Predictive Analytics Using R

(1)Predictive Analytics using R. Dr. Jeffrey Strickland is a Senior Predictive Analytics Consultant with over 20 years of expereince in multiple industiries including financial, insurance, defense and NASA. He is a subject matter expert on mathematical and statistical modeling, as well as machine learning. He has published numerous books on modeling and simulation. Dr. Strickland resides in Colorado.. Predictive Analytics using R. This book is about predictive analytics. Yet, each chapter could easily be handled by an entire volume of its own. So one might think of this a survey of predictive modeling, both statistical (parametric and nonparametric), as well as machine learning. We define predictive model as a statistical model or machine learning model used to predict future behavior based on past behavior. In order to use this book, one should have a basic understanding of mathematical statistics (statistical inference, models, tests, etc.) — this is an advanced book. Some theoretical foundations are laid out (perhaps subtlety) but not proven, but references are provided for additional coverage. Every chapter culminates in an example using R. R is a free software environment for statistical computing and graphics. It compiles and runs on a wide variety of UNIX platforms, Windows and MacOS. To download R, please choose your preferred CRAN mirror at http://www.r-project.org/. An introduction to R is also available at http://cran.r-project.org /doc/manuals/r-release/R-intro.html. The book is organized so that statistical models are presented first (hopefully in a logical order), followed by machine learning models, and then applications: uplift modeling and time series. One could use this a textbook with problem solving in R—but there are no “by-hand” exercises.. 90000. ID: 16206475 www.lulu.com. 9 781312 841017. Jeffrey Strickland. ISBN 978-1-312-84101-7. Jeffrey Strickland.

(2)

(3)

(4) Predictive Analytics using R. By Jeffrey S. Strickland Simulation Educators Colorado Springs, CO.

(5)

(6) Predictive Analytics using R. Copyright 2014 by Jeffrey S. Strickland. All rights Reserved ISBN 978-1-312-84101-7 Published by Lulu, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

(7)

(8) Acknowledgements. The author would like to thank colleagues Adam Wright, Adam Miller, Matt Santoni. Working with them over the past two years has validated the concepts presented herein. A special thanks to Dr. Bob Simmonds, who mentored me as a senior operations research analyst.. v.

(9) vi.

(10) Contents. Acknowledgements ................................................................................. v Contents ................................................................................................. vii Preface ................................................................................................. xxv More Books by the Author .................................................................xxvii 1. Predictive analytics............................................................................1 Business Analytics .............................................................................1 Types .................................................................................................2 Descriptive analytics ...................................................................2 Predictive analytics .....................................................................2 Prescriptive analytics ..................................................................3 Applications ................................................................................3 Definition ...........................................................................................3 Not Statistics......................................................................................4 Types .................................................................................................4 Predictive models .......................................................................5 Descriptive models .....................................................................6 Decision models ..........................................................................6 Applications .......................................................................................6 Analytical customer relationship management (CRM)...............6 Clinical decision support systems ...............................................7 Collection analytics .....................................................................7 Cross-sell .....................................................................................8 Customer retention ....................................................................8 vii.

(11) Direct marketing ......................................................................... 8 Fraud detection .......................................................................... 9 Portfolio, product or economy-level prediction ....................... 10 Risk management ..................................................................... 10 Underwriting ............................................................................. 10 Technology and big data influences ................................................ 11 Analytical Techniques...................................................................... 11 Regression techniques .............................................................. 12 Machine learning techniques ................................................... 19 Tools ................................................................................................ 22 Notable open source predictive analytic tools include: ........... 22 Notable commercial predictive analytic tools include: ............ 23 PMML........................................................................................ 23 Criticism ........................................................................................... 24 2. Predictive modeling......................................................................... 25 Propensity Models .......................................................................... 25 Cluster Models ................................................................................ 28 Conclusion ....................................................................................... 30 Presenting and Using the Results of a Predictive Model ................ 31 Applications ..................................................................................... 32 Uplift Modeling ......................................................................... 32 Archaeology .............................................................................. 32 Customer relationship management ........................................ 33 Auto insurance .......................................................................... 33 Health care................................................................................ 34 viii.

(12) Notable failures of predictive modeling ..........................................34 Possible fundamental limitations of predictive model based on data fitting ...............................................................................................35 Software ..........................................................................................35 Open Source..............................................................................36 Commercial ...............................................................................37 Introduction to R .............................................................................38 3. Modeling Techniques ......................................................................41 Statistical Modeling .........................................................................41 Formal definition ......................................................................42 Model comparison ....................................................................42 An example ...............................................................................43 Classification .............................................................................43 Machine Learning ............................................................................44 Types of problems/tasks ...........................................................44 Approaches ...............................................................................46 Applications ..............................................................................50 4. Empirical Bayes method ..................................................................53 Introduction.....................................................................................53 Point estimation ..............................................................................55 Robbins method: non-parametric empirical Bayes (NPEB) ......55 Example - Accident rates ..........................................................56 Parametric empirical Bayes ......................................................57 Poisson–gamma model .............................................................57 Bayesian Linear Regression.......................................................58 Software ..........................................................................................60 ix.

(13) Example Using R .............................................................................. 60 Model Selection in Bayesian Linear Regression ....................... 60 Model Evaluation ...................................................................... 62 5. Naïve Bayes classifier ...................................................................... 65 Introduction .................................................................................... 65 Probabilistic model .......................................................................... 66 Constructing a classifier from the probability model ............... 68 Parameter estimation and event models........................................ 68 Gaussian Naïve Bayes ............................................................... 69 Multinomial Naïve Bayes .......................................................... 69 Bernoulli Naïve Bayes ............................................................... 71 Discussion ........................................................................................ 71 Examples ......................................................................................... 72 Sex classification ....................................................................... 72 Training ..................................................................................... 72 Testing....................................................................................... 73 Document classification ............................................................ 74 Software .......................................................................................... 77 Example Using R .............................................................................. 78 6. Decision tree learning ..................................................................... 87 General ............................................................................................ 87 Types ............................................................................................... 89 Metrics ............................................................................................ 90 Gini impurity ............................................................................. 91 Information gain ....................................................................... 91 x.

(14) Decision tree advantages ................................................................93 Limitations .......................................................................................94 Extensions........................................................................................95 Decision graphs .........................................................................95 Alternative search methods......................................................95 Software ..........................................................................................95 Examples Using R.............................................................................96 Classification Tree example ......................................................96 Regression Tree example ........................................................104 7. Random forests .............................................................................109 History ...........................................................................................109 Algorithm .......................................................................................110 Bootstrap aggregating ...................................................................111 Description of the technique ..................................................111 Example: Ozone data ..............................................................112 History .....................................................................................114 From bagging to random forests ...................................................114 Random subspace method ............................................................114 Algorithm ................................................................................115 Relationship to Nearest Neighbors ...............................................115 Variable importance ......................................................................117 Variants .........................................................................................118 Software ........................................................................................118 Example Using R ............................................................................119 Description ..............................................................................119 xi.

(15) Model Comparison ................................................................. 120 8. Multivariate adaptive regression splines ...................................... 123 The basics ...................................................................................... 123 The MARS model ........................................................................... 126 Hinge functions ............................................................................. 127 The model building process .......................................................... 128 The forward pass .................................................................... 129 The backward pass.................................................................. 129 Generalized cross validation (GCV)......................................... 130 Constraints .............................................................................. 131 Pros and cons ................................................................................ 132 Software ........................................................................................ 134 Example Using R ............................................................................ 135 Setting up the Model .............................................................. 135 Model Generation .................................................................. 137 9. Clustering Models ......................................................................... 145 Definition ....................................................................................... 146 Algorithms ..................................................................................... 147 Connectivity based clustering (hierarchical clustering) .......... 148 Metric...................................................................................... 149 Linkage criteria........................................................................ 150 Examples Using R .......................................................................... 152 10. Ordinary least squares .................................................................. 169 Linear model.................................................................................. 170 Assumptions ........................................................................... 170 xii.

(16) Classical linear regression model ............................................171 Independent and identically distributed ................................173 Time series model ...................................................................174 Estimation......................................................................................174 Simple regression model ........................................................176 Alternative derivations ..................................................................177 Geometric approach ...............................................................177 Maximum likelihood ...............................................................178 Generalized method of moments ...........................................179 Finite sample properties ...............................................................179 Assuming normality ................................................................180 Influential observations ..........................................................181 Partitioned regression ............................................................182 Constrained estimation ..........................................................183 Large sample properties ................................................................184 Example with real data ..................................................................185 Sensitivity to rounding ............................................................190 Software ........................................................................................191 Example Using R ............................................................................193 11. Generalized linear model ..............................................................205 Intuition .........................................................................................205 Overview .......................................................................................207 Model components .......................................................................207 Probability distribution ...........................................................208 Linear predictor ......................................................................209 xiii.

(17) Link function ........................................................................... 209 Fitting ............................................................................................ 211 Maximum likelihood ............................................................... 211 Bayesian methods................................................................... 212 Examples ....................................................................................... 212 General linear models............................................................. 212 Linear regression .................................................................... 212 Binomial data .......................................................................... 213 Multinomial regression ........................................................... 214 Count data .............................................................................. 215 Extensions ..................................................................................... 215 Correlated or clustered data................................................... 215 Generalized additive models .................................................. 216 Generalized additive model for location, scale and shape ..... 217 Confusion with general linear models .......................................... 219 Software ........................................................................................ 219 Example Using R ............................................................................ 219 Setting up the Model .............................................................. 219 Model Quality ......................................................................... 221 12. Logistic regression ......................................................................... 226 Fields and examples of applications.............................................. 226 Basics ............................................................................................. 227 Logistic function, odds ratio, and logit .......................................... 228 Multiple explanatory variables ............................................... 231 Model fitting.................................................................................. 231 xiv.

(18) Estimation ...............................................................................231 Evaluating goodness of fit .......................................................233 Coefficients ....................................................................................237 Likelihood ratio test ................................................................237 Wald statistic ..........................................................................238 Case-control sampling ............................................................239 Formal mathematical specification ...............................................239 Setup .......................................................................................239 As a generalized linear model .................................................243 As a latent-variable model ......................................................245 As a two-way latent-variable model .......................................247 As a “log-linear” model ...........................................................250 As a single-layer perceptron ...................................................253 In terms of binomial data .......................................................253 Bayesian logistic regression...........................................................254 Gibbs sampling with an approximating distribution...............256 Extensions......................................................................................261 Model suitability............................................................................261 Software ........................................................................................262 Examples Using R...........................................................................263 Logistic Regression: Multiple Numerical Predictors ...............263 Logistic Regression: Categorical Predictors ............................269 13. Robust regression ..........................................................................277 Applications ...................................................................................277 Heteroscedastic errors............................................................277 xv.

(19) Presence of outliers ................................................................ 278 History and unpopularity of robust regression ............................. 278 Methods for robust regression ..................................................... 279 Least squares alternatives ...................................................... 279 Parametric alternatives .......................................................... 280 Unit weights ............................................................................ 281 Example: BUPA liver data .............................................................. 282 Outlier detection..................................................................... 282 Software ........................................................................................ 284 Example Using R ............................................................................ 284 14. k-nearest neighbor algorithm ....................................................... 293 Algorithm....................................................................................... 294 Parameter selection ...................................................................... 295 Properties ...................................................................................... 296 Feature extraction ......................................................................... 297 Dimension reduction ..................................................................... 297 Decision boundary......................................................................... 298 Data reduction............................................................................... 298 Selection of class-outliers.............................................................. 299 CNN for data reduction ................................................................. 299 CNN model reduction for 𝑘-NN classifiers ............................. 301 k-NN regression ............................................................................. 303 Validation of results ...................................................................... 304 Algorithms for hyperparameter optimization ............................... 304 Grid search .............................................................................. 304 xvi.

(20) Alternatives .............................................................................305 Software ........................................................................................305 Example Using R ............................................................................305 15. Analysis of variance .......................................................................313 Motivating example ......................................................................313 Background and terminology ........................................................316 Design-of-experiments terms .................................................318 Classes of models ..........................................................................320 Fixed-effects models ...............................................................320 Random-effects models ..........................................................320 Mixed-effects models .............................................................320 Assumptions of ANOVA .................................................................321 Textbook analysis using a normal distribution .......................321 Randomization-based analysis ...............................................322 Summary of assumptions .......................................................324 Characteristics of ANOVA ..............................................................324 Logic of ANOVA .............................................................................325 Partitioning of the sum of squares .........................................325 The F-test ................................................................................326 Extended logic.........................................................................327 ANOVA for a single factor..............................................................328 ANOVA for multiple factors ...........................................................328 Associated analysis ........................................................................329 Preparatory analysis ...............................................................330 Followup analysis ....................................................................331 xvii.

(21) Study designs and ANOVAs ........................................................... 332 ANOVA cautions ............................................................................ 333 Generalizations.............................................................................. 334 History ........................................................................................... 334 Software ........................................................................................ 335 Example Using R ............................................................................ 335 16. Support vector machines .............................................................. 339 Definition ....................................................................................... 339 History ........................................................................................... 340 Motivation ..................................................................................... 340 Linear SVM .................................................................................... 341 Primal form ............................................................................. 343 Dual form ................................................................................ 345 Biased and unbiased hyperplanes .......................................... 345 Soft margin .................................................................................... 346 Dual form ................................................................................ 347 Nonlinear classification ................................................................. 347 Properties ...................................................................................... 349 Parameter selection................................................................ 349 Issues ...................................................................................... 349 Extensions ..................................................................................... 350 Multiclass SVM........................................................................ 350 Transductive support vector machines .................................. 350 Structured SVM....................................................................... 351 Regression............................................................................... 351 xviii.

(22) Interpreting SVM models ..............................................................352 Implementation .............................................................................352 Applications ...................................................................................353 Software ........................................................................................353 Example Using R ............................................................................354 Ksvm in kernlab ..................................................................354 svm in e1071 .........................................................................358 17. Gradient boosting..........................................................................363 Algorithm .......................................................................................363 Gradient tree boosting ..................................................................366 Size of trees ...................................................................................367 Regularization................................................................................367 Shrinkage ................................................................................367 Stochastic gradient boosting ..................................................368 Number of observations in leaves ..........................................369 Usage .............................................................................................369 Names............................................................................................369 Software ........................................................................................369 Example Using R ............................................................................370 18. Artificial neural network................................................................375 Background....................................................................................375 History ...........................................................................................376 Recent improvements.............................................................378 Successes in pattern recognition contests since 2009 ...........379 Models ...........................................................................................379 xix.

(23) Network function .................................................................... 380 Learning .................................................................................. 383 Choosing a cost function......................................................... 384 Learning paradigms ....................................................................... 384 Supervised learning ................................................................ 384 Unsupervised learning ............................................................ 385 Reinforcement learning .......................................................... 386 Learning algorithms ................................................................ 386 Employing artificial neural networks ............................................ 387 Applications ................................................................................... 388 Real-life applications............................................................... 388 Neural networks and neuroscience .............................................. 389 Types of models ...................................................................... 389 Types of artificial neural networks ................................................ 390 Theoretical properties ................................................................... 390 Computational power ............................................................. 390 Capacity .................................................................................. 390 Convergence ........................................................................... 390 Generalization and statistics................................................... 391 Dynamic properties ................................................................ 392 Criticism ......................................................................................... 393 Neural network software .............................................................. 396 Simulators ............................................................................... 396 Development Environments ................................................... 399 Component based................................................................... 399 xx.

(24) Custom neural networks.........................................................400 Standards ................................................................................401 Example Using R ............................................................................402 19. Uplift modeling ..............................................................................409 Introduction...................................................................................409 Measuring uplift ............................................................................409 The uplift problem statement .......................................................409 Traditional response modeling......................................................413 Example: Simulation-Educators.com ......................................414 Uplift modeling approach—probability decomposition models ................................................................................................417 Summary of probability decomposition modeling process: ...417 Results of the probability decomposition modeling process .418 Return on investment ...................................................................418 Removal of negative effects ..........................................................418 Application to A/B and Multivariate Testing .................................419 Methods for modeling...................................................................419 Example of Logistic Regression ...............................................419 Example of Decision Tree........................................................420 History of uplift modeling .............................................................424 Implementations ...........................................................................424 Example Using R ............................................................................424 upliftRF ....................................................................................424 Output .....................................................................................426 predict .....................................................................................426 modelProfile ...........................................................................427 xxi.

(25) Output..................................................................................... 427 varImportance ........................................................................ 428 Performance ........................................................................... 429 20. Time Series .................................................................................... 431 Methods for time series analyses ................................................. 432 Analysis .......................................................................................... 432 Motivation .............................................................................. 433 Exploratory analysis ................................................................ 433 Prediction and forecasting ...................................................... 433 Classification ........................................................................... 434 Regression analysis (method of prediction) ........................... 434 Signal estimation .................................................................... 434 Segmentation.......................................................................... 435 Models ........................................................................................... 435 Notation .................................................................................. 436 Conditions ............................................................................... 437 Autoregressive model ................................................................... 437 Definition ................................................................................ 437 Graphs of AR(p) processes ............................................................ 439 Partial autocorrelation function .................................................... 440 Description .............................................................................. 440 Example Using R ............................................................................ 441 Notation Used ...................................................................................... 460 Set Theory ..................................................................................... 460 Probability and statistics ............................................................... 460 xxii.

(26) Linear Algebra ...............................................................................461 Algebra and Calculus .....................................................................461 Glossary................................................................................................463 References ...........................................................................................477 Index ....................................................................................................513. xxiii.

(27) xxiv.

(28) Preface This book is about predictive analytics. Yet, each chapter could easily be handled by an entire volume of its own. So one might think of this a survey of predictive models, both statistical and machine learning. We define predictive model as a statistical model or machine learning model used to predict future behavior based on past behavior. This was a three year project that started just before I ventured away from DoD modeling and simulation. Hoping to transition to private industry, I began to look at way in which my modeling experience would be a good fit. I had taught statistical modeling and machine learning (e.g., neural networks) for years, but I had not applied these on the scale of “Big Data”. I have now done so, many times over—often dealing with data sets containing 2000+ variables and 20 million observations (records). In order to use this book, one should have a basic understanding of mathematical statistics (statistical inference, models, tests, etc.)—this is an advanced book. Some theoretical foundations are laid out (perhaps subtlety) but not proven, but references are provided for additional coverage. Every chapter culminates in an example using R. R is a free software environment for statistical computing and graphics. It compiles and runs on a wide variety of UNIX platforms, Windows and MacOS. To download R, please choose your preferred CRAN mirror at http://www.r-project.org/. An introduction to R is also available at http://cran.r-project.org/doc/manuals/r-release/R-intro.html. The book is organized so that statistical models are presented first (hopefully in a logical order), followed by machine learning models, and then applications: uplift modeling and time series. One could use this a textbook with problem solving in R—but there are no “by-hand” exercises.. xxv.

(29) This book is self-published and print-on-demand. I do not use an editor in order to keep the retail cost near production cost. The best discount is provided by the publisher, Lulu.com. If you find errors as you read, please feel free to contact me at jeff@sumulation-educators.com.. xxvi.

(30) More Books by the Author Discrete Event Simulation using ExtendSim 8. Copyright © 2010 by Jeffrey S. Strickland. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-0-557-72821-3 Fundamentals of Combat Modeling. Copyright © 2010 by Jeffrey S. Strickland. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-257-00583-3 Missile Flight Simulation - Surface-to-Air Missiles. Copyright © 2010 by Jeffrey S. Strickland. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-0-557-88553-4 Systems Engineering Processes and Practice. Copyright © 2010 by Jeffrey S. Strickland. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-257-09273-4 Mathematical Modeling of Warfare and Combat Phenomenon. Copyright © 2011 by Jeffrey S. Strickland. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-45839255-8 Simulation Conceptual Modeling. Copyright © 2011 by Jeffrey S. Strickland. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-105-18162-7. Men of Manhattan: Creators of the Nuclear Age. Copyright © 2011 by Jeffrey S. Strickland. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-257-76188-3 Quantum Phaith. Copyright © 2011 by Jeffrey S. Strickland. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-257-64561-9 Using Math to Defeat the Enemy: Combat Modeling for Simulation. Copyright © 2011 by Jeffrey S. Strickland. Lulu.com. 978-1-257-83225-5 Albert Einstein: “Nobody expected me to lay golden eggs”. Copyright © 2011 by Jeffrey S. Strickland. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-257-86014-2. Knights of the Cross. Copyright © 2012 by Jeffrey S. Strickland. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-105-35162-4. Introduction to Crime Analysis and Mapping. Copyright © 2013 by Jeffrey S. Strickland. Lulu.com. ISBN 978-1-312-19311-6. xxvii.

(31) ii.

(32) 1. Predictive analytics Predictive analytics—sometimes used synonymously with predictive modeling—encompasses a variety of statistical techniques from modeling, machine learning, and data mining that analyze current and historical facts to make predictions about future, or otherwise unknown, events (Nyce, 2007) (Eckerson, 2007). In business, predictive models exploit patterns found in historical and transactional data to identify risks and opportunities. Models capture relationships among many factors to allow assessment of risk or potential associated with a particular set of conditions, guiding decision making for candidate transactions. Predictive analytics is used in actuarial science (Conz, 2008), marketing (Fletcher, 2011), financial services (Korn, 2011), insurance, telecommunications (Barkin, 2011), retail (Das & Vidyashankar, 2006), travel (McDonald, 2010), healthcare (Stevenson, 2011), pharmaceuticals (McKay, 2009) and other fields. One of the most well-known applications is credit scoring (Nyce, 2007), which is used throughout financial services. Scoring models process a customer’s credit history, loan application, customer data, etc., in order to rank-order individuals by their likelihood of making future credit payments on time. A well-known example is the FICO® Score. Where does predictive analytics lie in the world of business analytics?. Business Analytics Business analytics (BA) refers to the skills, technologies, practices for continuous iterative exploration and investigation of past business performance to gain insight and drive business planning. Business analytics makes extensive use of statistical analysis, including descriptive and predictive modeling, and fact-based management to drive decision making. In recent years, prescriptive modeling has also taken a role in BA. It is therefore closely related to management science and operations 1.

(33) research. Business analytics can answer questions like why is this happening, what if these trends continue, what will happen next (that is, predict), what is the best that can happen (that is, optimize).. Types Business analytics is comprised of descriptive, predictive and prescriptive analytics, these are generally understood to be descriptive modeling, predictive modeling, and prescriptive modeling... Descriptive analytics Descriptive models quantify relationships in data in a way that is often used to classify customers or prospects into groups. Unlike predictive models that focus on predicting a single customer behavior (such as credit risk), descriptive models identify many different relationships between customers or products. Descriptive analytics provides simple summaries about the sample audience and about the observations that have been made. Such summaries may be either quantitative, i.e. summary statistics, or visual, i.e. simple-to-understand graphs. These summaries may either form the basis of the initial description of the data as part of a more extensive statistical analysis, or they may be sufficient in and of themselves for a particular investigation.. Predictive analytics Predictive analytics encompasses a variety of statistical techniques from modeling, machine learning, and data mining that analyze current and historical facts to make predictions about future, or otherwise unknown, events. Predictive models are models of the relation between the specific performance of a unit in a sample and one or more known attributes or features of the unit. The objective of the model is to assess the likelihood that a similar unit in a different sample will exhibit the specific performance. This category encompasses models that are in many areas, such as marketing, where they seek out subtle data patterns to answer questions about customer performance, such as fraud detection models. 2.

(34) Prescriptive analytics Prescriptive analytics not only anticipates what will happen and when it will happen, but also why it will happen. Further, prescriptive analytics suggests decision options on how to take advantage of a future opportunity or mitigate a future risk and shows the implication of each decision option. Prescriptive analytics can continually take in new data to re-predict and re-prescribe, thus automatically improving prediction accuracy and prescribing better decision options. Prescriptive analytics ingests hybrid data, a combination of structured (numbers, categories) and unstructured data (videos, images, sounds, texts), and business rules to predict what lies ahead and to prescribe how to take advantage of this predicted future without compromising other priorities. Applications Although predictive analytics can be put to use in many applications, I list a few here:          . Analytical customer relationship management (CRM) Clinical decision support systems Collection analytics Cross-sell Customer retention Direct marketing Fraud detection Portfolio, product or economy-level prediction Risk management Underwriting. Definition Predictive analytics is an area of data mining that deals with extracting information from data and using it to predict trends and behavior patterns. Often the unknown event of interest is in the future, but predictive analytics can be applied to any type of unknown whether it be in the past, present or future. For example, identifying suspects after 3.

(35) a crime has been committed, or credit card fraud as it occurs (Strickland J. , 2013). The core of predictive analytics relies on capturing relationships between explanatory variables and the predicted variables from past occurrences, and exploiting them to predict the unknown outcome. It is important to note, however, that the accuracy and usability of results will depend greatly on the level of data analysis and the quality of assumptions.. Not Statistics Predictive analytics uses statistical methods, but also machine learning algorithms, and heuristics. Though statistical methods are important, the Analytics professional cannot always follow the “rules of statistics to the letter.” Instead, the analyst often implements what I call “modeler judgment”. Unlike the statistician, the analytics professional—akin to the operations research analyst—must understand the system, business, or enterprise where the problem lies, and in the context of the business processes, rules, operating procedures, budget, and so on, make judgments about the analytical solution subject to various constraints. This requires a certain degree of creativity, and lends itself to being both a science and an art, For example, a pure statistical model, say a logistic regression, may determine that the response is explained by 30 independent variables with a significance of 0.05. However, the analytics professional knows that 10 of the variables cannot be used subject to legal constraints imposed for say a bank product. Moreover, the analytics modeler is aware that variables with many degrees of freedom can lead to overfitting the model. Thus, in their final analysis they develop a good model with 12 explanatory variables using modeler judgment. The regression got them near to a solution, and their intuition carried them to the end.. Types Generally, the term predictive analytics is used to mean predictive modeling, “scoring” data with predictive models, and forecasting. However, people are increasingly using the term to refer to related 4.

(36) analytical disciplines, such as descriptive modeling and decision modeling or optimization. These disciplines also involve rigorous data analysis, and are widely used in business for segmentation and decision making, but have different purposes and the statistical techniques underlying them vary.. Predictive models Predictive models are models of the relation between the specific performance of a unit in a sample and one or more known attributes or features of the unit. The objective of the model is to assess the likelihood that a similar unit in a different sample will exhibit the specific performance. This category encompasses models that are in many areas, such as marketing, where they seek out subtle data patterns to answer questions about customer performance, such as fraud detection models. Predictive models often perform calculations during live transactions, for example, to evaluate the risk or opportunity of a given customer or transaction, in order to guide a decision. With advancements in computing speed, individual agent modeling systems have become capable of simulating human behavior or reactions to given stimuli or scenarios. The available sample units with known attributes and known performances is referred to as the “training sample.” The units in other sample, with known attributes but un-known performances, are referred to as “out of [training] sample” units. The out of sample bear no chronological relation to the training sample units. For example, the training sample may consists of literary attributes of writings by Victorian authors, with known attribution, and the out-of sample unit may be newly found writing with unknown authorship; a predictive model may aid the attribution of the unknown author. Another example is given by analysis of blood splatter in simulated crime scenes in which the out-of sample unit is the actual blood splatter pattern from a crime scene. The out of sample unit may be from the same time as the training units, from a previous time, or from a future time.. 5.

(37) Descriptive models Descriptive models quantify relationships in data in a way that is often used to classify customers or prospects into groups. Unlike predictive models that focus on predicting a single customer behavior (such as credit risk), descriptive models identify many different relationships between customers or products. Descriptive models do not rank-order customers by their likelihood of taking a particular action the way predictive models do. Instead, descriptive models can be used, for example, to categorize customers by their product preferences and life stage. Descriptive modeling tools can be utilized to develop further models that can simulate large number of individualized agents and make predictions.. Decision models Decision models describe the relationship between all the elements of a decision—the known data (including results of predictive models), the decision, and the forecast results of the decision—in order to predict the results of decisions involving many variables. These models can be used in optimization, maximizing certain outcomes while minimizing others. Decision models are generally used to develop decision logic or a set of business rules that will produce the desired action for every customer or circumstance.. Applications Although predictive analytics can be put to use in many applications, we outline a few examples where predictive analytics has shown positive impact in recent years.. Analytical customer relationship management (CRM) Analytical Customer Relationship Management is a frequent commercial application of Predictive Analysis. Methods of predictive analysis are applied to customer data to pursue CRM objectives, which involve constructing a holistic view of the customer no matter where their information resides in the company or the department involved. CRM 6.

(38) uses predictive analysis in applications for marketing campaigns, sales, and customer services to name a few. These tools are required in order for a company to posture and focus their efforts effectively across the breadth of their customer base. They must analyze and understand the products in demand or have the potential for high demand, predict customers’ buying habits in order to promote relevant products at multiple touch points, and proactively identify and mitigate issues that have the potential to lose customers or reduce their ability to gain new ones. Analytical Customer Relationship Management can be applied throughout the customer lifecycle (acquisition, relationship growth, retention, and win-back). Several of the application areas described below (direct marketing, cross-sell, customer retention) are part of Customer Relationship Managements.. Clinical decision support systems Experts use predictive analysis in health care primarily to determine which patients are at risk of developing certain conditions, like diabetes, asthma, heart disease, and other lifetime illnesses. Additionally, sophisticated clinical decision support systems incorporate predictive analytics to support medical decision making at the point of care. A working definition has been proposed by Robert Hayward of the Centre for Health Evidence: “Clinical Decision Support Systems link health observations with health knowledge to influence health choices by clinicians for improved health care.” (Hayward, 2004). Collection analytics Every portfolio has a set of delinquent customers who do not make their payments on time. The financial institution has to undertake collection activities on these customers to recover the amounts due. A lot of collection resources are wasted on customers who are difficult or impossible to recover. Predictive analytics can help optimize the allocation of collection resources by identifying the most effective collection agencies, contact strategies, legal actions and other strategies to each customer, thus significantly increasing recovery at the same time 7.

(39) reducing collection costs.. Cross-sell Often corporate organizations collect and maintain abundant data (e.g. customer records, sale transactions) as exploiting hidden relationships in the data can provide a competitive advantage. For an organization that offers multiple products, predictive analytics can help analyze customers’ spending, usage and other behavior, leading to efficient cross sales, or selling additional products to current customers. This directly leads to higher profitability per customer and stronger customer relationships.. Customer retention With the number of competing services available, businesses need to focus efforts on maintaining continuous consumer satisfaction, rewarding consumer loyalty and minimizing customer attrition. Businesses tend to respond to customer attrition on a reactive basis, acting only after the customer has initiated the process to terminate service. At this stage, the chance of changing the customer’s decision is almost impossible. Proper application of predictive analytics can lead to a more proactive retention strategy. By a frequent examination of a customer’s past service usage, service performance, spending and other behavior patterns, predictive models can determine the likelihood of a customer terminating service sometime soon (Barkin, 2011). An intervention with lucrative offers can increase the chance of retaining the customer. Silent attrition, the behavior of a customer to slowly but steadily reduce usage, is another problem that many companies face. Predictive analytics can also predict this behavior, so that the company can take proper actions to increase customer activity.. Direct marketing When marketing consumer products and services, there is the challenge of keeping up with competing products and consumer behavior. Apart from identifying prospects, predictive analytics can also help to identify 8.

(40) the most effective combination of product versions, marketing material, communication channels and timing that should be used to target a given consumer. The goal of predictive analytics is typically to lower the cost per order or cost per action.. Fraud detection Fraud is a big problem for many businesses and can be of various types: inaccurate credit applications, fraudulent transactions (both offline and online), identity thefts and false insurance claims. These problems plague firms of all sizes in many industries. Some examples of likely victims are credit card issuers, insurance companies (Schiff, 2012), retail merchants, manufacturers, business-to-business suppliers and even services providers. A predictive model can help weed out the “bads” and reduce a business’s exposure to fraud. Predictive modeling can also be used to identify high-risk fraud candidates in business or the public sector. Mark Nigrini developed a risk-scoring method to identify audit targets. He describes the use of this approach to detect fraud in the franchisee sales reports of an international fast-food chain. Each location is scored using 10 predictors. The 10 scores are then weighted to give one final overall risk score for each location. The same scoring approach was also used to identify highrisk check kiting accounts, potentially fraudulent travel agents, and questionable vendors. A reasonably complex model was used to identify fraudulent monthly reports submitted by divisional controllers (Nigrini, 2011). The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) of the United States also uses predictive analytics to mine tax returns and identify tax fraud (Schiff, 2012). Recent advancements in technology have also introduced predictive behavior analysis for web fraud detection. This type of solution utilizes heuristics in order to study normal web user behavior and detect anomalies indicating fraud attempts. 9.

(41) Portfolio, product or economy-level prediction Often the focus of analysis is not the consumer but the product, portfolio, firm, industry or even the economy. For example, a retailer might be interested in predicting store-level demand for inventory management purposes. Or the Federal Reserve Board might be interested in predicting the unemployment rate for the next year. These types of problems can be addressed by predictive analytics using time series techniques (see Chapter 18). They can also be addressed via machine learning approaches which transform the original time series into a feature vector space, where the learning algorithm finds patterns that have predictive power.. Risk management When employing risk management techniques, the results are always to predict and benefit from a future scenario. The Capital asset pricing model (CAM-P) and Probabilistic Risk Assessment (PRA) examples of approaches that can extend from project to market, and from near to long term. CAP-M (Chong, Jin, & Phillips, 2013) “predicts” the best portfolio to maximize return. PRA, when combined with mini-Delphi Techniques and statistical approaches, yields accurate forecasts (Parry, 1996). @Risk is an Excel add-in used for modeling and simulating risks (Strickland, 2005). Underwriting (see below) and other business approaches identify risk management as a predictive method.. Underwriting Many businesses have to account for risk exposure due to their different services and determine the cost needed to cover the risk. For example, auto insurance providers need to accurately determine the amount of premium to charge to cover each automobile and driver. A financial company needs to assess a borrower’s potential and ability to pay before granting a loan. For a health insurance provider, predictive analytics can analyze a few years of past medical claims data, as well as lab, pharmacy and other records where available, to predict how expensive an enrollee is likely to be in the future. Predictive analytics can help underwrite 10.

(42) these quantities by predicting the chances of illness, default, bankruptcy, etc. Predictive analytics can streamline the process of customer acquisition by predicting the future risk behavior of a customer using application level data. Predictive analytics in the form of credit scores have reduced the amount of time it takes for loan approvals, especially in the mortgage market where lending decisions are now made in a matter of hours rather than days or even weeks. Proper predictive analytics can lead to proper pricing decisions, which can help mitigate future risk of default.. Technology and big data influences Big data is a collection of data sets that are so large and complex that they become awkward to work with using traditional database management tools. The volume, variety and velocity of big data have introduced challenges across the board for capture, storage, search, sharing, analysis, and visualization. Examples of big data sources include web logs, RFID and sensor data, social networks, Internet search indexing, call detail records, military surveillance, and complex data in astronomic, biogeochemical, genomics, and atmospheric sciences. Thanks to technological advances in computer hardware—faster CPUs, cheaper memory, and MPP architectures—and new technologies such as Hadoop, MapReduce, and in-database and text analytics for processing big data, it is now feasible to collect, analyze, and mine massive amounts of structured and unstructured data for new insights (Conz, 2008). Today, exploring big data and using predictive analytics is within reach of more organizations than ever before and new methods that are capable for handling such datasets are proposed (Ben-Gal I. Dana A., 2014).. Analytical Techniques The approaches and techniques used to conduct predictive analytics can broadly be grouped into regression techniques and machine learning techniques.. 11.

(43) Regression techniques Regression models are the mainstay of predictive analytics. The focus lies on establishing a mathematical equation as a model to represent the interactions between the different variables in consideration. Depending on the situation, there is a wide variety of models that can be applied while performing predictive analytics. Some of them are briefly discussed below. Linear regression model The linear regression model analyzes the relationship between the response or dependent variable and a set of independent or predictor variables. This relationship is expressed as an equation that predicts the response variable as a linear function of the parameters. These parameters are adjusted so that a measure of fit is optimized. Much of the effort in model fitting is focused on minimizing the size of the residual, as well as ensuring that it is randomly distributed with respect to the model predictions (Draper & Smith, 1998). The goal of regression is to select the parameters of the model so as to minimize the sum of the squared residuals. This is referred to as ordinary least squares (OLS) estimation and results in best linear unbiased estimates (BLUE) of the parameters if and only if the Gauss-Markov assumptions are satisfied (Hayashi, 2000). Once the model has been estimated we would be interested to know if the predictor variables belong in the model – i.e. is the estimate of each variable’s contribution reliable? To do this we can check the statistical significance of the model’s coefficients which can be measured using the 𝑡-statistic. This amounts to testing whether the coefficient is significantly different from zero. How well the model predicts the dependent variable based on the value of the independent variables can be assessed by using the 𝑅² statistic. It measures predictive power of the model, i.e., the proportion of the total variation in the dependent variable that is “explained” (accounted for) by variation in the independent variables.. 12.

(44) Discrete choice models Multivariate regression (above) is generally used when the response variable is continuous and has an unbounded range (Greene, 2011). Often the response variable may not be continuous but rather discrete. While mathematically it is feasible to apply multivariate regression to discrete ordered dependent variables, some of the assumptions behind the theory of multivariate linear regression no longer hold, and there are other techniques such as discrete choice models which are better suited for this type of analysis. If the dependent variable is discrete, some of those superior methods are logistic regression, multinomial logit and probit models. Logistic regression and probit models are used when the dependent variable is binary. Logistic regression For more details on this topic, see Chapter 12, Logistic Regression. In a classification setting, assigning outcome probabilities to observations can be achieved through the use of a logistic model, which is basically a method which transforms information about the binary dependent variable into an unbounded continuous variable and estimates a regular multivariate model (Hosmer & Lemeshow, 2000). The Wald and likelihood-ratio test are used to test the statistical significance of each coefficient 𝑏 in the model (analogous to the 𝑡-tests used in OLS regression; see Chapter 8). A test assessing the goodness-offit of a classification model is the “percentage correctly predicted”. Multinomial logistic regression An extension of the binary logit model to cases where the dependent variable has more than 2 categories is the multinomial logit model. In such cases collapsing the data into two categories might not make good sense or may lead to loss in the richness of the data. The multinomial logit model is the appropriate technique in these cases, especially when the dependent variable categories are not ordered (for examples colors like red, blue, green). Some authors have extended multinomial regression to include feature selection/importance methods such as 13.

(45) Random multinomial logit. Probit regression Probit models offer an alternative to logistic regression for modeling categorical dependent variables. Even though the outcomes tend to be similar, the underlying distributions are different. Probit models are popular in social sciences like economics (Bliss, 1934). A good way to understand the key difference between probit and logit models is to assume that there is a latent variable 𝑧. We do not observe 𝑧 but instead observe 𝑦 which takes the value 0 or 1. In the logit model we assume that 𝑦 follows a logistic distribution. In the probit model we assume that 𝑦 follows a standard normal distribution. Note that in social sciences (e.g. economics), probit is often used to model situations where the observed variable 𝑦 is continuous but takes values between 0 and 1. Logit versus probit The Probit model has been around longer than the logit model (Bishop, 2006). They behave similarly, except that the logistic distribution tends to be slightly flatter tailed. One of the reasons the logit model was formulated was that the probit model was computationally difficult due to the requirement of numerically calculating integrals. Modern computing however has made this computation fairly simple. The coefficients obtained from the logit and probit model are fairly close. However, the odds ratio is easier to interpret in the logit model (Hosmer & Lemeshow, 2000). Practical reasons for choosing the probit model over the logistic model would be: • •. There is a strong belief that the underlying distribution is normal The actual event is not a binary outcome (e.g., bankruptcy status) but a proportion (e.g., proportion of population at different debt levels).. Time series models Time series models are used for predicting or forecasting the future 14.

(46) behavior of variables. These models account for the fact that data points taken over time may have an internal structure (such as autocorrelation, trend or seasonal variation) that should be accounted for. As a result standard regression techniques cannot be applied to time series data and methodology has been developed to decompose the trend, seasonal and cyclical component of the series. Modeling the dynamic path of a variable can improve forecasts since the predictable component of the series can be projected into the future (Imdadullah, 2014). Time series models estimate difference equations containing stochastic components. Two commonly used forms of these models are autoregressive models (AR) and moving average (MA) models. The BoxJenkins methodology (1976) developed by George Box and G.M. Jenkins combines the AR and MA models to produce the ARMA (autoregressive moving average) model which is the cornerstone of stationary time series analysis (Box & Jenkins, 1976). ARIMA (autoregressive integrated moving average models) on the other hand are used to describe nonstationary time series. Box and Jenkins suggest differencing a nonstationary time series to obtain a stationary series to which an ARMA model can be applied. Non stationary time series have a pronounced trend and do not have a constant long-run mean or variance. Box and Jenkins proposed a three stage methodology which includes: model identification, estimation and validation. The identification stage involves identifying if the series is stationary or not and the presence of seasonality by examining plots of the series, autocorrelation and partial autocorrelation functions. In the estimation stage, models are estimated using non-linear time series or maximum likelihood estimation procedures. Finally the validation stage involves diagnostic checking such as plotting the residuals to detect outliers and evidence of model fit (Box & Jenkins, 1976). In recent years, time series models have become more sophisticated and attempt to model conditional heteroskedasticity with models such as ARCH (autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity) and GARCH (generalized autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity) models 15.

(47) frequently used for financial time series. In addition time series models are also used to understand inter-relationships among economic variables represented by systems of equations using VAR (vector autoregression) and structural VAR models. Survival or duration analysis Survival analysis is another name for time-to-event analysis. These techniques were primarily developed in the medical and biological sciences, but they are also widely used in the social sciences like economics, as well as in engineering (reliability and failure time analysis) (Singh & Mukhopadhyay, 2011). Censoring and non-normality, which are characteristic of survival data, generate difficulty when trying to analyze the data using conventional statistical models such as multiple linear regression. The normal distribution, being a symmetric distribution, takes positive as well as negative values, but duration by its very nature cannot be negative and therefore normality cannot be assumed when dealing with duration/survival data. Hence the normality assumption of regression models is violated. The assumption is that if the data were not censored it would be representative of the population of interest. In survival analysis, censored observations arise whenever the dependent variable of interest represents the time to a terminal event, and the duration of the study is limited in time. An important concept in survival analysis is the hazard rate, defined as the probability that the event will occur at time 𝑡 conditional on surviving until time 𝑡. Another concept related to the hazard rate is the survival function which can be defined as the probability of surviving to time 𝑡. Most models try to model the hazard rate by choosing the underlying distribution depending on the shape of the hazard function. A distribution whose hazard function slopes upward is said to have positive duration dependence, a decreasing hazard shows negative 16.

(48) duration dependence whereas constant hazard is a process with no memory usually characterized by the exponential distribution. Some of the distributional choices in survival models are: 𝐹, gamma, Weibull, log normal, inverse normal, exponential, etc. All these distributions are for a non-negative random variable. Duration models can be parametric, non-parametric or semi-parametric. Some of the models commonly used are Kaplan-Meier and Cox proportional hazard model (nonparametric) (Kaplan & Meier, 1958). Classification and regression trees Hierarchical Optimal Discriminant Analysis (HODA), (also called classification tree analysis) is a generalization of Optimal Discriminant Analysis that may be used to identify the statistical model that has maximum accuracy for predicting the value of a categorical dependent variable for a dataset consisting of categorical and continuous variables (Yarnold & Soltysik, 2004). The output of HODA is a non-orthogonal tree that combines categorical variables and cut points for continuous variables that yields maximum predictive accuracy, an assessment of the exact Type I error rate, and an evaluation of potential crossgeneralizability of the statistical model. Hierarchical Optimal Discriminant analysis may be thought of as a generalization of Fisher’s linear discriminant analysis. Optimal discriminant analysis is an alternative to ANOVA (analysis of variance) and regression analysis, which attempt to express one dependent variable as a linear combination of other features or measurements. However, ANOVA and regression analysis give a dependent variable that is a numerical variable, while hierarchical optimal discriminant analysis gives a dependent variable that is a class variable. Classification and regression trees (CART) is a non-parametric decision tree learning technique that produces either classification or regression trees, depending on whether the dependent variable is categorical or numeric, respectively (Rokach & Maimon, 2008). Decision trees are formed by a collection of rules based on variables in 17.