Name _______________________________________________________ Date ___________________
MSL Review – Lithosphere
Earth’s Structure
The ___________________________________ consists of the outer crust and the upper solid part of the mantle.
The ____________________________________ consists of the molten rock portion of the upper mantle.
The _________________________________ ____________________ is thicker and much less dense than the _________________________________ ____________________.
The _______________________ _________________________ begins as solid rock but due to heat and pressure changes to molten rock with depth.
The ________________________ ______________________ consist of solid iron and magnesium minerals.
The _________________________ ___________________ consist of liquid iron and nickel. The _______________________ ____________________ consists of solid iron and nickel.
Tectonic Plates
According to the theory of plate tectonics states that Earth’s crust and rigid upper mantle are broken into enormous slabs called _______________________________ _____________________.
There are a dozen different major plates that move in different directions and at different rates due to ______________________________ _____________________________ in the
____________________________________.
Cause of Plate Motion
When matter is _________________________, it expands, becomes less dense, and ______________. After the matter rises away from the heat source, it ___________________, becomes more dense, and ___________________. This rising and sinking of matter is called ______________________________. The continual rising and sinking of the molten mantle, or _______________________________,
creates ___________________________ _________________________ and are the driving mechanism of plate tectonics.
Plate Boundaries
Plates interact at _____________________ _____________________________. There are three different types of plate boundaries based on the ____________________________ of the _______________________________ between the two plates.
Divergent Boundaries
When divergent boundaries occur on land, a __________________ _______________________ forms and over time, a new ocean forms.
_________ of Earth’s ____________________________, and some _____________________________ are associated with divergent boundaries. (Red Lines)
Convergent Boundaries
At ___________________________ boundaries, plates are ________________________ ________________________ each other.
There are three types of convergent boundaries based upon the ______________ of
_________________________ that are involved. Types include: Oceanic-Oceanic, Oceanic-Continental, and Continental-Continental.
_______ of all _______________________________ are associated with convergent boundaries.
Oceanic-Oceanic
At ___________________________________________ boundaries, the molten _________________ in the asthenosphere ___________________ and ___________________, _______________________ the older oceanic __________________ __________________________ the younger oceanic crust and a ___________________ _________________ ________________________ is formed.
When the oceanic plate descends into the mantle, the __________________ ____________________ and becomes part of the underlying ______________________. In this way, the __________________ making up oceanic crust continue to be _____________________________.
Some of the magma formed at convergent boundaries is forced back to the surface where it erupts and forms a _________________________ ________________________ ______________ that run parallel to the deep sea trench.
Oceanic-Continental
At an _____________________________________________ boundary, the oceanic crust is pulled under the lighter continental crust at what is called a __________________________ _____________. As the oceanic crust is melted, heat is released and _______________________ __________________ _____________________ are formed.
The volcano filled _______________________ _________________________ found in the western part of the United States were formed in this manner.
Continental – Continental
At ________________________________________ boundaries, the two plates crumple and are uplifted to form ____________________________ ____________________.
The _____________________________ mountains formed when two continental plates converged. The _________________________________ Mountains were also formed as a result of two
continental plates colliding when Pangea formed. At 480 millions old, they are the oldest mountain chain on Earth.
Transform Boundaries
At ____________________________ boundaries, plates move _____________________________ past each other.
Transform boundaries are characterized by long faults and shallow _____________________________. The ___________ ______________________ _____________________ system that separates
Volcanoes
All volcanoes are fueled by _______________________ deep beneath Earth’s surface. When magma reaches the surface of Earth, it’s called __________________.
One property that differentiates magma is ______________________ or the ____________________ ____ _________________.
The higher the viscosity, the slower it flows.
The viscosity of magma is dependent upon the amount of __________________ _________________, SiO2, present in the magma
The ________________ __________________ there is, the _____________________ its
________________________ and the ________________ __________________________ the magma becomes.
Types of Magma
There are three major types of magma based on the amount of _______________________ in the magma
______________________ Magma has a _______________ ___________________ content and is not very explosive (Basalt rock – Hawaii)
__________________________ Magma has a ____________________ amount of _________________ and is somewhat explosive. (Andesite rock – Cascade Mountains)
_________________________ Magma has a _____________ amount of __________________ and is very explosive. (Granite rock – Chili)
Other Volcanic Material
Besides magma, when a volcano erupts, __________________ ____________________________ called ______________________ can be blown into the air and cause a lot of damage.
___________________ is a term used to refer to a mixture of ____________________ ____________, _____________ fragments, and ________________. As the larhar moves downhill, it can grow in size as it ___________________ the mountain side, gathers speed, and can carry rock fragments that reach 10 meters in diameter.
Another damaging effect from volcanic eruptions is the ________________ that can travel hundreds of miles in the atmosphere, covering crops, houses, cars, and prevent planes from being able to fly.
Volcanic Structure
Magma forms and builds up pressure in __________________________, far beneath the surface and erupts from the ___________________ of a volcano.
______________________ are bowl shaped depressions that form around the top of the vent.
___________________________ are large depressions that form when the side of a volcano collapses.
Types of Volcanoes
There are ________________________ main __________________ of volcanoes: shield volcanoes, cinder-cone volcanoes, and composite volcanoes.
________________________ volcanoes are dome-shaped mountains with gentle slopes which form when layers of basaltic lava accumulates from non-explosive eruptions.
_________________________________ volcanoes form when volcanic fragments, called tephra, alternate with lava and are larger and more explosive than cinder cone volcanoes.
Where Volcanoes Form
Most volcanoes form at ___________________ ___________________________. 15% occur at divergent boundaries and 80% occur at convergent boundaries.
Convergent Boundary Volcanoes
At ______________________________________________ convergent boundaries, arcs of volcanic islands form.
At ______________________________________________ convergent boundaries, volcanic mountain ranges form.
The volcanoes associated with _______________________________ boundaries form two major belts. The larger belt is called the Circum-Pacific Belt, also known as the ________________________
___________________ __________ ______________________.
The smaller belt is known as the _____________________________________ __________________.
Divergent Boundary Volcanoes
One of the few places where _______________________________ volcanoes occur above sea level is in _____________________________. This island is part of the ____________________________ ________________________ ____________________ and contains several volcanoes.
Hot Spot Volcanoes
_____________ of Earth’s volcanoes occur far from plate boundaries and form as the result of ___________________ ___________________________.
Hot spots are unusually _____________ _____________________________ of Earth’s mantle where high-temperature _____________________ of ____________________________ rise towards Earth’s surface, _____________________________ the ________________________ to form volcanoes. While tectonic plates move, _____________ ________________________ ______________________ stationary. As a result, over time, trails of _________________________ _______________________ _______________________________ form near hot spots.
As the volcano moves away from the hot spot, it goes dormant.
Hawaiian Islands and Galapagos Islands were formed as a result of hot spot volcanism.
Earthquakes
Earthquakes are ___________________________ _________________________________ of the ground caused by movement along gigantic fractures in Earth’s crust called ___________________. Most earthquakes occur along _________________________ ______________________________ with each plate moving in opposite directions
Seismic Waves
The vibrations of the ground during an earthquake are called ________________________
The study of earthquake waves is called _____________________________ and the device that measures seismic waves is called a _____________________________. The record produced by a seismometer is called a _______________________________
_____________________________ waves always arrive ___________________,
__________________________ waves arrive ________________________ , surface waves arrive last. .
Locating the Epicenter of an Earthquake
The point at which an earthquake originates, deep within the Earth, is called the __________________ of the earthquake.
The point on Earth’s surface directly above the focus is called the _____________________________. The ___________________________ ________________________ the epicenter is from where the waves are recorded, the _________________ __________________ ____________________________ there is between primary and secondary waves.
To find the __________________________________ of the epicenter, you need to know the distance from _____________________ different ___________________________________.
Finding the location, involves drawing ________________________ from the three seismographs that have a ___________________ equal to the ______________________- _________________________. Where the ____________________ ____________________________, that is the epicenter of the earthquake.
Magnitude of Earthquakes
The amount of _______________________ released during an earthquake is measured by its
_________________________ and rated by its size on the ___________________ ________________. Each increase on the Richter scale represents an increase in seismic wave size by a ________________ of ________. (The waves of a magnitude 8 earthquake is 10 times that of a magnitude 7 earthquake and 100 times that of a magnitude 6 earthquake.)
Earth’s Interior
When primary and secondary _____________________ travel through Earth, they ________________ __________________ and _____________________________ when they encounter different
materials.
When passing through the _____________________, both waves travel in a fairly ________________ ____________________________.
At the ________________________ outer core, ____________________________ waves are refracted or _____________________, so that beyond a distance of 11,000 km they disappear. However, they reemerge at a distance of 16,000 km creating a _______________________ __________________. When ________________________________ waves reach the liquid outer core they
_____________________________ and do not reappear at all because they cannot travel through the ________________________ outer core.
Types of Faults
There are three types of faults based on the ________________________ of the ______________________________.
______________________________ Faults occur when the forces are pulling the sides apart and one side dips down.
___________________________ Faults occur when the forces are pushing the sides together and one side rises upward.
______________________________ Faults Occur when the two sides are moving horizontally past each other.
Tsunamis
When ____________________________ occur ______________________ the __________________, the entire column of water overlying the fault is displaced creating bulges and depressions in the water.
In order for a earthquake to generate a tsunami, you need ________________________
_____________________ of the ______________________. This occurs at ______________________ _____________________________ where one plate is forced under another plate.
At great depths, the plates become ductile and slide freely, but at shallow depths, the plates remain cool and brittle and tend to __________________ _____________________________ causing the overriding plate to thicken.
During an Earthquake, the edge of the overriding plate _____________________ _________________ and _______________________ _____________________________ causing a vertical displacement of water.
The disturbance of water then spreads over in the form of extremely __________________
_____________________. In the ocean the waves are only about 1m high, but when they reach the shore they can be over 30m tall.
In 2004, an earthquake far out at sea caused a tsunami to hit ___________________________.
In 2011, a 9.0 magnitude earthquake hit _________________________ causing a Tsunami that killed at least 10,000 people.
Geo-Hazard Safety
Rock Cycle
Rocks are mixtures of _________________________ and ________________________ ____________ There are three main types of rocks: ________________________________ rocks, ________________ rocks, and _______________________________ rocks
Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks are formed from the ________________________ and ___________________________ of _______________________ below the Earth’s surface or ______________________ above the Earth’s surface.
A common mineral found in igneous rocks is _______________________ formed from ______________________ _________________________.
A common igneous rock is _____________________________ that contains high amounts of quartz or silicon dioxide.
Some other common examples of igneous rocks are __________________________ and ______________________, both formed from cooled lava.
Granite rock formations often cut across other rock formations in a pattern called ________________ ___________________________.
The cross-cutting is evidence that granite was intruded, or ___________________ ________________ existing rocks.
________________ and other precious metals is often found in the _____________________ of igneous rocks.
________________ are minerals that can be _____________________ for a _____________________. Ore deposits associated with igneous intrusions include: platinum, nickel, and gold.
In addition to metals, veins may also contain extremely large-grained minerals or _____________________________.
__________________________________ are valuable mineral ores found in rare igneous rocks known as _________________________________ which form deep in the crust under high pressure and are then forced upward.
Sedimentary Rocks
Much of Earth’s surface is covered with _____________________________ which are pieces of solid material that have been deposited by wind, water, ice, or gravity.
When sediments become ________________________________ together, they form sedimentary rocks.
Sediments are formed when _____________________ are _______________________________ and broken down into smaller rocks through physical and chemical means
The weathered sediments are ____________________________ to new locations through _______________________ due to wind, moving water, gravity, and glaciers.
During erosion, sediments are always carried downhill and _____________________________. As more sediments are deposited, the bottom layers are ____________________ and
________________________ together.
__________________________________ occurs when minerals grown between the sediments and ___________________________ the grains together into solid rock.
A primary feature of sedimentary rock is horizontal ______________________________ called _____________________________.
A common type of sedimentary rock is ________________________________ which is formed when sands becomes cemented together.
Another common type of sedimentary rock is ________________________ which forms when mud or clay is compacted together.
___________________________________ is formed from broken shells or bones of marine animals, especially coral.
________________________ forms from the remains of plant material that slowly accumulates in swamps and coastal area.
_______________________ ________________________ and some other energy rich materials are found in sedimentary rocks: coal, natural gas, oil, ___________________________, iron, and
phosphate.
Metamorphic Rock
When rocks are buried, __________________________ and ____________________ can melt the rocks.
When the temperature is ______________ hot enough to ______________________ the rocks completely, the mineral or chemical composition can change, altering the texture and creating metamorphic rocks.
“Meta” means ______________________ and “morphe” means ___________________. During metamorphism, a rock changes form while remaining solid.
The high heat comes from Earth’s internal heat but the high pressure may be caused from the weight of the overlying rocks or from compressive forces generated during _______________________ __________________________.
________________________________ metamorphism occurs when very hot water reacts with rock and alters its chemistry and mineralogy.
Common examples of metamorphic rocks include: gneiss, slate, schist, __________________, and quartzite.
Weathering and Erosion
_________________________________ is the process by which rocks on or near Earth’s surface ____________________ _____________________ and change.
______________________________ is the actual movement of materials from one place to another. There are two main types of weathering: ____________________________ and
_______________________________.
Mechanical weathering is the process by which rocks and minerals break down into
_____________________ ______________________ without changing the rock’s composition. Chemical weathering occurs when rocks and minerals undergo _________________________ in their ____________________________________ as they are broken down.
Mechanical Weathering
Two main factors involved in mechanical weathering include ____________________________ and ____________________________
Low temperatures can cause ________________________ to _____________________. When water freezes, it expands, crystallizes, and _________________________.
The repeated freezing and thawing of water inside of rocks is called ________________ __________________________.
___________________________ are a result of frost wedging. Many communities use
___________________________ __________________________, in pavement to allow for expansion. ____________________________ is under great _____________________________ from overlying rock. When the __________________________ _______________________ is
_________________________, the pressure is reduced and the bedrock expands causing parallel _____________________ to form.
Over time, the top layers in the bedrock are stripped away, one by one in a process called ____________________________________.
Exfoliation often leaves _________________ _____________________________ rock formations ____________________ of ________________________ and other plants also aid in weathering when their roots grow into the cracks of rocks, causing the rocks to split.
Chemical Weathering
Agents of chemical weathering include: ___________________, ____________________, ____________________ ________________________, and _______________________.
_____________________________ ___________________________ between rocks and water result in the formation and release of new minerals that have different properties than the parent rock. When ______________________, _________________________, and ___________________ in rocks are mixed together, _____________________ is formed. Underground clay, containing iron is usually grey until it is exposed to the air and rain.
______________________ is able to _________________________ many kinds of minerals faster than other minerals within rocks, causing some minerals to wash away while others that don’t dissolve easily remain.
Carbon Dioxide also contributes to the chemical weathering process when it combines with water, in the atmosphere, to form ____________________________ ____________________.
The same reaction between water and carbon dioxide occurs in carbonated drinks creating soft drinks Carbonic acid in groundwater reacts with the calcite in limestone and marble to dissolve rocks and create ____________________________ ________________________
_________________ ____________________________ also causes chemical weathering when oxygen mixes with _________________ _________________________ and ____________________
______________________, released from the burning of fossil fuels, especially ________________, to create _______________________ ____________________ and _________________________ __________________.
__________ is a measurement of the percentage of hydrogen a substance gives off when dissolved in water. Substances with a pH below 7 are __________________________ and those with a pH above 7 are _______________________ or alkaline.
_______________ _________________________ has a pH of 7 and is ______________________. Normally rain water has a pH of about 5.6 and so is always a little acidic. Acid rain is when rain water has a pH _________________________ ______________.
Acid rain causes the pH of groundwater and surface water to ___________________________. Not only does acid rain erode _____________________ and _________________________________ but it will also react with _________________________ and _______________________________ in the soil, preventing plants from being able to take in the necessary minerals, resulting the
Rates of Weathering
Natural weathering occurs very slowly but the rate can be accelerated due to ____________________, ___________________ ____________________ and composition, __________________________ ___________________, and __________________________________
______________________________ weathering occurs faster in climates that have _______________ temperatures, abundant ________________________, and lush _____________________________. . Chemical weathering is the main type of weathering in __________________________________. Heavy rain combines with the organic carbon to produce high levels of carbonic acid.
____________________________ weathering occurs faster in _______________ _________________ where water undergoes repeated freezing and thawing. Mechanical weathering dominants in the ______________________.
The ______________________________ of rocks and minerals also play a role in the rate of weathering. ___________________________________ rocks are more _____________________ ________________________________ than igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Mechanical weathering breaks rocks into smaller pieces, thereby increasing their __________________ ___________________ and the amount of rock exposed to chemical weathering.
_____________________________________ also plays a role in the rate of weathering. Materials on ___________________________ _____________________ tend to move as a result of gravity, exposing more rock to weathering effects.
Erosion
__________________________ is the process of _______________________________ materials from one place to another by water, wind, glaciers, or ocean current or waves.
______________________________________ occurs when the sediments are actually dropped. _____________________________ acts as the main erosional agents because the force of gravity tends to pull all materials down slope.
Water
Fast moving _________________________, especially that flowing downhill, has a lot of power to lift and carry sediments.
As water flows overland, it will follow paths of least resistance carving out channels called __________ or __________________________.
Water carrying sediment eventually enters ________________________ and ____________________ which flow into larger bodies of water such as the ocean. When the streams reach the ocean, they slow down and deposit the sediment forming large deposits called _____________________.
Waves and Currents
In the ocean, erosion continues with the help of ocean ______________________, ________________, and ______________________. Sand particles accumulate on the shoreline and form _____________ and __________________________.
Sand along a shoreline is continually picked up, moved, and deposited by ocean currents creating _______________________. If the sandbars continue to be built up, _________________________ _______________________ can form.
Over time, with continual currents, waves, and tides picking up sand and moving it down current, _____________________ between barrier islands ___________________________.
Glaciers
__________________________ have the capacity to carry huge rocks and piles of debris over large distances. As glaciers form they scrape off loose rock material, when the glaciers melt, the leave the rock material behind.
Wind
In areas with limited rainfall and high temperatures, __________________ is major agent of erosion. Due to low rainfall, there is little vegetation to hold sediments in place. (Dust Bowl)
Animals
__________________________ can also play a role in erosion. When animals create burrows, they displace sediment. Or as animals make their way into streams to get water, they create erosion along the _____________________ __________________________.
Construction
___________________________ by people can also cause erosion when they excavate land to build highways or buildings.
Reducing Erosion
Ways to reduce erosion include using a ____________ fence around construction sites, keeping the ground covered with _____________________, creating a ____________________ system on slopes when farming or landscaping, putting down gravel over exposed soil, and maintaining a
__________________________ buffer around all streams.
Formation of Soil
______________ is an important natural resource because it is essential to life on Earth: Plants need soil to grow, animals burrow within the soil, soil even filters pollutants.
Soil is the loose covering of broken __________________ particles and decaying __________________ matter, called ______________________, overlying the bedrock of Earth’s surface.
Soil formation begins with the weathering of rock into smaller pieces. When _____________________ begin living in the weathered material, ___________________________ are added which improve the texture and water holding capacity.
During the process of soil development, soil forms in _______________________. The bedrock from which the weathered rock broke off from is called the parent rock layer. The broken pieces continue to weather and smaller pieces form a layer on larger pieces.
When you dig into soil, you will find defined layers in the soil called a soil profile. Each distinct layer is called an _____________________________. There are three major soil horizons: A, B, and C. ___________________________ _______ contains high concentrations of organic material, humus, and so appears darker than lower layers.
___________________________ ______ contains subsoil that is enriched with clay materials and may be red or brown as a result of iron oxides
________________________ _________ contains partially weathered parent material.
The topography or a region affects the thickness of developing soil. On ______________________, where runoff occurs, soils tend to be __________________, while soils in lower areas tend to be thick and fertile.
_____________________ ___________________________ is a term commonly used to designate the proportionate distribution of the different __________________ of mineral particles in a soil. It does not include any organic matter.
