain

amount

of

ebb

and flow

was

considered appropriate (Quantz). It

was

common

performance practice to prolongcadences, especially structural cadences

which

separatedmajor

sections ofthemusic. Notated Rallentandos

were

rare, butthey

were

often

marked

in the

music

as

Adagio

orLento asa musical statement

was

drawing to a close.

The

absenceofthese markings did not

suggest thatthe performer should proceedintime. Rather,all cadences impliedthe necessity ofa slight

ritardando, andthese markings

were

intended to inform theperformerthat the passage should be

drawn

out even further (Donington Performer's 250-253). This flexibilityof

tempo

served as an

acknowledgement

ofsomethingimportant in the music, whetherit

was

a

harmonic

arrival point, ora

new

melodic idea.

Above

all, the performer

was

expectedto

convey

a sense ofease and flexibilitythat

Besides the general sense ofrhythmic flexibility

which

was

implied

by

Baroque

music, there

existed an important specific practice ofrhythmic alteration, called inegale, literally translated from the

French'inequality'.

While

many

variationson the practice existed, inegalecan be loosely definedas

the unequal performance of notes that are notated equally (Donington Performer's 255). Inegale

establishedcleargroupings of notes into pairs.

The

most

common

occurrence of inegale required that

the firstofthe

two

notes, no mattertherhythmic duration, be given additional weight and importance

through the lengthening ofthe notes, whilethe second note

was

shortened. Reverse inegale

was

less

frequently used, and required the second noteto be lengthened

beyond

the first.

Some

suggested

conditions that might indicate that inegale

would

be stylistically appropriate includethe presence of

notesthat fall naturally into pairs, typicallyofthe shortest rhythmic duration in the work, the

movement

of notes in astepwise fashion, or thepresenceofslur markings overpairsofnotes inthe

music. Inegale

was

an expressive tool thatcould portray differentcharacters orstylesdepending

upon

the context.

Donington

describes a 'lilting' inequality,

which

would

be particularly effective in a lyrical,

expressive

work

and a 'vigorous' inequality,

which

would convey

a stately, majestic character. Lilting

inequality

was

performedloosely usinga triplet rhythm, and

would

be appropriate atmoderate tempos,

when

additionalelegance

and

expression

was

necessary. Figure 8 provides aloose representation of

how

inegale might be playedin various situations. I will

now

playan excerpt

from

Handel'sSonata in

G

major

to

which

I haveapplied the use ofinegale.

Many

Baroque composers formed

clear associations

between

the perceived psychological role

ofthe soul orthe spirit

and

the music

which

they

composed.

Many

believed that the soul manifested

itselfinvarious affections orpassions that governed

human

action.

Composers

often subscribedto the

philosophyofthe "Doctrine ofAffections", in

which

emotional states

were

seen as involuntary,

and

couldbe aroused through specific compositional techniques. It

was

common

throughout the

Baroque

era for

composers

to strive fora unity ofaffectionwithin a particular

movement

orwork, attemptingto

passions, thoseofanger, ofmoderation and ofhumility,

whieh

directlycorrespondto his classification

of musical styles: agitation, moderation, and softness.

Quantz

mentions several passions, including

boldness, flattery, gaiety, melancholy, majesty, and the serious (Cyr, 31-35). Regardless ofthe level of

classification each

composer

used, the performershares a responsibility to capture

many

different

characters effectively.

Quantz

emphasizesthe importance ofthedeeply

human

nature of music, stating

that

"The composer

and he

who

performs the music

must

alike have a feeling soul, and one capable of

being

moved"

(Quantz28). Before performing any

Baroque

work, performers

would

find it helpful to

explore the passion that the

composer

intended to recreatein musical form.

As

mentioned previously,

tempo

markings such asAllegro

and

Adagio

carriedconnotationsofspecific stylistic features in

additionto providing aguideline forthe

tempo

at

which

the

work

was

to played.

Many

stylized dances

also clearlyrepresented a varietyofaffections, and should be performedin the appropriate spirit.

Handel's Sonata in

G

major

provides anopportunity for adeeper lookat a

few

ofthe available

expressiveoptions.

The

first andthird

movements

ofHandel's Sonata in

G

major

(HWV

363B)

receive the label of

Adagio, acharacter

which Quantz

relates tothe passionof melancholyor tenderness. Identifying the

Adagio

asa 'flattering supplication',

Quantz

differentiates thisparticular label

from

otherslow

movements,

such asthose

marked Largo

or Grave,

which

require a

more

solemn

orserious

performance.

The

use ofornamentation is particularly effective in an

Adagio movement,

andthe

sighingquality of appoggiaturas can greatlyenhancethe appropriate plaintive character.

Quantz

recommends

that one swell the sound

on

longer,singing notes.

These

notes should begin with a gentle

butclearattack

which

recedes to a lower

dynamic

level, rises in the middle, and once again diminishes.

It

was

also considered appropriateto extend notes

which

occurred rightbefore arestslightly

beyond

theirintended duration

and

totaper the

end

ofthe note slightly.

A

slightly gentlertongue

was

appropriate in theAdagio, described

by Quantz

as an articulation

which

'caresses' and 'flatters' each

should be played a little quickerand with

more

forward motionthat a mournful, melancholy Adagio.

(Quantz, 162-178)

Quantz

identifiesthose

movements

which

are

marked

Allegro, such asthe second

movement

of Handel's Sonata in

G

major

(HWV

363B), as bearing thechiefcharacteristic of'sprightliness' and

'liveliness'.

He

advises that theperformerchoose areasonable

tempo

for the Allegro, not only for the

sake ofa cleanexecution oftechnical passages, butalso for the ease and comfort ofthe listener.

The

brilliance and 'fieryexpression' described

by Quantz

as appropriate characteristics oftheAllegro

may

notbe present in the musicifit is at all hurried orfrantic.

To

moderate the

tempo

and capture the

characterofthe music,

Quantz

suggestsusing avery clearand incisive articulation,

which

still

incorporates theemphasis of 'goodbeats'over 'bad' ones. Large leaps arepresent in

many

Allegro

movements,

such asthis one, and

Quantz

instructs theperformer tobring

them

out, asthey areoften

theimportant notes in theharmony. Ornamentation can enhancethe spirit oftheAllegro

movement

as

well,especially the use ofquick, energetic trills, mordents and turns.

The

fourth

movement,

Bourree angloise, takesthe

form

ofthepopular traditionaldance for

which

it is

named.

One

ofthe fasterdances ofthe French Baroque,the bourree

was

to

convey

a sense

ofeasygoing liveliness

compared by composer Johann

Mattheson tothe affections ofcontentment,

pleasantness and comfort. These descriptions stress the importance ofperforming the dance with a

relaxed ease, despite its quick tempo.

A

dance in duple meter, the bourree

was

typically notated incut

time or intwo.

The

fourth

movement

ofthe

Handel

Sonata iswritten in

common

time, but the longer

rhythmic durations indicate that the

work

should be performed inhalftime.

The

structure ofthe

bourree consistedofeight beat, fourbar phrases, beginningwith an upbeat pickup,

which would

have

been slightlydetached

from

the following notewith asmall separation

between

the

two

notes.

Syncopated rhythms

were

common

in thebourree, and could be highlighted

by

a slight separation or

lift

between

the notes as well. Iwill performan excerpt

from

thefourth

movement

ofHandel'sSonata

The

final

movement

of Handel's Sonata in

G

major

(HWV

363B)

is aMinuetto, perhapsthe

most frequentlyused and

famous

ofall the French dances. This dance persisted in popularity and

importance through the eighteenthcentury, providing the

form

for several

movements

of major

symphonies

andsonatas.

While

the appropriate

tempo

oftheminuethas been heavily debated, it is

generally considered a moderately paced dance

which

should

convey

a sensethe nobility, poise and

elegance.

The

phrasing oftheminuet is unusual in

how

itcorresponds tothe dance itself, asthe sections

ofone

common

form

ofthedance required twelve bars of music,

and

the music typically featuredeight

barphrases. Little and Jenne, in

Dance and

the

Music

byJ.S. Bach, describe this conflict as a"pleasant

tension"

which

created a cross-rhythmthat contributed to theunique characterofthe minuet. This triple

meterdance often uses one strongbeatper measure, although anothercharacteristic ofthedance itself

providesan interestingperspective

on which

parts ofthe music should be highlighted.

Some

dance

mastersused a

downward

gesture ofthe

arm

on one

measure,

which

was

known

as the

"good"

measure, and an

upward

motion

on

the next,

which

was

called the "bad" measure. Balance

and

regularitycharacterizethe minuet,

which

never used an

uneven

number

ofmeasures, and

was

built

upon

multiples of four measures (Little, Jenne, 62-82).

The

elements that have been describedmerelyscratch the surface ofthe wealth ofavailable

options forexpressive individuality.

The

interpretativechoices left tothe performer,

which were

guided

by

certain generalrules,

may

intimidate the

modern

performerat first, but can be

embraced

as one

becomes

more

familiarwith the language. Regardlessofthe level of

commitment

orinvestmenta

performerhasin learningthe musical language ofthe

Baroque

era, all performerscan and should strive

to take the basic stylisticconsiderations described into account.

To

ignore the traditions and

characteristic musical features that

would

have heavily influenced

Baroque

composers, including G. F.

Handel, as they wrote,

would

be adisservice to boththe

composer

and tothe music.

While

one should

continually striveto

grow

in their

knowledge

ofappropriate performance practice,

some

ofthe basic

and applyingtheelements ofa characteristic

Baroque

sound and system ofarticulation, a historically

informed

method

ofornamentation, the application of appropriate tempos, the execution ofthe inegale

rhythmic alteration, andthe portrayal ofthe affections and passions

which

brought life to the music,

performers can taketheir first steps in the fulfilling, worthwhile journey of capturing the spirit of

Baroque

music. I will

now

perform Handel's Sonatain

G

major

in its entirety, and will apply

some

of

Bibliography

Borst Jones, Katherine. "Exploring the Early Flute:

An

Interview with

Nancy

Hadden." Flutist

Quarterly. 30.4 (2005): Print.

Cyr, Mary. Performing

Baroque

Music

. Portland, Oregon:

Amadeus

Press, 1992

Donington, Robert.

A

Performer's

Guide

to

Baroque

Music

.

London

and Boston: Faberand Faber, 1973

Donington, Robert.

Baroque

Music: Style and Performance.

New

York

and

London:

W.W.

Norton

&

Company,

1982

Kuijken, Barthold; Kuijken,

Weiland

and

Kohnen,

Robert.

George

FredericHandel: Flute Sonatas: Accent, 1991.

CD.

Anthony

Hicks. "Handel,

George

Frideric."

Grove

Music

Online. Oxford

Music

Online. 12 Jan.

2010

<http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/40060>.

Little, Meredith, andJenne, Natalie.

Dance

and the

Music

ofJ.S.

Bach

.

Bloomington

and Indianapolis:

Indiana University Press, 1991

Neumann,

Frederick. Ornamentation in

Baroque

and Post-Baroque

Music

. Princeton, NJ: Princeton

Princeton UniversityPress, 1987

Quantz, Johann Joachim.

On

Playingthe Flute. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1966

Streatfield, R.A.

Handel

.

New

York, N.Y.:

Da

Capo

Press, 1964

Veilhan, Jean-Claude.

The

Rules ofMusical Interpretation in the

Baroque

Era. Paris:

Alphonse

Leduc

&Cie.

1977.

Webster, James. "Sonataform."

Grove

Music

Online. Oxford

Music

Online. 8 Feb.

2010

Figure 1- Excerpt from

A

Performer's

Guide

to

Baroque

Music, Donnington, p. 183 :

H

'

•'

'!^i^'.:"';!

*-•»-„-* '

-'*-';*

i '

:*;-i'^i/"

: ' *"*!

Figure 2- Excerpt

from

A

Performer's

Guide

to

Baroque

Music, Donnington, p. 185

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Figure 3- Excerpt

from

On

Playing the Flute, Quantz, p. 97

Aoaerato

*> b)

Figure4- Excerpt

from

A

Performer's

Guide

to

Baroque

Music, Donnington, p. 197

Figure 5- Excerpt

from

A

Performer's

Guide

to

Baroque

Music, Donnington, p. 197

Ex. 78

/n |

'**"

*m»M*.

.~> 5

3 3

Figure 6a- Excerpt

from

Ornamentation in

Baroque

and

Post-Baroque Music,

Neumann,

p. 416-

Mordent

performed on the beat

principal note '

Figure 6b-

Mordent

performedslightly before the beat

iJ I

2W

1

principal note

-gf^H-ftr

Figure 7- Excerpt

from Ornamentation

in

Baroque

and

Post-Baroque Music,

Neumann,

p.

466

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from

A

Performer's

Guide

to

Baroque

Music,

Donnington

Image

taken

from The

Development

ofthe

Modem

Flute

by

Nancy

Toff, p. 2

m

Image

taken

from

On

Playing theFlute

by

Johann

Joachim

Quantz, p. 28