UNIT 3
UNIT 3
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS. FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE.
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS. FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE.
LANGUAGE IN USE. THE NEGOTIATION OF MEANING.
LANGUAGE IN USE. THE NEGOTIATION OF MEANING.
OUTLINE OUTLINE
1. INTRODUCTION. 1. INTRODUCTION.
1.1.
1.1. Aims of the Aims of the unit.unit. 1.2.
1.2. Notes on Notes on bibliography.bibliography. 2.
2. THE THE COMMUNICATICOMMUNICATION ON PROCESS.PROCESS. 2.1. Earlier approaches.
2.1. Earlier approaches. 2.2.
2.2. Language and commLanguage and communication.unication. 2.3.
2.3. Types Types of coof communication: verbal vs mmunication: verbal vs nonnon-verbal.-verbal. 2.4. Characteristics of communication.
2.4. Characteristics of communication. 2.4.1.
2.4.1. Elements Elements of of the the communication communication process.process. 2.4.2.
2.4.2. The The human human vocal vocal tract.tract. 3.
3. FUNCTIONS FUNCTIONS OF OF LANGUAGE.LANGUAGE. 3.1.
3.1. The role of The role of functionalist theories.functionalist theories. 3.2.
3.2. Models of communication: a linguistic claModels of communication: a linguistic classification.ssification. 3.2.1.
3.2.1. Saussure’s Saussure’s modemodel.l. 3.2.2.
3.2.2. Bühler’s Bühler’s model.model. 3.2.3.
3.2.3. HallidaHalliday’s y’s model.model. 3.2.4.
3.2.4. Jakobson’s Jakobson’s model.model.
3.2.4.1. Jakobson’s Model of Communicative Functions. 3.2.4.1. Jakobson’s Model of Communicative Functions. 3.2.4.2. Jakobson’s Constitutive Factors.
3.2.4.2. Jakobson’s Constitutive Factors. 4.
4. LANGUAGE LANGUAGE IN IN USE USE AND AND THE THE NEGOTIATION NEGOTIATION OF OF MEANING.MEANING. 4.1.
4.1. A theoreticaA theoretical background to language in use and the negotl background to language in use and the negotiation of meaning.iation of meaning. 4.1.1.
4.1.1. Three Three fundamentals fundamentals on on a a theory theory of of language.language. 4.1.2.
4.1.2. The The influential influential role role of of semantics semantics and and pragmatics.pragmatics. 4.1.3.
4.1.3. The The influential influential role role of of sociolinguisticssociolinguistics.. 4.1.4.
4.1.4. Approaches Approaches to lto language anguage use use and and the the negotiation negotiation of of meaning.meaning. 4.2. Language in use.
4.2. Language in use. 4.2.1.
4.2.1. On On defining defining language language in in use.use. 4.2.2.
4.2.2. TwTwo o lelevels vels at at language language in in use.use. 4.3. The negotiation of meaning.
4.3. The negotiation of meaning. 4.3.1.
4.3.1. On On defining defining the the negotiation negotiation of of meaning.meaning. 4.3.2.
4.3.2. Strategies Strategies and taand tactics ctics in the in the negotiation negotiation of of meaning.meaning. 4.3.3.
4.3.3. Key Key concepts in concepts in the the negotiation of negotiation of meaning: register meaning: register and discourse.and discourse.
5.
5. PRESENT-DPRESENT-DAY AY DIRECTDIRECTIONS IONS IN IN THE THE COMMUCOMMUNICANICATION TION PROCESS.PROCESS. 6. CONCLUSION.
6. CONCLUSION. 7. BIBLIOGRAPHY 7. BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. INTRODUCTION. 1. INTRODUCTION. 1.1. Aims of the unit. 1.1. Aims of the unit.
For a broad introduction to the relationship of language to the concept of communication, the study For a broad introduction to the relationship of language to the concept of communication, the study will survey the
will survey the origins origins and emergence of land emergence of language within human biolanguage within human biological ogical and cultural evolutionand cultural evolution in order to understand the instrumental role of language for humankind. Upon this basis, human in order to understand the instrumental role of language for humankind. Upon this basis, human language and other
language and other non-humannon-human systemssystems of communication will be overviewed, and we will alsoof communication will be overviewed, and we will also consider the main
consider the main characteristics characteristics involinvolved ved in in the study of the commuthe study of the communication process, such asnication process, such as itsits elements
elements and the role of theand the role of the human vocal tract.human vocal tract.. An overview of approaches to the structure of . An overview of approaches to the structure of language will provide a background for the main
language will provide a background for the main models of communication models of communication, and therefore, the, and therefore, the active
active functionality functionality of language will also be approached within the most outstanding models of of language will also be approached within the most outstanding models of language theory. In an effort to understand
language theory. In an effort to understand language in uselanguage in use and theand the negotiation of meaning negotiation of meaning, we, we will offer a theoretical background which includes the most important aspects involved in these will offer a theoretical background which includes the most important aspects involved in these processes. Finally, the presentation will conclude with the most relevant aspects
processes. Finally, the presentation will conclude with the most relevant aspects on present-day on present-day directions
directions in the communication process.in the communication process.
1.2. Notes on
1.2. Notes on bibliography.bibliography.
An influential introduction to the relationship of language to the concept of communication is An influential introduction to the relationship of language to the concept of communication is provided by David Crystal,
provided by David Crystal, Linguistics Linguistics (1985), as well as the study that surveys the origins and(1985), as well as the study that surveys the origins and emergence of language within human biological and cultural evolution in order to understand the emergence of language within human biological and cultural evolution in order to understand the instrumental role of language. Among the
instrumental role of language. Among the general works that incorporate the characteristics of thegeneral works that incorporate the characteristics of the communication process, see especially Halliday,
communication process, see especially Halliday, Explorations in the Functions of Language Explorations in the Functions of Language (1975),(1975), and Wilga M. Rivers,
and Wilga M. Rivers, TeachinTeaching g Foreign-Language SkillsForeign-Language Skills (1981). Of great historical importance and(1981). Of great historical importance and permanent value on models of communication is the translation to Ferdinand de Saussure’s work permanent value on models of communication is the translation to Ferdinand de Saussure’s work under the title
under the title Cours de linguistique généraleCours de linguistique générale (1983) and Halliday(1983) and Halliday , An Introduction to Functional , An Introduction to Functional Grammar
Grammar (1985). For a theoretical background to fundamental le(1985). For a theoretical background to fundamental levels vels of language, see Riversof language, see Rivers (1981). Introductions to linguistic approaches and the influence of semantics, pragmatics and (1981). Introductions to linguistic approaches and the influence of semantics, pragmatics and sociolinguistic on language, include Halliday (1975), and Hymes (1972). Classic works on language sociolinguistic on language, include Halliday (1975), and Hymes (1972). Classic works on language in use and the negotiation of meaning are given by other founders of modern linguistics such as in use and the negotiation of meaning are given by other founders of modern linguistics such as Ellis (1985) and Hymes (1972). For current statistics and references, see the journals Asociación Ellis (1985) and Hymes (1972). For current statistics and references, see the journals Asociación Española de Lingüística Aplicada (AESLA) listed in the section of bibliography.
Española de Lingüística Aplicada (AESLA) listed in the section of bibliography. For For furtherfurther references, see Revista CERCLE del Centro Europeo de Recursos Culturales Lingüísticos y references, see Revista CERCLE del Centro Europeo de Recursos Culturales Lingüísticos y Educativos (Servicio de Programas Educativos. Consejería de Educación y Cultura) and within a Educativos (Servicio de Programas Educativos. Consejería de Educación y Cultura) and within a technological framework,
technological framework, see see http://www.britishcouncil.org/edhttp://www.britishcouncil.org/education/teachers/txeurope.htucation/teachers/txeurope.htmm
2.
2. THE THE COMMUNICATICOMMUNICATION ON PROCESS.PROCESS.
There is more to communication than just one person speaking and another one listening. Human There is more to communication than just one person speaking and another one listening. Human communication processes are quite complex. We differentiate verbal and non-verbal, oral and communication processes are quite complex. We differentiate verbal and non-verbal, oral and written, formal and informal, and intentional and unintentional communication. In addition, there is written, formal and informal, and intentional and unintentional communication. In addition, there is human and animal communication, and nowadays we may also refer to human-computer human and animal communication, and nowadays we may also refer to human-computer communication.
In this chapter, we will first briefly provide a historical background for the need of communicating In this chapter, we will first briefly provide a historical background for the need of communicating and the way of presenting reality through messages. We will also provide a link to the relationship and the way of presenting reality through messages. We will also provide a link to the relationship of language
of language and communicaand communication, and tion, and on defining on defining the concept of communicatthe concept of communication, we will describeion, we will describe the main
the main features features within the communication prowithin the communication process. cess. Another section will examine the concept Another section will examine the concept of of language from a linguistic theory; and finally, the distinction
language from a linguistic theory; and finally, the distinction verbalverbalandand non-verbalnon-verbalwill bewill be approached in terms of the communication process, and
approached in terms of the communication process, and elementselementsinvolved in it.involved in it.
2.1. Earlier approaches. 2.1. Earlier approaches.
Since ancient times the way of improving communication preoccupied humans beings as they had a Since ancient times the way of improving communication preoccupied humans beings as they had a need to express some basic structures of the world and of human life, such as feelings, attitudes and need to express some basic structures of the world and of human life, such as feelings, attitudes and everyday situations. This development in the direction of the study of meaning was labelled during everyday situations. This development in the direction of the study of meaning was labelled during the last century under the term
the last century under the term semantics,semantics, which had a linked sense withwhich had a linked sense with the science related to thethe science related to the study of signs,
study of signs, semiotics.semiotics.
Studies of symbolism began in the modern sense of the word only when people had learned to Studies of symbolism began in the modern sense of the word only when people had learned to analyse the content of a message from the form. Thus, G.F.W. Hegel (1170-1831) laid down the analyse the content of a message from the form. Thus, G.F.W. Hegel (1170-1831) laid down the road for later research in the field when he considered Babylonian and Egyptian architecture to be road for later research in the field when he considered Babylonian and Egyptian architecture to be the best exponent of early symbolism when linking nature to religious thoughts. In fact, the earliest the best exponent of early symbolism when linking nature to religious thoughts. In fact, the earliest real study on the logic of symbolism was given by Edmund Burke (1729-97) in his work real study on the logic of symbolism was given by Edmund Burke (1729-97) in his work A A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origins of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful
Philosophical Enquiry into the Origins of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful from 1757. In it,from 1757. In it, Burke gives numerous examples of architecture linked to expressing feelings.
Burke gives numerous examples of architecture linked to expressing feelings.
The first attempt to formulate a science of signs dates from the late nineteenth century, when a The first attempt to formulate a science of signs dates from the late nineteenth century, when a French linguist, Michel Bréal, published
French linguist, Michel Bréal, published Essai de sémantique Essai de sémantique (1897), which was a philological(1897), which was a philological study of language. Some years later, Ferdinand de Saussure (1857 - 1913) divided language into study of language. Some years later, Ferdinand de Saussure (1857 - 1913) divided language into two components, symbols, and syntax as it is stated in his book,
two components, symbols, and syntax as it is stated in his book, Cours de linguistique généraleCours de linguistique générale (trans.1983). It is relevant to mention that, in the first half of the twentieth century, phonology and (trans.1983). It is relevant to mention that, in the first half of the twentieth century, phonology and grammar were included in the study of meaning as another branch of linguistics.
grammar were included in the study of meaning as another branch of linguistics.
Grammar and phonology were included as post-Saussurean semantics in the study of meaning as a Grammar and phonology were included as post-Saussurean semantics in the study of meaning as a branch of linguistics. Both were concerned with relations within language (sense) and relations branch of linguistics. Both were concerned with relations within language (sense) and relations between language and the world (reference). Generally, their study is known as structural or lexical between language and the world (reference). Generally, their study is known as structural or lexical semantics. Reference is concerned with the meaning of words and sentences in terms of the world semantics. Reference is concerned with the meaning of words and sentences in terms of the world of experience: the situations to which they refer or in which they occur.
of experience: the situations to which they refer or in which they occur.
2.2. Language and communication. 2.2. Language and communication.
The human curiosity concerning language is no modern phenomenon. Language has been examined The human curiosity concerning language is no modern phenomenon. Language has been examined by linguists and philosophers for several millennia. Therefore, we
by linguists and philosophers for several millennia. Therefore, we can look can look back on a back on a respectablerespectable stock of literature on the topic originating from the times of Ancient Greece until the present day. stock of literature on the topic originating from the times of Ancient Greece until the present day. The result is a compendium of linguistic disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, neurology, and The result is a compendium of linguistic disciplines such as philosophy, psychology, neurology, and even computer science.
even computer science. The concept of
The concept of languagelanguage has been approached by many linguists, but the most outstandinghas been approached by many linguists, but the most outstanding definition comes from Halliday (1973) who defines it as
definition comes from Halliday (1973) who defines it as an instrument of social interaction with aan instrument of social interaction with a clear communicative purpose
language and other systems of communication, such as animal communication systems. For language and other systems of communication, such as animal communication systems. For Malinowsky, a relevant anthropology figure, language had only two main purposes: pragmatic and Malinowsky, a relevant anthropology figure, language had only two main purposes: pragmatic and ritual. The former refers to the practical use of
ritual. The former refers to the practical use of language, eithelanguage, either active by means of r active by means of speech orspeech or narrative by means of written texts. The latter is concerned with the use of language associated to narrative by means of written texts. The latter is concerned with the use of language associated to ceremonies, and also referred to as magic.
ceremonies, and also referred to as magic.
Among the design features of human language in opposition to other systems we may mention first, Among the design features of human language in opposition to other systems we may mention first, an
an auditory-vocal channelauditory-vocal channel which only humans are endowed with. Secondly, the possibility forwhich only humans are endowed with. Secondly, the possibility for individuals to reproduce messages
individuals to reproduce messages to say anything in to say anything in any context, tany context, that is,hat is, interchangeability of interchangeability of messages
messages. This ability is only restricted in certain ceremonial contexts such as church services,. This ability is only restricted in certain ceremonial contexts such as church services, business meetings, and so on, where a fixed form is expected to be followed. Thirdly,
business meetings, and so on, where a fixed form is expected to be followed. Thirdly, productivity productivity,, as there is an infinite
as there is an infinite number of possible messages to be expressed, number of possible messages to be expressed, including the possibility toincluding the possibility to express invented things or
express invented things or lies. lies. Fourth,Fourth, displacement displacement since we may talk about events remote insince we may talk about events remote in space or time, i
space or time, in contrast to other animals that have no sense of the past and the future. Althoughn contrast to other animals that have no sense of the past and the future. Although some animals seem to possess abilities of displacement, they lack the freedom to apply this to new some animals seem to possess abilities of displacement, they lack the freedom to apply this to new contexts, thus a bee to indicate a food setting. Fifth,
contexts, thus a bee to indicate a food setting. Fifth, dualityduality as sounds with no intrinsic meaningas sounds with no intrinsic meaning may be combined in different ways to form elements with meaning. We talk about the concept of may be combined in different ways to form elements with meaning. We talk about the concept of arbitrariness
arbitrariness by which words and their meaning have noby which words and their meaning have no a prioria priori connconnectioection. n. AAnd finally, and finally, a traditional transmission
traditional transmission, since language is transmitted from one generation to the next by a process, since language is transmitted from one generation to the next by a process of teaching and learning.
of teaching and learning.
2.3. Types of communication: verbal vs non-verbal . 2.3. Types of communication: verbal vs non-verbal .
Following Crystal (1985), one of the main characteristics of language is that it is an essential tool of Following Crystal (1985), one of the main characteristics of language is that it is an essential tool of communication. Hence, the importance of studying ways and means of improving communication communication. Hence, the importance of studying ways and means of improving communication techniques
techniques through histhrough history tory with a highly with a highly elaborated elaborated signaling signaling system, both spoken and written,system, both spoken and written, which has had an immense impact on our everyday life. Thus, writing a letter, having a which has had an immense impact on our everyday life. Thus, writing a letter, having a conversation, watching a play, or reading a magazine, among others, are instances of
conversation, watching a play, or reading a magazine, among others, are instances of verbalverbal communication
communication by means of language. by means of language. However, other means should be also taken into account,However, other means should be also taken into account, such as gestures, facial expressions, body language, touch and so on, given that
such as gestures, facial expressions, body language, touch and so on, given that nono n-vern-verbal symbolsbal symbols are also components of the communication process.
are also components of the communication process.
Nevertheless, language may be studied as part of a much wider domain of enquiry, that is
Nevertheless, language may be studied as part of a much wider domain of enquiry, that is semioticssemiotics.. This field investigates the study of
This field investigates the study of signssigns in communication processes in general. It concerns itself in communication processes in general. It concerns itself with the analysis of both linguistic and non-linguistic signs as communicative devices and with their with the analysis of both linguistic and non-linguistic signs as communicative devices and with their systems. Therefore, it deals with patterned human communication in all its modes and in all systems. Therefore, it deals with patterned human communication in all its modes and in all contexts.
contexts.
When the act of communication is
When the act of communication is verbalverbal, the code is the, the code is the languagelanguage. Regarding the. Regarding the structured structured use of use of the auditory-vocal channel, it may result in speech, but also non-verbal communicative uses of the the auditory-vocal channel, it may result in speech, but also non-verbal communicative uses of the vocal tract are possible by means of
vocal tract are possible by means of paralanguage paralanguage, such as whistling or musical effects., such as whistling or musical effects. When we refer to
When we refer to non-verbalnon-verbalcommunication,communication, visual and tactilevisual and tactilemodes are concerned. They may bemodes are concerned. They may be used for a variety of linguistic purposes such as the use of sign languages. For instance, the receiver used for a variety of linguistic purposes such as the use of sign languages. For instance, the receiver may get the message by
may get the message by sound sound (as in speech and birdsong), by(as in speech and birdsong), by sight sight (as in written language,(as in written language, reading, morse or traffic signs) or by
2.4. Characteristics of communication. 2.4. Characteristics of communication.
For most of its history, the concept of communication has always been approached from different For most of its history, the concept of communication has always been approached from different disciplines, such as anthropology, psychology, or sociology among others, in order to provide an disciplines, such as anthropology, psychology, or sociology among others, in order to provide an appropriate definition for the term. Still, communication is traditionally understood as
appropriate definition for the term. Still, communication is traditionally understood as the exchangethe exchange and negotiation of information between at
and negotiation of information between at least two individuals through the least two individuals through the use of verbal and use of verbal and non- non-verbal symbols, oral and written, and production and comprehension processes
verbal symbols, oral and written, and production and comprehension processes(Halliday 1973).(Halliday 1973). From this definition we may conclude that the main features of the communication process are as From this definition we may conclude that the main features of the communication process are as follows. First, it is a form of social
follows. First, it is a form of social interactioninteraction, and therefore it is normally acquired and used in, and therefore it is normally acquired and used in such an interaction
such an interaction. Secondly, i. Secondly, it alwayt always has as has a purpose, purpose,that is, to communicate. Thirdly, it involvesthat is, to communicate. Thirdly, it involves a high degree of
a high degree of unpredictability and creativityunpredictability and creativity, and therefore, a successful and authentic, and therefore, a successful and authentic communication should involve a
communication should involve a reduction of uncertaintyreduction of uncertainty on behalf of the on behalf of the participants. Finallyparticipants. Finally, the, the communication process involves both
communication process involves both verbal verbal and nonand non-verbal language-verbal language, such as gestures or body, such as gestures or body language.
language.
The communication process involves certain
The communication process involves certain elementselements and the use of linguistic symbols that meanand the use of linguistic symbols that mean something to those who take
something to those who take part in the part in the process. process. These symbols are spoken words in oralThese symbols are spoken words in oral communication and alphabetical units in written communication. Let us have a brief look at these communication and alphabetical units in written communication. Let us have a brief look at these elements in the next section.
elements in the next section.
2.4.1. Elements in the communication process. 2.4.1. Elements in the communication process.
One of the most productive schematic models of a communication system emerged from the One of the most productive schematic models of a communication system emerged from the speculations of the Russian linguist Roman Jakobson (1896-1982). Jakobson’s model of language speculations of the Russian linguist Roman Jakobson (1896-1982). Jakobson’s model of language functions is not the only one. We may find other linguists’ models such as Bühler’s tripartite system functions is not the only one. We may find other linguists’ models such as Bühler’s tripartite system and Bronislaw Malinowski’s theory, to be examined in next sections.
and Bronislaw Malinowski’s theory, to be examined in next sections.
Jakobson’s model clarity has made it become the best-known model to be followed on language Jakobson’s model clarity has made it become the best-known model to be followed on language theory. Following Jakobson (1960), this model can be used for a number of different purposes in the theory. Following Jakobson (1960), this model can be used for a number of different purposes in the study of language and communication. It was introduced to explain how language
study of language and communication. It was introduced to explain how language worksworksas the codeas the code of communication. Jakobson states that all acts of communication, be they written or oral, are based of communication. Jakobson states that all acts of communication, be they written or oral, are based on
on six constituent elements.six constituent elements.In his model, each element being primarily associated with one of theIn his model, each element being primarily associated with one of the six functions of language
six functions of language he proposed, thus referential, emotive, conative, phatic, metalingual, andhe proposed, thus referential, emotive, conative, phatic, metalingual, and poetic, to be broadly examined in the next section, but now we will concentrate on the six elements poetic, to be broadly examined in the next section, but now we will concentrate on the six elements in Jakobson’s model. They are as follows.
in Jakobson’s model. They are as follows.
Any particular act of communication takes place in a situational
Any particular act of communication takes place in a situational context context, and it involves a, and it involves a sender sender (or addresser) and a
(or addresser) and a receiver receiver (or addressee). It further involves a(or addressee). It further involves a message message which the senderwhich the sender transmits
transmitsand which the receiverand which the receiver interpretsinterprets. The message is formulated in a particular. The message is formulated in a particular code code, and for, and for the whole thing to work, sender and receiver must be connected by a
the whole thing to work, sender and receiver must be connected by a channel channel through which thethrough which the message is sent. In acoustic communication it consists of air, in written communication of paper or message is sent. In acoustic communication it consists of air, in written communication of paper or other writing materials.
other writing materials. As we
As we have stated before, each of thhave stated before, each of these elements has a correspondent in the functionese elements has a correspondent in the functions of language,s of language, which we will be dealing with in the following section.
which we will be dealing with in the following section. But before, we will provide But before, we will provide a brief overviewa brief overview of the relationship between the components and their functions. Thus, the
of the relationship between the components and their functions. Thus, the referential referential function refersfunction refers to the
to the context context , to what is being spoken of and what is being referred to. The attitude of the, to what is being spoken of and what is being referred to. The attitude of the addresser (or encoder)
addresser (or encoder) is related to theis related to the emotive or expressiveemotive or expressive function through emphasis,function through emphasis, intonation, loudness, or pace, etc. On the other hand, the response in the
associated to the
associated to the connative connative function. Thefunction. The poetic poetic function focuses on thefunction focuses on the messagemessageby means of by means of associations (equivalence, similarity and dissimilarity, synonyms and antonyms); repetitions of associations (equivalence, similarity and dissimilarity, synonyms and antonyms); repetitions of sound values, stresses, accents; and the word and phrase boundaries and relationships. The sound values, stresses, accents; and the word and phrase boundaries and relationships. The metalinguistic
metalinguistic function is related to the use of the samefunction is related to the use of the same codescodes for the message to be understood.for the message to be understood. Finally, the
Finally, the channelchannelis associated to the phaticis associated to the phatic function, enabling both addresser and addressee tofunction, enabling both addresser and addressee to enter and stay in communication.
enter and stay in communication.
2.4.
2.4.2. 2. The The human human vocal vocal tract.tract.
For human beings, a relevant aspect is to communicate verbally, expressing thoughts with words. For human beings, a relevant aspect is to communicate verbally, expressing thoughts with words. For the speaker to produce many differentiated sounds, only humans have been endowed with a For the speaker to produce many differentiated sounds, only humans have been endowed with a highly sophisticated speech organ. Hence, this complex organ consists of
highly sophisticated speech organ. Hence, this complex organ consists of consonantsconsonants andand vowelsvowels which are part of our
which are part of our vocalvocalapparatusapparatus as aas a limited set limited set of speech sounds.of speech sounds. However, it enables us to use our language in a very
However, it enables us to use our language in a very economiceconomic way for a virtually infiniteway for a virtually infinite production of linguistic units. Linguistically speaking, the distinctive speech sounds are called production of linguistic units. Linguistically speaking, the distinctive speech sounds are called phonemes
phonemes which are meaningless by themselves. However, we can assemble and reassemblewhich are meaningless by themselves. However, we can assemble and reassemble phonem
phonemes into larges into larger linguistic units, commonly calleder linguistic units, commonly called wordswords. In spite of our limited capacity to. In spite of our limited capacity to produce new phonemes, our capacity to produce vocabulary is unlimited.
produce new phonemes, our capacity to produce vocabulary is unlimited.
3. FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE. 3. FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE. On defining the word
On defining the word function function (Jakobson 1960), we may say it is considered to be a synonym of (Jakobson 1960), we may say it is considered to be a synonym of use
use. However, when dealing with language, it is related to the way people use language. Therefore,. However, when dealing with language, it is related to the way people use language. Therefore, when we refer to the functions of language, we are actually talking about the properties of language, when we refer to the functions of language, we are actually talking about the properties of language, and the purposes it is used for by individuals.
and the purposes it is used for by individuals. Several classifications of
Several classifications of linguistic functionslinguistic functions have been attempted by different scholars throughhave been attempted by different scholars through different disciplines to be examined in this section. Given the communicative interaction aspect of different disciplines to be examined in this section. Given the communicative interaction aspect of language, it is absolutely necessary to establish the different purposes for which communication language, it is absolutely necessary to establish the different purposes for which communication may serve. Thus,
may serve. Thus, linguisticslinguistics focuses on syntax and the forms of language;focuses on syntax and the forms of language; semanticssemantics, on the, on the meaning of language, and finally,
meaning of language, and finally, pragmatics pragmatics is related to the use and function of is related to the use and function of language itself.language itself.
3.1. The role of functionalist theories. 3.1. The role of functionalist theories.
Most theories of language development have approached the issue from one of two broad Most theories of language development have approached the issue from one of two broad viewpoints. Thus,
viewpoints. Thus, behaviourist linguistsbehaviourist linguists such as Skinner claimed that language is learnt bysuch as Skinner claimed that language is learnt by imitation, and
imitation, and innatist innatist , as Chomsky, believed that we are born with the necessary cognitive, as Chomsky, believed that we are born with the necessary cognitive equipment to learn language. However, these theories are not truly complete accounts of language equipment to learn language. However, these theories are not truly complete accounts of language development because they only begin to study from the first appearance of words and syntax; none development because they only begin to study from the first appearance of words and syntax; none considers how the child gets to this stage.
This is where
This is where functionalist theories functionalist theories attempted to redress the balance; by concentrating on theattempted to redress the balance; by concentrating on the functions, or uses, of language, they hope to understand why and how a child begins to use functions, or uses, of language, they hope to understand why and how a child begins to use language. For a functionalist theory the
language. For a functionalist theory the intention to communicateintention to communicate should be present before languageshould be present before language itself appears. Another important feature is the crucial central
itself appears. Another important feature is the crucial central role of the caretaker role of the caretaker , usually the, usually the mother, in the child's linguistic development, as from the earliest moment she treats the child as a mother, in the child's linguistic development, as from the earliest moment she treats the child as a conversational partner, gradually shaping the infant's behaviour. Hence, the child is well-equipped conversational partner, gradually shaping the infant's behaviour. Hence, the child is well-equipped with the knowledge of the social functions of language by the time he actually begins to speak. with the knowledge of the social functions of language by the time he actually begins to speak.
3.2. Models of communication: a linguistic classification. 3.2. Models of communication: a linguistic classification.
In this section, relevant figures on a theory of language and their models of communication are In this section, relevant figures on a theory of language and their models of communication are approached in terms of a classification of linguistic functions so as to answer the question of why approached in terms of a classification of linguistic functions so as to answer the question of why people use language. In order to do so, the different purposes of communication are provided by people use language. In order to do so, the different purposes of communication are provided by different disciplines such as
different disciplines such as linguisticslinguistics, which focuses on syntax and the forms of language;, which focuses on syntax and the forms of language; semantics
semantics, focusing on the meaning of , focusing on the meaning of language; and finally,language; and finally, pragmatics pragmatics, which is related to the use, which is related to the use and function of language itself in particular contexts.
and function of language itself in particular contexts. Historically
Historically speaking, speaking, Plato was said to be the first to Plato was said to be the first to discuss andiscuss an instrumentalist instrumentalist definition of definition of language, and according to this definition, language primarily serves the purpose of communication, language, and according to this definition, language primarily serves the purpose of communication, as it is a linguistic tool. Some centuries later, an anthropological perspective, brought about by as it is a linguistic tool. Some centuries later, an anthropological perspective, brought about by Bronislaw Malinowski in his book
Bronislaw Malinowski in his book The problem of Meaning in Primitive LanguagesThe problem of Meaning in Primitive Languages (192(1923), 3), statesstates that language has only two main purposes:
that language has only two main purposes: pragmatic pragmaticandand ritualritual. Fo. For hir him, m, the pragmatic functithe pragmatic functionon refers to the practical use of language, either active by means of speech or narrative by means of refers to the practical use of language, either active by means of speech or narrative by means of written texts. The ritual function is concerned with the use of language associated to ceremonies, written texts. The ritual function is concerned with the use of language associated to ceremonies, and also referred to as magic. Further instances of linguistic and semantic purposes are broadly and also referred to as magic. Further instances of linguistic and semantic purposes are broadly overviewed below within other linguists’ models.
overviewed below within other linguists’ models.
Among all the proposals mentioned in next sections, coming from linguists such as Malinowsky, Among all the proposals mentioned in next sections, coming from linguists such as Malinowsky, Saussure, Bühler, Halliday and Jakobson, we highlight the considerable impact of Jakobson’s work Saussure, Bühler, Halliday and Jakobson, we highlight the considerable impact of Jakobson’s work in all the literary and linguistic fields to which he contributed, such as anthropology, psychoanalysis in all the literary and linguistic fields to which he contributed, such as anthropology, psychoanalysis discourse analysis, and especially in
discourse analysis, and especially in semiotics,semiotics, where the structure of sign systems is studied. Hiswhere the structure of sign systems is studied. His influence was decisive on literary theory as there are still important works based on Jakobson’s influence was decisive on literary theory as there are still important works based on Jakobson’s theory, becoming a somewhat unusual afterlife theoretical writing.
theory, becoming a somewhat unusual afterlife theoretical writing.
3.2.1. Saussure’s model. 3.2.1. Saussure’s model.
Saussure (trans.1983) devised a circular communication model on the basis of two premises. On the Saussure (trans.1983) devised a circular communication model on the basis of two premises. On the one hand, the first premise claims that communication is
one hand, the first premise claims that communication is linear linear in that two people communicate in ain that two people communicate in a way that a message is conveyed from one to the other. On the other hand, the second premise states way that a message is conveyed from one to the other. On the other hand, the second premise states that the participants in the commun
that the participants in the communication process are bothication process are both simultaneously activesimultaneously active, in the way that, in the way that they do not only listen, but they may answer or at least show some reaction.
they do not only listen, but they may answer or at least show some reaction. On the basis of this understanding, Saussure shows the
On the basis of this understanding, Saussure shows the mechanismsmechanisms of a dialogue. First, acousticof a dialogue. First, acoustic signals are sent from a speaker to a receiver. Saussure outlined two processes within this signals are sent from a speaker to a receiver. Saussure outlined two processes within this framework. The first one is
then gives acoustic shape to them. The second one is
then gives acoustic shape to them. The second one is auditionaudition, and it is the opposite process of the, and it is the opposite process of the receiver transforming the acoustic message into mental signs.
receiver transforming the acoustic message into mental signs.
Part of the Saussurean model of the speech circuit consists of his model of the linguistic sign whose Part of the Saussurean model of the speech circuit consists of his model of the linguistic sign whose most important feature, is namely the
most important feature, is namely the divisiondivision intointo acoustic shapeacoustic shape, or acoustic image, and the idea, or acoustic image, and the idea related to the image, the
related to the image, the mental concept mental concept . Hence, concept and acoustic image are transported in. Hence, concept and acoustic image are transported in communication.
communication.
3.2.2. Shannon’s and Moles’ communication models. 3.2.2. Shannon’s and Moles’ communication models.
In the second half of the twentieth century, we find two prominent figures within American literary In the second half of the twentieth century, we find two prominent figures within American literary theory, whose communication models inspired other linguists’ models on communicative functions theory, whose communication models inspired other linguists’ models on communicative functions as we will see in next sections. Thus, we refer to Shannon’s and Moles’ theory on communication as we will see in next sections. Thus, we refer to Shannon’s and Moles’ theory on communication process.
process.
In 1949 a model on communicative function was developed by the American engineer Claude E. In 1949 a model on communicative function was developed by the American engineer Claude E. Shannon in his work
Shannon in his work A Mathematical Theory of Communication A Mathematical Theory of Communication (1949). For him, communication is(1949). For him, communication is basically explained by certain elements such as a sender, a receiver, a channel, a message shaped in basically explained by certain elements such as a sender, a receiver, a channel, a message shaped in the way of input and output, and finally, external factors such as noise.
the way of input and output, and finally, external factors such as noise.
The first one, the input, is the intended message that is sent by a sender via a channel. Hence, the The first one, the input, is the intended message that is sent by a sender via a channel. Hence, the message received becomes, in turn, the output. During their transmission, both input and output message received becomes, in turn, the output. During their transmission, both input and output may be altered in quality by external circumstances to the process of communication. Thus, noise may be altered in quality by external circumstances to the process of communication. Thus, noise usually affects the channel of a telephone communication line, which in turn, affects the output as usually affects the channel of a telephone communication line, which in turn, affects the output as the outcome of the message.
the outcome of the message.
Shannon devises various components of the communication process that will be described in detail. Shannon devises various components of the communication process that will be described in detail. First of all, the
First of all, the input input , that makes up the, that makes up the content content of the message within a communicative intention;of the message within a communicative intention; secondly, the
secondly, the sender sender , who encodes the messa, who encodes the message giving exprege giving expressiossion to the content; n to the content; the third elementthe third element is the
is the channelchannel, through which the message is sent. Thus, in oral communication we refer to air, and, through which the message is sent. Thus, in oral communication we refer to air, and in written communication, we mean paper or writing material; in fourth place,
in written communication, we mean paper or writing material; in fourth place, noisenoise which iswhich is considered in a communicative sense under phenomena such as a crushed or stained paper; fifth, the considered in a communicative sense under phenomena such as a crushed or stained paper; fifth, the receiver
receiver who decodes the incoming message; and finally, thewho decodes the incoming message; and finally, the content content , decoded by the receiver, decoded by the receiver becomes the
becomes the output output ..
During the 1960s, another American linguist, Moles, added the
During the 1960s, another American linguist, Moles, added the codecodeas a crucial element for senderas a crucial element for sender and receiver to communicate successfully. Shannon’s model served, then, as the basis for an and receiver to communicate successfully. Shannon’s model served, then, as the basis for an improved model. For Moles, the sender and receiver must have a fundamental set of codes in improved model. For Moles, the sender and receiver must have a fundamental set of codes in common for successful communication. No matter if the speakers share or not the same language. common for successful communication. No matter if the speakers share or not the same language. Both of them have to rely on known words when communication is hardly impossible.
Both of them have to rely on known words when communication is hardly impossible.
3.2.3. Bühler. 3.2.3. Bühler.
From Plato’s instrumental approach, Karl Bühler devised a model which described the From Plato’s instrumental approach, Karl Bühler devised a model which described the communicative
instrumental approach, the main purpose of language is to communicate. Bühler defines the term instrumental approach, the main purpose of language is to communicate. Bühler defines the term language
languageaccording to the Greek term ‘organum’ which means ‘tool’. He claims that language is anaccording to the Greek term ‘organum’ which means ‘tool’. He claims that language is an organum
organum for one person to communicate with another about general things. Hence, the three mainfor one person to communicate with another about general things. Hence, the three main functions of language Bühler distinguishes in his model are
functions of language Bühler distinguishes in his model are representationrepresentation,, expressionexpression, and, and appealappeal.. Which function applies to which communicative action depends on which relations of the linguistic Which function applies to which communicative action depends on which relations of the linguistic sign are predominant in a communicative situation.
sign are predominant in a communicative situation.
As a psychologist, Karl Bühler, established three functions within the framework of grammar from As a psychologist, Karl Bühler, established three functions within the framework of grammar from the point of view of the individual, thus,
the point of view of the individual, thus, expressiveexpressive,, conativeconative anandd representationalrepresentational functions.functions. Bühler's communication model is described as the process between a sender and a receiver by Bühler's communication model is described as the process between a sender and a receiver by including a third element, the objects or states of affairs. Each act of communication is then including a third element, the objects or states of affairs. Each act of communication is then attributed to a communicative function, depending on which of the three components involved was attributed to a communicative function, depending on which of the three components involved was intended to be highlighted.
intended to be highlighted.
The expressive function is oriented towards the speaker, addressed to in first person. The conative The expressive function is oriented towards the speaker, addressed to in first person. The conative function is oriented towards the addressee in second person, and finally, the representational function is oriented towards the addressee in second person, and finally, the representational function is oriented towards
function is oriented towards the rest of the rest of reareality lity in third person. in third person. For Bühler, there is a distinctionFor Bühler, there is a distinction which portrays the two key features of the relationship between the sign and its physical realization. which portrays the two key features of the relationship between the sign and its physical realization. These are the phenomenon of the sound, that is the actual word spoken, and the linguistic sign. Both These are the phenomenon of the sound, that is the actual word spoken, and the linguistic sign. Both of them share common space in some functions of language, and extend beyond in other areas. of them share common space in some functions of language, and extend beyond in other areas. When the phenomenon sound contains more acoustic information than the sign does, Bühler defines When the phenomenon sound contains more acoustic information than the sign does, Bühler defines it as
it as abstractive relevance.abstractive relevance.For him, we are capable of highlighting the relevant information withoutFor him, we are capable of highlighting the relevant information without being hindered by the elements of casual conversation, for instance, the "ahs" and "ehms". Bühler being hindered by the elements of casual conversation, for instance, the "ahs" and "ehms". Bühler also claims for an
also claims for an apperceptive enlargement apperceptive enlargement . This means that part of the message may be lost, due. This means that part of the message may be lost, due to either misspellings or omissions on the part of the sender, or because the channel is subjected to to either misspellings or omissions on the part of the sender, or because the channel is subjected to noise. When this happens, we are still able to fill in the gaps to create a meaningful message, noise. When this happens, we are still able to fill in the gaps to create a meaningful message, gathering somehow what we lost
gathering somehow what we lost in conversation.in conversation.
3.2.
3.2.4. 4. HallidaHalliday’s y’s model.model.
In 1985, Halliday declared in his work
In 1985, Halliday declared in his work An Introduction to Functional Grammar An Introduction to Functional Grammar , that ‘the value of a, that ‘the value of a theory lies in the use that can be made of it.’ The functional grammar model is concerned with a theory lies in the use that can be made of it.’ The functional grammar model is concerned with a sociological
sociological model, that is, the ways in which language is used for different purposes and inmodel, that is, the ways in which language is used for different purposes and in different situations. Halliday emphasizes the functions of language in use by giving prominence to a different situations. Halliday emphasizes the functions of language in use by giving prominence to a social mode of expression, as register influences the selection from a language’s system. At this social mode of expression, as register influences the selection from a language’s system. At this point, meaning is considered as a product of the relationship between the system and its point, meaning is considered as a product of the relationship between the system and its environment, constructing reality as configurations of people, places, things, qualities and different environment, constructing reality as configurations of people, places, things, qualities and different circumstances.
circumstances.
To Halliday (1985), language bridges from the
To Halliday (1985), language bridges from the cultural meaningscultural meanings of social contextof social context to sound or to sound or writing
writing, by moving from higher orders of abstraction to lower ones, thus, semantics, lexicogrammar, by moving from higher orders of abstraction to lower ones, thus, semantics, lexicogrammar and phonology. Accordingly, messages combine an organization of content according to the and phonology. Accordingly, messages combine an organization of content according to the receptive needs of the speaker and listener, and the meaning they are expressing. For Halliday, there receptive needs of the speaker and listener, and the meaning they are expressing. For Halliday, there are three macro-functions that, in combination, provide the basic functions on learning a foreign are three macro-functions that, in combination, provide the basic functions on learning a foreign language. Thus, the macro-functions are mainly three, the
language. Thus, the macro-functions are mainly three, the ideationalideational, the, the interpersonalinterpersonal, and the, and the textual
Ideational
Ideationalmeanings, in the words of Halliday (1985), represent our experience of phenomena in themeanings, in the words of Halliday (1985), represent our experience of phenomena in the world framed by different processes and circumstances which are set in time by means of te
world framed by different processes and circumstances which are set in time by means of te nse nse andand logical meanings.
logical meanings. Interpersonal Interpersonal meanings are shaped by the resources of modality and mood tomeanings are shaped by the resources of modality and mood to negotiate the proposals betwe
negotiate the proposals between interactants in teren interactants in terms of ms of probability, obligation or inclination, probability, obligation or inclination, andand secondly,
secondly, to establish and to establish and maintain an ongoing emaintain an ongoing exchange of information xchange of information by means by means of grammarof grammar through declaratives, questions, and commands.
through declaratives, questions, and commands. TextualTextual meanings are concerned with themeanings are concerned with the information as text in context at a lexicogrammatical level. Phonology is related arbitrarily to this information as text in context at a lexicogrammatical level. Phonology is related arbitrarily to this function as its abstract wordings includes intonation, rhythm and syllabic and phonemic function as its abstract wordings includes intonation, rhythm and syllabic and phonemic articulation.
articulation.
On combining these interrelated functions, Halliday proposes seven basic functions on language use On combining these interrelated functions, Halliday proposes seven basic functions on language use and they are listed as follows. Firstly, the
and they are listed as follows. Firstly, the instrumentalinstrumentalto express desires and needs. Secondly, theto express desires and needs. Secondly, the regulatory
regulatory where rules, instructions, orders, and suggestions are included. Thirdly, thewhere rules, instructions, orders, and suggestions are included. Thirdly, the interactional
interactional, where we may include patterns of greeting, leave-taking, thanking, good wishes, and, where we may include patterns of greeting, leave-taking, thanking, good wishes, and excusing. Fourth, the
excusing. Fourth, the personal personal function which encourages students to talk about themselves andfunction which encourages students to talk about themselves and express their feelings. Fifth, the heuristic function focuses on asking questions. Next, the express their feelings. Fifth, the heuristic function focuses on asking questions. Next, the imaginative function, which is used for supposing, hypothesizing, and creating for the love of sound imaginative function, which is used for supposing, hypothesizing, and creating for the love of sound and image. Finally, we find the informative function which emphasizes affirmative and negative and image. Finally, we find the informative function which emphasizes affirmative and negative statements.
statements.
Halliday’s functional grammar model
Halliday’s functional grammar model provides a description of how the provides a description of how the structure of English relatesstructure of English relates to the variables of the social context in which the language is functioning. In this way, it is uniquely to the variables of the social context in which the language is functioning. In this way, it is uniquely productive as an educational resource for teaching how the grammatical form of language is productive as an educational resource for teaching how the grammatical form of language is structured to achieve purposes in a variety of social contexts.
structured to achieve purposes in a variety of social contexts.
3.2.
3.2.5. 5. Jakobson’s Jakobson’s model.model.
3.2.5.1. Jakobson’s Model of Communicative Functions. 3.2.5.1. Jakobson’s Model of Communicative Functions.
Jakobson extended other linguists’ models to his theory of communicative functions. For instance, Jakobson extended other linguists’ models to his theory of communicative functions. For instance, he adapted Bühler's tripartite system of communicative functions, adding three more to his, and he adapted Bühler's tripartite system of communicative functions, adding three more to his, and somehow his model reminds us of those of Moles', except for one, namely
somehow his model reminds us of those of Moles', except for one, namely context context . Jakobson states. Jakobson states that a common code is not sufficient for the communicative process, but rather a
that a common code is not sufficient for the communicative process, but rather a context context isis necessary from which the object of communication is drawn. This context resembles Bühler's object necessary from which the object of communication is drawn. This context resembles Bühler's object correlate. Jakobson allocates a communicative function to each of the components which may be correlate. Jakobson allocates a communicative function to each of the components which may be active simultaneously in utterances. They are as follows.
active simultaneously in utterances. They are as follows. The
The emotiveemotive function focuses on the first person, and reflects the speaker’s attitude to the topic of function focuses on the first person, and reflects the speaker’s attitude to the topic of his or her discourse. It resembles Bühler's expressive function. The addresser's own attitude towards his or her discourse. It resembles Bühler's expressive function. The addresser's own attitude towards the content of the message is emphazised by means of emphatic speech or interjections.
the content of the message is emphazised by means of emphatic speech or interjections. The
The conativeconativefunction is directed towards the addressee, and it is centred on the second person. Wefunction is directed towards the addressee, and it is centred on the second person. We may find in Literature where the most explicit instance is illustrated by two grammatical categories, may find in Literature where the most explicit instance is illustrated by two grammatical categories, the vocative and the imperative. This function is similar to Bühler’s appelative function.
the vocative and the imperative. This function is similar to Bühler’s appelative function. The
The referentialreferentialfunction refers to the context, and emphasizes that communication is always dealingfunction refers to the context, and emphasizes that communication is always dealing with something contextual, what Bühler called representative. This function can be equated with the with something contextual, what Bühler called representative. This function can be equated with the
cognitive use of language, which highlights theinformational content of an utterance, and virtually cognitive use of language, which highlights theinformational content of an utterance, and virtually eliminates the focus on the speaker or on the addressee.
eliminates the focus on the speaker or on the addressee. The
The phatic phatic function helps to establish contact between two speakers, and refers to the channel of function helps to establish contact between two speakers, and refers to the channel of communication.
communication. The
The metalinguisticmetalinguistic function deals with the verbal code itself, that is, on language speaking of itself,function deals with the verbal code itself, that is, on language speaking of itself, as an example of
as an example of metalanguagemetalanguage. The aim is to clarify the manner in which the verbal code is used,. The aim is to clarify the manner in which the verbal code is used, for instance, when the code is misunderstood and needs correction or clarification through questions for instance, when the code is misunderstood and needs correction or clarification through questions such as "Sorry, what did you say?"
such as "Sorry, what did you say?" The
The poetic poetic function deals with the message as a signifier within a decorative or aesthetic function of function deals with the message as a signifier within a decorative or aesthetic function of language. This is achieved by means of rhetorical figures, pitch or loudness.
language. This is achieved by means of rhetorical figures, pitch or loudness.
3.2.5.2. Jakobson’s Constitutive Factors. 3.2.5.2. Jakobson’s Constitutive Factors.
In this section the functional structure of Jakobson’s Constitutive Factors Model (1960) is briefly In this section the functional structure of Jakobson’s Constitutive Factors Model (1960) is briefly explained as the elements of the communication process have been already overviewed in previous explained as the elements of the communication process have been already overviewed in previous sections. According to Jakobson (1960) a message is sent by an addresser to an addressee, and for sections. According to Jakobson (1960) a message is sent by an addresser to an addressee, and for this to occur, a common code must be used by the addresser and addressee, as well as a physical this to occur, a common code must be used by the addresser and addressee, as well as a physical channel, or contact, and the same frame of reference, or context.
channel, or contact, and the same frame of reference, or context.
Each of the constituent elements of the communicative process has a corresponding function where Each of the constituent elements of the communicative process has a corresponding function where the message has to be located it. The constitutive factors are as follows. When the message deals the message has to be located it. The constitutive factors are as follows. When the message deals with context, its relationship is representational; with the speaker is expressive; with the addressee with context, its relationship is representational; with the speaker is expressive; with the addressee is conative; w
is conative; with the channith the channel is phatic; witel is phatic; with the code is metah the code is metallingual; and finally, the relationshipingual; and finally, the relationship between a message and itself is poetic.
between a message and itself is poetic.
4. LANGUAGE IN USE AND THE NEGOTIATION OF MEANING. 4. LANGUAGE IN USE AND THE NEGOTIATION OF MEANING.
This section, in brief
This section, in briefly reviewing the concely reviewing the concept of pt of language, mainly as a tool and as a procelanguage, mainly as a tool and as a process, willss, will provide,
provide, first, first, a a common background to the notions of langcommon background to the notions of language in use and the negotiation of uage in use and the negotiation of meaning, respectively. Although these two notions may be examined individually, they share meaning, respectively. Although these two notions may be examined individually, they share common links to particular disciplines such as semantics, pragmatics, and sociolinguistics. Thus common links to particular disciplines such as semantics, pragmatics, and sociolinguistics. Thus , , language as a tool or language in use
language as a tool or language in use operates upon conveying our intentions and our personaloperates upon conveying our intentions and our personal meaning within semantics whereas
meaning within semantics whereas language as a processlanguage as a process goes beyond linguistics into pragmaticsgoes beyond linguistics into pragmatics and social psychology (Rivers 1981). The most relevant contributions in terms of concepts and and social psychology (Rivers 1981). The most relevant contributions in terms of concepts and approaches will be provided by the most prominent specialists in this field. Secondly, language in approaches will be provided by the most prominent specialists in this field. Secondly, language in use and the negotiation of meaning will be examined, in turn, by offering a definition of the term use and the negotiation of meaning will be examined, in turn, by offering a definition of the term itself, its most relevant features and key concepts, and present-day approaches related to the issue. itself, its most relevant features and key concepts, and present-day approaches related to the issue.
