ICT Grade 13 Teacher s guide.pdf

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(1)jftYk; njhlu;ghly; njhopEl;gtpaYk;. juk; 13. Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;b (2010 Mk; Mz;bypUe;J eilKiwg;gLj;jg;gLk;). njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gj; jpizf;fsk; fiyj;jpl;l mgptpUj;jpg; gPlk; Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk; kfufk. I.

(2) © Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk; Kjyhk; gjpg;G - 2010. njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gj; jpizf;fsk; fiyj;jpl;l mgptpUj;jpg; gPlk; Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;. gjpg;gfk;:. II.

(3) KfTiu Nju;rr ; pfis mbj;jskhff; nfhz;l fiyj;jpll ; j;ijg; ghlrhiy Kiwikapy; mwpKfk; nra;Ak; gzp 13Me; juj;Jf;Fupa Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;bfis mwpKfk;; nra;tJld; G+u;jj ; pailfpd;wJ. 12Mk; 13Me; ju khzt khztpau;fs; gy;fiyf;fofg; gpuNtrj;Jf;fhf epyTk; fLikahd Nghl;bf;F cs;shtjhy; epjKk; fzprkhd mOj;jj;Jf;F Mshfpd;wdu;. f.ngh.j. cau; juj;Jf;fhf Gjpa fiyj;jpl;lj;ij Kjy; jlitahfg; gad;gLj;Jk; epiyapy; mt;tOj;jk; NkYk; mjpfupf;Fk;. mt;thwhd xU re; j u; g ; g j; j py; cq; f sJ iffis milAk; ,e; j Mrpupau; mwpTiug; G topfhl; b ahdJ ghlj; j pl; l j; i jg; Nghd; N w Kf; f pakhdjhFk; . ,q; F Mrpupau; Kjd;ikahff; ftdj;jpnyLf;f Ntz;ba %d;W mk;rq;fs; cs;sd. Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;bfs; ghlj;jpll ; j;Jld; KOikahfg; nghUe;jpaike;jpUj;jy;> fiyj;jpll ; j;jpdhy; vjpu;ghu;f;fg;gLk; Nju;r;rpfis mbg;gilahff;nfhz;L> fiyj;jpl;lj; jj;Jtj;ijAk; J}uNehf;ifAk; Kjd;ikahff;nfhz;L jahupf;fg;gl;bUj;jy;> 12Mk; 13Me; ju khztu;fsplj;Nj vjpug ; hu;ff ; g;gLk; milT kl;lj;ij kdjpwn ; fhz;L jahupff ; g;gl;bUj;jy; MfpadNt mitahFk;. vdNt ,jid ed;F crhTjy; Mrpupaupd; ,d;wpaikahj gzpAk; nghWg;GkhFk;. Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;l %d;W tplaq;fisAk; cq;fsJ ftdj;Jf;Ff; nfhz;L tUjtw;fhfj; Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk; 13Me; juj;jpy; fw;gpf;Fk; rfy Mrpupa MrpupiafSf;Fk; cupa gapw;rpia toq;Fk; gzpfisAk; nra;J tUfpd;wJ. njhlu;r;rpahf elj;jg;gLk; ,g;gapwr ; p mku;Tfspy; Mrpupau;fs; gq;Fgw;WtJ ,d;wpaikahjjhFk;. ,q;F jug;gl;Ls;s fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; Nfhl;ghLfs;> nrad;Kiwfis tpsq;fpf;nfhs;tjw;F mg;gapw;rp ngupJk; Jizahf mikAnkd;gNj mjw;fhd fhuzkhFk;. Fwpg;ghfg; ghlrhiy kl; l kjpg; g P l ; L r; nraw; g hLfisj; Nju; r ; r p tpUj; j pf; F j; Jizahff; nfhs; s vjpu;ghu;f;fg;gLfpd;wJ. fw;gpj;jiyg; ghl tplq;fSf;F khj;jpuk; kl;Lg;gLj;jptplhJ khzt khztpauJ jpwd;fSf;F nkU$l;Ljy; vDk; vjpu;ghu;g;ig epiwNtw;Wtjw;F ,t;nty;yhj; jiyaPLfSk; ,d;wpaikahjitahFk; vd;gij fy;tp kw;Wk; kjpg;gl P L ; g; gzpfspy; <LgLk; ehk; midtUk; ed;F tpsq;fpf;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;biaj; jahupf;Fk; rpukkpf;f gzpia epiwT nra;tjpy; gq;fspg;Gr; nra;a Njrpa fy;tp epWtff; fy;tprhu; gzpazpapdu; cl;gl Vida rfy gzpazpapdUf;Fk; ntspthupahfg; gq;fspg;Gr; nra;j fy;tpkhd;fs; midtUf;Fk; vdJ kdkhu;e;j ed;wp cupj;jhFk;.. fyhepjp cghyp vk;. Nrju gzpg;ghsu; ehafk; Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;. III.

(4) Kd; D iu ,e;j Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;b 2009Mk; Mz;L njhlf;fk; 13Mk; juj;jpwF ; upa fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jy; nrad;Kiwia xOq;FgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;F cq;fSf;Fj; Jizahf mikAk;. ,e;j topfhl;b E}iyj; jahupg;gjw;F mbg;gilahff; nfhs;sg;gl;l ghlj;jpl;lk; ,Jtiuapy; eilKiwapypUe;j ghlj;jpl;lq;fspypUe;J NtWgl; l J. ,J Nju; r ; r pfis mbg; g ilahff; nfhz; l ghlj; j pl; l khf mike;jpUg;gNj mt;NtWghlhFk;. ,q;F jug;gl;Ls;s Nju;rr ; pfis ,j;juj;jpNyNa mila Kbahkw; Nghf ,lKz;L. rpyNtis> mjw;fhf ePz;lfhyk; vLf;fyhk;. vdpDk;> Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fisAk; me;jj; Nju;r;rp kl;lj;jpd; fPo;j; jug;gl;Ls;s fw;ww; NgWfisAk; ,j;juk; Kbtiltjw;Fs; miljy; mtrpakhFk;. vdNt> ,j;juj;jpw;Fupa ghlq;fisj; jpl;lkpl;Lf; nfhs;tjw;F mj;Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fSk; fw;ww;NgWfSk; JizahFk;. ,f;fw;ww;NgWfisf; fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nrad;Kiwapd; Fwpf;Nfhs;fis tFj;Jf; nfhs;tjw;Fk; tFg;giw kjpg;gl P L ; f; fUtpfisj; jahupj;Jf; nfhs;tjw;Fkhd epajpfshfg; gad;gLj;JtJ Fwpj;Jf; ftdk; nrYj;JtPuf ; s; vd vjpu;ghu;ff ; pNwhk;. NkYk; ,g;ghlj;ijg; gapYk;NghJ crhTtjw;Fupa Nkyjpf E}y;fs;> ,iza tiyf; flg;gplq;fs; (Web Site) Kjyhdit Fwpj;J khztu;fSf;F mwpt+l;lk; nra;tjw;F ,e;j Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;b Jizahf mikAk;. ePq;fs; Mf;fg+u;tkhd Mrpupauhfr; nraw;gLtPu;fs; vDk; vjpu;ghu;g;GlNdNa cj;Njr nraw;ghLfs; ,q;F khjpupr; nraw;ghLfshfj; jug;gl;Ls;sd vd;gijf; fUj;jpw; nfhs;Sq;fs;. Fwpg;ghf Mrpupau; - ika tFg;giwr; nrad;Kiwia khw; w p khztu; - ikar; nrad; K iwahf mikj; j y; Ntz; L k; vd vjpu;ghu;f;fg;gLfpwJ. vdNt> khztiu E}y; crhTif> ,izag; gad;ghL Kjyhd Njly;fspy; ftdk; nry;yj;jf;fthW fw;wy; tha;gG ; f;fis cUthf;FtJ Fwpj;J kpfTk; mtjhdkhf ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. fw;gpjj ; ypdN ; ghJ kuG uPjpahd Kiwapy; FwpgG ; toq;Ftjw;Fg; gjpyhd ftu;rr ; pfukhd tifapy; Gj;jwpT> Nfhl;ghLfs; Kjyhdtw;iw Kd;itj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. mjw;fhf ,g;Gjpa tFg;giwapy; njhopyE ; l;gj;ij cr;rstpy; cgNahfg;gLj;Jk; njhlu;ghly; Kiwfisg; gad;gLj;JtJ FwpjJ ; f; ftdk; nrYj;j Ntz;Lk;. vdNt> Gjpa njhopyE ; l;gr; rhjdq;fis ,d;wsTf;F Mf;fg+ut ; khfg; gad;gLj;JtJ mtrpakhFk;. 13Mk; juj;jpy; ,g;ghlj;ijf; fw;fj; njhlq;Fk; cq;fs; khztu;fSf;F ,g;ghlj;jpl;lk; Fwpj;Jj; njspTgLj;JtJ gaDilajhFk;. tUlj;Js; eilKiwg; gLj;j vjpu;ghu;f;Fk; cq;fsJ fw;wy;-fw;gpj;jy; jpl;lj;ij mwpKfQ; nra;tjhy; fw;wypd;ghy; mk;khztu;fspd; Mu;tj;ijj; J}z;lyhk;. NkYk; KOg; ghlj;ijAk; fw;gjw;fhf khztu;fisg; ghlrhiyapd;ghy; <u;g;gjw;Fk; mJ JizahFk;. Gjpa fiyj;jpl;l kWrPuikg;gpD}lhf tFg;giw fw;wy; fw;gpj;jw; nrad;Kiwapy; njs;sj; njspthf khw;wj;ij Vw;gLj;Jtjw;fhf ,g;ghlj; jpl;lj;ijAk; Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;biaAk; gad;gLj;jp cq;fsJ Mf;fj; jpwid tpUj;jp nra;Jnfhs;SkhW Ntz;LfpNwd;. ,e;j Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;biaj; jahupg;gjpy; gq;fspg;Gr; nra;j fy;tpkhd;fSf;Fk;> Mrpupau;fSf;Fk; Njrpa fy;tp epWtf mjpfhupfSf;Fk; vdJ tpNrl ed;wpiaj; njuptpf;fpd;Nwd;. ,g;gzpapy; topfhl;ly; toq;fpa gzpg;ghsu; ehafk; fyhepjp cghyp vk;. Nrju mtu;fSf;Fk; mr;rpl;Lg; ghlrhiyfSf;F tpepNahfpf;Fk; nghWg;ig Vw;Ws;s fy;tp ntspaPl;L Mizahsu; cl;gl Vida gzpahsu;fSf;Fk; vdJ ed;wpiaj; njuptpff ; pdN ; wd;. ,jpy; mlq;fpAs;s tplaq;fs; njhlu;ghf cq;fsJ Mf;fg+u;tkhd fUj;Jf;fis vdf;F mDg;gp itg;guP f ; shapd; ed;wpAilatdhNtd;. tpky; rpak; g yhnfhl cjtpg; gzpg;ghsu; ehafk; fiyj;jpl;l mgptpUj;jpg; gPlk;. Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk; IV.

(5) MNyhridf; FOTk; vOj;jhsu; FOTk; MNyhrid :. fyhepjp cghyp vk;. Nrju gzpg;ghsu; ehafk; Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;. jpU. tpky; rpak;gyhnfhl cjtp gzpg;ghsu; ehafk; fiyj;jpl;l mgptpUj;jpg; gPlk; Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;. Nkw; g hu; i t. : jpU. B.Nf. tpjhdNf rpNu\;l MNyhrfu; - juk; 1 njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gj; jpizf;fsk; nkhwl;Lit gy;fiyf;fofk; njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;g MNyhrfu; Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk; Nguhrpupau;. V.v];. fUzhee;j gzpg;ghsu; njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;g gPlk; nkhwl;Lit gy;fiyf;fofk; fyhepjp. vd;.B. nfhbfhu gzpg;ghsu; fzpdpg; ghlrhiy nfhOk;Gg; gy;fiyf;fofk;. ghlj;jpl;lf; FO : jpU. vk;.vg;.v];. gP. [atu;jd gpujhd nraw;wpl;l mjpfhup> njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gj; jpizf;fsk; Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;. jpUkjp. V.vk;. fhe;jp gpujhd nraw;wpl;l mjpfhup> njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gj; jpizf;fsk; Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;. jpU. lg;spAt;. vk;.V.v];. tpN[Nrfu epiya Kfhikahsu; tya jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gf; fy;tp epiyak; `hypvy. V.

(6) jpU. lg;spAt;. v];.vy;. gyp`f;fhu epiya Kfhikahsu; tya jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gf; fy;tp epiyak; nkhul;Lit. nry;tp. fyhepjp. gP.V.Nf.V.Nf. gz;bjuj;d MNyhrfu; tya jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gf; fy;tp epiyak; FUzhfiy. jpU. vk;.gP. gPup]; tya jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gf; fy;tp epiyak; FUzhfiy. jpUkjp. vk;.rP.vk;. [atu;jd Mrpupa MNyhrfu; tyaf;fy;tp fhupahyak; gpypae;jiy. jpU. mNgrpq;f Mrpupa MNyhrfu; tya fy;tp fhupahyak; kft. jpU. N[.V. fUzhehaf;f epiya Kfhikahsu; [dhjpgjp tpj;jpahyak; uh[fpupa. jkpohf; f k;. jpU. V.vk;.t]Pu; epiya Kfhikahsu; tya jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gf; fy;tp epiyak; f`nghy;y> jpaj;jyhit. jpU.N[.V. gYY}d; tya jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gf; fy;tp epiyak; `hypvy. ml;ilg;glk;. :. jpU.N[.V. gYY}d; tya jfty; njhlu;ghly; njhopy;El;gf; fy;tp epiyak; `hypvy. fzpdpg; gjpg;Gk; tbtikg;Gk; : jpUkjp. vg;.V.vg;. ep];kpah njhopDl;g cjtpahsu; nkhopfs;> khDltpay; kw;Wk; r%f tpQ;Qhd gPlk; Njrpa fy;tp epWtfk;. VI.

(7) Mrpupau; mwpTiug; G topfhl; b iag; ghtpj; j Yf; f hd mwpTWj; j y; f s;. ,e;j Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;b f.ngh.j. (cau;juk;) jftYk; njhlu;ghly; njhopEl;gtpaYk; ghlj;jpy; 13 Mk; juj;jpwf ; hf jahupff ; g;gl;lnjhd;whFk;. ,g;ghlj;jpwF ; epr;rapf;fg;gl;l Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fspy; njupT nra;ag;gl;l Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fs; 14 ,w;fhd nraw;ghLfs; cs;slf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. ,j;Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fs; 14 ,w;Fkhd fw;wy; NgWfs; cs;slf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. ,f;fw;wy; NgWfisAk;; Nju;r;rp kl;lq;fisAk; milAk; Kiwapd; khztu; ikakhd fw;wy;fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghnlhd;W cq;fshy; gpd;gw;wg;gl Ntz;Lk;. ,jw;fhf ckf;F topfhl;lnyhd;whf njupT nra;ag;gl;l Nju;rr ; p kl;lq;fSf;fhf gpuNtrKk; fw;wYf;fhd cj;Njr mwpTWj;jy;fs; cs;slf;fg;gl;Ls;sd. ,q;F nraw;ghl;bd; Kbtpy; "ghl tplaq;fis njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;b" jug;gl;Ls;sJ. mjid cq;fs; tFg;giwapy; khztu;fSld; ,Wjpapy; fye;Jiuahlg;gl Ntz;ba ghltpaq;fSf;fhd topfhl;bnahd;whFk;. ,e;j Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;biaf; ifahOk;NghJ fPo;f;fhzg;gLk; tplaq;fs; njhlu;ghf ckJ ftdj;ij nrYj;JtJ Kf;fpakhFk;. • •. 10.7 Nju;r;rp kl;lj;jpy; juTj;jsnkhd;wpd;> juT ifaho;tjw;F rpwe;j ts nkd;nghUnshd;whd MYSQL nkd;nghUisg; ghtpf;f KbAk;. 13 Mk; juj;jpwf ; hd fw;wy; - fw;gpjj ; y; kjpgg ; l P L ; f; fUtpfs; %d;W jahupff ; g;gl;Ls;sJ.. VII.

(8) cs;slf;fk; gf;fk;. KfTiu. III. Kd;Diu. IV. Mrpupau; mwpTiug;G topfhl;biag; ghtpj;jYf;fhd mwpTWj;jy;fs;. VII. khjpupr; Nju;r;rp Nju;r;rp Nju;r;rp Nju;r;rp Nju;r;rp Nju;r;rp Nju;r;rp Nju;r;rp Nju;r;rp Nju;r;rp Nju;r;rp Nju;r;rp Nju;r;rp Nju;r;rp. 10 20 25 33 39 45 51 57 63 71 78 84 92 94. nraw;ghLfs; kl;lk; 5.1 kl;lk 6.3 kl;lk 6.4 kl;lk 7.7 kl;lk 8.9 kl;lk 8.11 kl;lk 9.3 kl;lk 10.3 kl;lk 10.4 kl;lk 11.3 kl;lk 11.4 kl;lk 11.5 kl;lk 11.8 kl;lk 13.1. 111 21 26 34 40 46 52 58 64 72 79 85 93 -. kjpg;gPl;Lf; fUtpfs; Kjyhk;; jtiz> kjpg;gPl;L epiy 1. 95 - 96. ,uz;lhk; jtiz> kjpg;gPl;L epiy 2 %d;whk;; jtiz> kjpg;gPl;L epiy 3. 97 - 98 99 -100. mUQ; nrhw;fs;. 101 -111. 1. juk; 13. - Kjyhk; jtiz. 2. juk; 13. - ,uz;lhk; jtiz. 3. juk; 13. - %d;whk; jtiz. 1 - 15 16 - 34 35 - 62. 4. tpdhf;fs;> ghlrhiy kl;lf; fzpg;gPL VIII. 63 - 88.

(9) Nju;r;rp 5. :. fzpdpnahd;wpd; nraw;wpuid mjpfupgg ; jw;F epidtf Kfhikj;Jtj;ijg; ghtpg;ghu;.. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 5.1 :. gy;NtW tifahd epidtfq;fisAk; mtw;wpd; rpwg;gpay;G fisAk; mwpe; J nfhs; t jw; f hf fzpdpapd; epidtf Kiwikia gupNrhjpg;ghu;.. ghlNtis. Ie;J ghlNtis. :. fw;ww; NgWfs; • • • • •. :. md;whl nraw;ghLfisg; gad;gLj;jp fzpdpapd; epidtfj;Jld; njhlu;Gila gFjpfisAk; mtw;wpd; nraw;ghLfisAk; fz;lwpe;J tupirg;gLj;Jthu;. fzpdp epidtfk; nraw;gLk; Kiwiaf; fhl;Ltjw;fhf gha;r;rw; Nfhl;Lg;glk; (Flow charts) jahupg;ghu;. epidT mfd;w NghjpYk; vjpuf ; hy Njitf;fhf mjpy; cs;slf;fg;gl;l jfty;fis ngw;Wf;nfhs;tjw;Fg; nghUj;jkhd tpjpfis gpNuupg;ghu;. NkNyhl;lkhf thrpj;Jj; Njitahd jfty;fis Nehf;fpr; nry;thu;. rpff ; yhd nraw;ghLfis ruskhfg; Kd;itg;gjw;F cUtg;glq;fis gad;gLj;Jthu;.;. fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;: gpuNtrk; : Rakhf Kd;tUk; khztu;fs; ehd;F Ngiu tFg;gpy; Kd; mioj;J fPo;f;fhZk; ciuahliy tFg;gpw;F Kd;itf;fTk;. Mrpupau;: tuyhw;Wg; ghlj;jpw;F ,e;j tFg;G khztu;fs; ngw;w Gs;spfis ehd; guprPyid nra;Njd;. mjpf Gs;spfis ngw;wtu;fs;> eLj;ju Gs;spfis ngw;wtu;fs; Nghd;W Fiwe;j Gs;spfisg; ngw;wtu;fSk; ,e;j tFg;gpy; ,Uf;fpd;whu;fs;. epkyd;> ckJ Gs;spfs; Fiwtjw;F vd;d fhuzk; vd;W nrhy;Yq;fs; ghu;f;fyhk;. •. epkyd; :. ehd; ed;whf gbj;Njd;. Br;ru;. guPl;irf;F Kd; jpdKk; vy;yhg; ghlq;fisAk; ed;whf thrpj;Njd;. MdhYk; tpdhg;gj;jpuj;ij ifapy; vLj;jTlNd xd;Wk; Qhgfj;jpw;F tutpy;iy.. Mrpupau;:. tpkhyp vd;why; 50 Gs;spfisg; ngw;Ws;shu;. cq;fs; mDgtq;fisf; $w KbAkh?. tpkyp :. vdf;F Neuk; Nghjhkw; Nghapl;L Br;ru;. Qhgfj;jpy; itj;jitfis Qhgfg;gLj;j rw;W Neuk; vLj;jJ.. Mrpupia:. 90 Gs;spfis ngw;w Rjj;jpwf ; k; mDgtq;fs; ,Uf;Fk;. mjidf; $Wq;fs; ghu;g;Nghk;.. Rjj; :. vdf;nfd;why; guPl;ir f\;lkhf ,Uf;ftpy;iy Br;ru;. tpdhj;jhisg; ghu;j;jTld; tpilfs; vy;yhNk Qhgfj;jpw;F te;jJ.. 1.

(10) Mrpupia:. mjw;F VjhtJ fhuzq;fs; ,Uf;fh?. Rjj;:. ehd; gpujhd ghlf;Fwpg;GfSf;F Gwk;ghf rpW Fwpg;GfisAk; itj;Jf; nfhs; N td; . mitfis mbf; f b thrpj; J Kf; f pa fhuzq; f is epidTgLj;JNtd;.. •. fPo;tUk; tplaq;fis ntspf;nfhzUk; tifapy; fye;Jiuahlnyhd;iw Nkw; nfhs;sTk;. • FWq;fhy kw;Wk; neLq;fhy epidtf tiffs; ,uz;L kdpj epidtfj;jpNy cs;sd vd. • FWQ;fhy epidtfk; jw;fhypfkhdJ. mjpy; Nrkpj;jitfs; epiyaw;wit vd. • fw;wy; nraw;ghl;bd;NghJ epkyd; ngw;w mDgtq;fs; epue;ju epidtfj;jpy; Nrkpf;fg;gltpy;iy vd. • tpkhyp fw;witfs; epue;ju epidtfj;jpy; Nrkpf;fg;gl;bUe;j NghjpYk; jw;fhypf epidtfj;jpwF ; nfhz;L nry;Yk; tpjpKiwfs; mikf;fg;gl;bUf;fhjjd; fhuzkhf jhkjk; Vw;gl;lJ vd. • Rjj; rpW Fwpg;Gfs; itg;gjd; %yk; epue;ju epidtfj;jpy; cs;sitfis tpiuthf> jw;fhypf epidtfj;jpw;Ff; nfhz;L nry;y jahuhf ,Ue;jhu; vd. • fzpdp rk;ge;jkhfTk;> epue;ju epidtfk;> jw;fhypf epidtfk;> kw;Wk; epue;ju epidtfj;jpypUe;J jw;fhypf epidtfj;jpwF ; tpiuthfj; jfty; nfhz;L nry;Yk; FWfpa KiwfSk;> epue;ju epidtfk; mspe;JNghd NghjpYk; mjpy; Nrkpj;jit fis kPsg;ngw;Wf;nfhs;s Clfq;fs; cs;sd vd.. fw;gpj;jYf;fhd cj;Njr mwpTWj;jy;fs;: fzpdpapd; epidtf Kiwikiag; ghu;gN ; ghk;. mjd; nraw;ghl;bid mwpeJ ; nfhs;Nthk;. • guPl;ir xd;wpw;F tpilaspf;Fk;NghJ Vw;gLk; fPo;f;fhZk; tplaq;fspy; ckJ FOtpw;Ff; fpilf;Fk; tplak; gw;wp mtjhdpf;fTk;. • neLq;fhy epidtfk; capNuhl;lkiljy;. • jw;fhypf epidtfj;jpw;F Njitahd juTfs; gupkhw;wkiljy;. • jw;fhypf epidtfj;jpypUe;J guPl;ir tplaj;jpw;Fj; juT vLj;Jr; nry;yYk;> mjid tpiuTgLj;Jtjw;fhf neUq;fpa ,lnkhd;wpy; juT Nru;j;J itj;jy;. • epidT KOikahf ,oe;Jtpll ; NghjpYk; $ba juTfisg; ngw;Wf;nfhs;tjw;fhf tpjpKiwfs; mikf;fg;gl;Ls;sik. • ckf;Ff; fpilj;j tplak; fw;wy; nraw;ghl;bd;NghJ eilngWk; Kiwia mwpe;J nfhs;tjw;Fr; rpW FOf; fye;Jiuahlnyhd;iw Nkw;nfhs;f. • fzpdp epdtfj;Jld; njhlu;Gila ve;jg; gFjp vt;tplaj;ij gpujpepjpj;Jtg;gLj;J fpd;wJ vd Muha;e;J ghu;f;f. • fzpdp epdtfj;Jld; njhlu;Gila mg;gFjpfis ed;F fw;f. • md;W Kjy; ,d;W tiu mjpy; Vw;gl;bUf;Fk; khw;wq;fis Muha;e;J ghu;f;f. • ckJ fz;lha;Tfis $l;lkhfTk; Mf;fj;jpwDs;sjhfTk; tFg;giwf;F Kd;itf;f Maj;jkhfTk;. 2.

(11) ghl tplaq;fisj; njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;bfs; • • • •. rpWFo fz;lha;Tfis KO tFg;gpw;Fk; Kd;itf;;fr; nra;aTk;. tpupTiug;gpw;fhf Kd;te;j FOtpw;Nf Kjy; re;ju;g;gj;ij toq;fTk;. Vida FOf;fspd; Mf;fG+u;tkhd MNyhridfisf; Nfl;lwpaTk;. fPo;f;fhZk; tplaq;fspd; kPJ ftdQ; nrYj;JtJld; mtw;iw ntspf;nfhzUk; tifapy; fye;Jiuahlnyhd;iw Nkw;nfhs;sTk;. • neLq;fhy epdtfj;jpy; cs;stw;iw FWq;fhy epdtfj;jpwF ; g; ngw;Wf;nfhs;tjw;F neLq;fhy epidtfk; ,af;f epiyapy; ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk; vd. • fzpdpapw;F kpd; toq;fpaTld; fzpdpapd; neLq;fhy epidtfk; ,aq;fp mjy; cs;s nray;Kiwikia FWf;fhy epidtfj;jpw;Ff; nfhLf;Fk; vd. • ,jw;fhf CMOS vDk; ~rpg;| ,y; cs;s BIOS vd miof;fg;gLk; nraw;ghL • • • •. • •. • •. • •. • •. ,aq;Fk; vd. CMOS rpg; MdJ Rkhu; 10 tUlq;fs; MAs; cs;s ,U gl;lupfspd; kpff; Fiw thd kpd; rf;jpahy; ,aq;Fk; rpwe;j njhopy;El;gj;Jld; $baJ vd. BIOS vDk; epuy; fzpdpapy; nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;s td;nghUl;fis guPlr ; pjJ ; mtw;wpd; nraw;ghl;ilg; gw;wpa jfty;fisj; jUk; vd. ,e;j epuy; thrpf;f KbAkhapUe;jhYk; khw;wpaikf;f KbahJ vd;gjhy; thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk; (Read only memory - ROM) vd miof;fg;gLk; vd. ,e;epidtfq;fs; jw;NghJ gy tbtq;fspy; cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sJld; kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; vOjf;$ba tpUj;jpaile;j KiwfSld; $ba EPROM, EEPROM vd;w ngau;fspy; etPd fzpdpfspy; ,d;W gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wnjd;gJ. ,j;njhopEl;gk; NkYk; tpUj;jp nra;ag;gl;L Jupj epidtfq;fs; (Flash memory) cUthf;fg;gl;Ls;sd vd;gJ. jw;fhypf epidtfkhdJ thrpg;G vOJ epidtfk; (Read Write Memory) vd miof;fg;gLk;. ,J fzpdpapd; gpujhd kpd; toq;fspy; jil Vw;gl;Ls;sJld; mope;JtpLk; vd. ,e;epidtfk; vOkhW mDfy; epidtfk; (Random Access Memory - RAM) vd miof;fg;gLk; gpujhd epidtfk; (Main Memory) vd. vOkhW mZfy; epidtfj;jpd; (RAM) nfhs;ssT epue;ju epidtfj;jpd; nfhs;ssit tpl FiwthdJld; tplaj;jpw;fhf juTfis ngWk;NghJ xOq;F Kiw gpd;gw;w Njitapy;iy vd. nrayp (Processor) ,w;F kpf mUfpy; RAM mike;Js;sjhy; kpf Fiwe;j fhyj;jpy; ,jpy; cs;s juTfis Processor ,w;Fg; ngw;Wf;nfhLf;Fk; vd. nrayp (Processor) ,w;F toq;Fk; juTfspy; mbf;fb ngw;W ghtpf;fg;gLk; juTfis gJf;F epidtfk; (cache memory) vDk; epidtfj;jpy; itj;Jf;nfhs;Sk; vd. ,e;j gJf;F epidtfk; RAM ,d; nfhs;ssT I tpl Fiwthf ,Ug;gpDk; juT ngw;Wj;jUk; Ntfk; kpfTk; mjpfkhFk; vd. gJf; F epidtfk; Kw; f hyq; f spy; nrayp ,w; F mUfpy; ntspapy; mike;jpUe;jhYk; etPd nraypfspy; mJ cw;GwkhfNt mike;js;sJ vd. 3.

(12) •. •. • •. •. •. nraypf;Fg; ngw;Wf;nfhs;sg;gLk; xOq;fikf;fg;gl;l my;yJ xOq;fikf;fg; glhj juTfis gpujhd epidtfj;jpw;F mDg;gg;gLtjw;F Kd; jw;fhypfkhf epWj;jp itj;jpUg;gjw;fhf rpW nfhs;ssTfs; nfhz;l epidtfk; ,r; nrayp ,Ds; cs;sd vd. me; epidtfq;fs; gjptfq;fs; (Registers) vd miof;fg;gLk; vd. RAM, Cache kw;Wk; gjptfq;fs;(Registers) vd;gitfs; kpd; rf;jpapNyNa jq;fpAs;sgbahy; ,it mopAk; epidtfq;fs; (Volatile Memory) vd miof;fg;gLk; vd. mopAk; epidtfj;jpy; juTfs; Kiwahfr; Nrkpj;J itf;fg;gl;Ls;sjhy; mij miltJ kpf Rygk; vd. me; epidtfq;fs; mopeJ ; Nghd NghjpYk; neLq;fhy epidtfj;jpy; Nrkpff ; g;gl;l juTfis Njitahd Neuq;fspy; kPsg;ngw;Wf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topKiwfs; cs;sd vd. fzpdpapDs;Ns nghWj;jg;gl;Ls;s gpujhd td;tl;L neLq;fhy epidtfkhFk;. ,jpy; Nrkpj;J itj;j juTfis fzpdpapd; ntspg;Gwj;jpd; nghUj;jg;gl;l fhe;j (Magnetic) kw;Wk; xspapay; (optical) Clfq;fs; rpytw;wpy; Nrkpj;J itf;f KbAk; vd. td;tl;L> ehlh(tapes) kw;Wk; nefpot ; l;L (floppy disk) vd;git fhe;j Clfq;fshfTk;> ,Utl; L (CD)" DVD Nghd; w it mopTwh epidtf (Non Volatile Memory) Clfq;fshfTk; cs;sd vd.. thrpg; G g; gj; j puk; epiyaw;w epidtfk;. (Volatile Memory). fzpdpfspy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; epidtfk; fzpdpfspd; nraw;ghl;bw;F Kf;fpakhdnjhd;whFk;. epidtfj;jhy; GupAk; gpujhd nrayhdJ fzpdp juT nraw;ghl;bd; gyjug;gl;l $l;lq;fSf;Fj; Njitahd juTfisf; fsQ;rpag;gLj;jp itg;gjhFk;. mjpy; fsQ;rpag;gLj;jp cs;s juTfs; mopahkypUf;f njhlu;r;rpahf kpd; toq;fiy Nkw;nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;. VNjh xU tifapy; me;j epidtfq;fSf;Ff; fpilf;Fk; kpd;njhlu;G Jz;bg;gile;jhy; clNd mjd; epidtfj;jpYs;s juTfs; mope;J tpLk;. Mifahy; ,eepidtfq;fs; kpd; njhlu;gpd; Nky; jq;fpapUf;Fk; epidtf tifahFk;. fzpdpapYs;s fPof ; f ; hZk; epidtfq;fs; ,t;tifiar;; NrWk;. 1. vOkhW mZfy; epidtfk; (RAM) 2. gjptfq;fs; (Registers) 3. gJf;F epidtfk;. vOkhW mZfy; epidtfk;. (RAM). ,e; epidtfk; fzpdpapd; gpujhd epidtfk; vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;. fzpdpapd; kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L myfpw;F VjhtnjhU nraw;ghl;ilr; nra;tjw;Fj; Njitahd. 4.

(13) Kiwik nkd;nghUs;> gpuNahf nkd;nghUs; kw;Wk; Njitahd juTfisf; fsQ;rpag;gLj;jp itg;gJ ,e; epidtfj;jpNyahFk;. ,jd; rpwg;gk;rk; vd;dntd;why; nraw;ghl;L myfpw;F ,jpy; cs;sitfis Neubahf ngw;Wf;nfhs;sf;$ba tha;g;G cs;sikNaahFk;. mJNghyNt ,jd; gpuNtr fhyk; kpfTk; Fiwthdgbahy; nraw;ghLfis kpfTk; Ntfkhfr; nra;a KbAk;. ,e; epidtfj;jpd; VjhtnjhU ,lj;jpypUe;J Neubahfj; juTfisr; nraypapw;Fg; ngw;Wf; nfhs;tjdhy; ,jw;F xOq;FKiwnahd;W Njitapy;iy. Mifahy; ,e; epidtfj;ij vOkhW mZfy; epidtfk; vd miof;fg;gLk;. ,e; epidtf tiffs; NtfkhdJ NghyNt ,jpy; gytpjkhd nfhs;ssTfisf; nfhz;ljhf ngw;Wf; nfhs;s KbAk;. ,jpy; juTfis fsQ;rpag;gLj;jtTk;> mjpypUe;J thrpf;fTk; KbAk;. ,g;gb ,Ue;jNghjpYk; fzpdpapd; kpd; njhlu;ig epWj;jpaTld; mjpy; cs;s midj;Jj; juTfSk; mope;JNgha;tpLk;. vOkhW mZfy; epidtfq;fs; ,U tiffsppy; ngw;Wf;nfhs;s KbAk;. mitfshtd: 1. ,af;ftpay; vOkhW mZfy; epidtfk; (DRAM) 2. epiyapay; vOkhW mZfy; epidtfk; (SRAM) etPd fzpdpfspy; Rygkhff; fhzg;gLk; epidtf tif mirT vOkhW mZfy; epidtfkhFk;. ,e; epidtfj;jpy; fsQ;rpag;gLj;jp itj;Js;s VjhtNjhu; jftiy mbf;fb Gj;Jzu;t+l;l (refresh) Ntz;Lk;. ,e; epidtfj;jpd; epidtf fyd;fspy; itf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk; juTf;s nrf;fDf;F kpy;ypad; msT my;yJ kpd; Jbg;Gfis mDg;gp kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; Gj;Jzu;t+l;Lk;. epiyapay; vOkhW mZfy; epidtfk; fzpdpapd; ,uz;lhk; tif epidtfkhf fUj KbAk;. ,e; epidtfq;fspYs;s juTfs; mbf;fb Gj;Jzu;T+l;lg; glkhl;lhJ. MdhYk; mj;juTfs; Nky; ,d;DnkhU juT vOjg;gLk; tiuapy; my;yJ kpd; Jz;bg;gilAk; tiu ,J Xu; epiyapay; glkhf epfOk;. ,e; epidtf rpg;fs; nky;ypajhdjhy; ghtidapy; ,y;yhjNghJ ghtid FiwthdJ. ,jdhy; ,af;ftpay; epidtfq;fis tplTk; nraypapy; cs;s gJf;F epidtfj;jpw;F (cache memory) kpfTk; nghUj;jkhd njupT ,e;j epiyapay; epidtfk; vdf; fhl;lyhk;. ,d;DNkhu; tifapy; mirT epidtfq;fspd; juTf; nfhs;ssT mjpfkhdjhy; gpujhd epidtfj;jpw;Fg; nghUj;jkhd njupT ,JthFk;.. gjptfq;fs;. (Registers). fzpdp epu;khzj;jpd;NghJ gjptfq;fs; vd;gd kpfTk; rpwpa nfhs;ssTfisf; nfhz;l fsQ;rpa epidtfkhFk;. ,tw;wpYs;s juTfis NtW ,lj;jpy; cs;s juTfis ngWtij tpl mjpf Ntfj;jpy; nraypapw;F mZfpf; nfhs;sf;$baJ> ,jd; rpwg;gk;r khFk;. epidtf Ntfg; gbepiyapd; cau; epiyapy; ,Ug;gJ ,g; gjptfq;fNsahFk;. 5.

(14) gJf;F epidtfk;. (Cache Memory). fzpdp nraw;ghl;bw;F rk;ge;jg;gl;l fhyj;ij fzpff ; g;gLtJ kpfr; rpwpa myfpdhyhFk;. cjhuzkhf fzpdp nrayp gpujhd epidtfj;ij mZFtjw;F vLf;Fk; Neuk; nghJthf tpdhbapd; kpy;ypad; 60 ,y; xU gq;fhFk;. mjhtJ neNdh nrf;fd; 60 MFk;. MdhYk; nraypapd; nraw;ghl;by; xU Rw;wpw;fhf nry;Yk; Neuk; neNdh nrf;fd; 2 MFk;. ,jd;gb nraypnahd;wpw;F neNdh nrf;fd; 60 vd;gJ kpfg; ngupa fhykhFk;. ,jd;gb fzpdp nraypapw;F jkJ fhupaq;fSf;fhfj; Njitg;gLk; juTifsg; gpujhd epidtfj;jpypUe;J mZfpf;nfhs;tjw;F mjpf Neuk; nrytplg;gLk; tplakhdgbahy; gpujhd epidtfj;ij tplf; Fiwe;J ,Ug;gpDk; Ntfkhf mZfy; cs;s nraypapw;F kpfTk; neUf;fKs;s my;yJ nraypapDs; mlf;fg;gl;bUf;Fk; epidtf tif gJf;F epidtfkhFk;. gJf;F epidtfj;jpy; ngUk;ghYk; fsQ;rpag;gLj;jpf; nfhs;tJ nraypapdhy; mbf;fb gad;gLj;jg;gLk; gpujhd epidtfj;jpYs;s juTfspd; gpujpfshFk;. nraypapwF ; gpujhd epidtfj; j pd; Xu; ,lj; j pYs; s tw; i w thrpf; f my; y J mjpy; vOJtjw; f NjitNaw;gl;lhy; nrayp Kjyhtjhf gJf;F epidtfj;jpy; mjw;Fupa gpujp cs;sjh vd;gijg; guPl;rpj;Jg; ghu;f;Fk;. mjw;Fupa gpujpapUe;jhy; cldbahf mjid nraypapwF ; g; ngw;Wf;nfhs;Sk;. gpujhd epidtfj;jpd; juT mZfSf;F ,J Ntfj;ijj; jUk;. etPd jdpegu; fzpdpfspd; gJf;F epidtf kl;lq;fs; %d;W cs;sd. Kjy; kl;lk; L1 gJf;F epidtfk;. kpfTk; NtfkhdJld; nraypapDs;NsNa mike;Js;sJ. ,jdhy; ,j;juT nraypapw;F nry;tjw;F jha;g; gyifapd; juT khu;f;fq;fisg; gad;gLj;jg; glkhl;lhJ. Mifahy; ,J nraypapd; Ntfj;ij tpl mjpf Ntfj;jpy; nraw;gLk;. ,uz;lhk; kl;lk; L2 kw;Wk; %d;whk; kl;lk; L3 jha;g;gyifapy; my;yJ nraypapy; mike;jpUf;f KbAk;. jha;g;gyifapypUf;Fk;NghJ mjw;F juT khu;f;fj;ij gad; gLj;Jtjhy; rpwpjsT Ntfk; Fiwe;jhYk; gpujhd epidtfk; Ntfkhfr; nraw;gLk;. L3 kl;l epidtfk; L2 kl;l epidtfj;jpw;Fj; Njitahdtw;iwg; ngw;Wf; nfhLg;gJld; L2 epidtfk; L1 epidtfj;jpw;Fj; Njitahdtw;iwg; ngw;Wj;jUk;. L1 epidtfk; nraypapw;F mtw;iwf; nfhLf;Fk;. ,e; epidtf kl;lq;fs; midj;Jk; my;yJ ,d;iwa rpy fzpdpfspd; mlq;fg;gl;Ls;sd.. mopAwh epidtfk;. (Non Volatile Memory). ,t;tifahd epidtfq;fs; fsQ;rpag;gl;bU;fk; juTfs; my;yJ jfty;fs; kpd; njhlu;G Jz;bj;jTld; my;yJ fzpdpia nraypyf;fr; nra;jTld; mopakhl;lhJ. ,e; epidtf tiff;F thrpg;G khj;jpuk; epidtfk; kw;Wk; ,uz;lhe;ju epidtfq;fs; Nru;j;Jf; nfhs;syhk;. ,it nfhs;sytpy; mjpfkhf ,Ue;jhYk; epiyaw;w epidtfj;ijg; Nghd;W Ntfk; nfhz;ljy;y. mit tpiyapYk; $bajhFk;. 6.

(15) etPd fzpdp njhopy;El;gj;jpd; Kd;Ndw;wj;Jld; cyfpy; gy fzpdp epWtdq;fs;> epiyaw;w epidtfq;fspd; Ntfj;jpw;Fr; rkdhd Ntfj;jpy; nraw;glf;$bathW thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfq;fisj; jahupg;gjpy; gupNrhjidfis Nkw;nfhz;L tUfpd;wdu;. cjhuzkhf IBM epWtdk; tpUj;jpnra;Js;s Magnetoresistive RAM vDk; M R A M ,idf; $wyhk;. epiyahd epidtfk; gpujhdkhf ,uz;L tifg;gLk;. 1. thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk; (Read only memory - ROM) 2. ,uz;lhe;ju epidtfq;fs; (secondary storage). thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk; ,e; epidtfk; thrpf;f khj;jpuk; Kbe;j epidtfk; NghyNt fzpdp nraypapw;F mjpy; vOj KbahJ. ,t;thwhd epidtfq;fspy; fsQ;rpag;gLj;jg;gl;Ls;s tpNrl nkd;nghUs; cs;sJ. mit epiyg;nghUs; (firmware) vd miof;fg;gLk;. ,k; nkd;nghUl;fs; tpNrlkhd td;nghUSf;F khj;jpuk; fl;Lg;gl;lJk; mit mbf;fb Gj;Jzu;t+l;l mtrpakw;wjhFk;. tpNrlkhf jdpegu; fzpdpia nghUj;j tiuapy; mtw;wpd; jha;gg ; yifapy; nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk; Fiwflj;jp rpg; xd;wpy; fsQ;rpag;gLj;jp ,Uf;Fk; epiyg;nghUs; %yk; fzpdpapid nraw;gLj;Jk; mbg;gil fhupaq;fis epiwNtw;Wk;. fzpdpapwF ; kpd; njhlu;ig toq;fpaTld; nraw;gLk; ,k;nkd;nghUs; %yk; fzpdpapwF ; nghUj;jg;gl;l cgfuzq;fisf; fz;lwptjw;fhd eilKiw (Diagnostic Routine) ia nra;tJld; mk; nkd;nghUspd; kw;nwhU gFjpapd; %yk; fzpdpapd; ,af;f Kiwik fsQ;rpag;gLj;jp cs;s ,lj;jpypUe;J xU gpujpia gpujhd epidtfj;jpw;F mZf itf;Fk;. cs;sl P L ; cgfuzq;fspypUe;J fpilf;Fk; rkpfi ; Qfis guptu;jj ; id nra;jy; Nghd;witfSk; ,e; epuypd; kw;iwa tplaq;fshFk;. fzpdpfSf;F Nkyhf kw;iwa cw; n ghjpe; j KiwikfspYk; ,t; t hwhd thrpg; G khj; j pu epidtfq; f s; nghUj;jg;gl;Ls;sd. ,e;j thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfq;fSf;F fzpdp nraypapdhy; vJTk; vOj Kbahtpl;lhYk; etPd njhopy;El;g Kiwapdhy; kpd; kw;Wk; NtW Kiwfisg; gad;gLj;jp tpNrl cgfuzq;fs; %yk; mopf;fTk; kPz;Lk; vOjTk; KbAk;. ,t;thwhd thrpg;g khj;jpu epidtf tiffs;: 1. thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk; - ROM (Read only Memory) 2. epuy;gLj;jf;$ba thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk; - PROM (Programmable Memory) 3. mopf;ff;$ba epuy;gLj;jy; thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk; - EPROM (Erasable Programmable Memory) 4. kpd;dhy; mopf;ff;$ba epuy;gLj;jy; thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk; - EEPROM (Elactrically Erasable Programmable Memory) 5. Jupj epidtfk; - Flash Memory 7.

(16) epuy;gLj;jf;$ba epidtfk; (PROM - Programmable Memory) kpfr; rpwe;j thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfnkhd;iw epu;khdpf;f mjpf fhyk; nry;tjhYk;> kpfr; rpwpjhf jahupg;gjw;F nryT mjpfkhtjhYk; ,t; thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtf jahupg;ghsu;fshy; epuy;gLj;jf;$ba thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk; (PROM) vDk; ngaupy; epidtf rpg; epu;khzpf;fg;gl;lJ. ,e; epidtf rpg; ntw;W rpg;fshff; Fiwe;j tpiyapy; ngw;Wf;nfhs;s KbAk;. mtw;iw programmer vDk; tpNrl cgfuzj;jpd; %yk; epuy;gLj;j KbAk;.. mopf;ff;$ba epuy;gLj;jy; epidtfk;. - EPROM. Nkw;Fwpg;gplg;gl;l R O M kw;Wk; P R O M fSld; nraw;gLtJ xUtifapy; ehrfhu nrayhff; fUjyhk;. Vndd;why; ,r; rpg;fspd; tpiuFiwthapUe;jhYk; kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; epuy;gLj;j KbahjjhyhFk;. Mifahy; kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; epuy;gLj;jf;$ba rpg; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. mjid mopf;ff;$ba epuy;gLj;jf;$ba thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk; vd miof;fg;gLk;. ,e;j rpg;gpy; cs;s juTfs; Gw Cjh fjpu; %yk; tpNrl cgfuznkhd;wpdhy; mopf;f KbAk;. gpd; kPz;Lk; vOjf;$ba epiyf;F tUk;. ,e;j KO rpg;GNk mopf;fg;gLk;.. kpd;dhy; mopf;ff;$ba epuy;gLj;jy; thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk; -. EEPROM. mopf;ff;$ba epuy;gLj;jy; thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk;> epuy;gLj;jy; thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfj;ij tpl rpwg;gpay;Gfspy; Kd; ,Ue;jNghjpYk; ,r; rpg;ig mopf;Fk; NghJk; kPzL ; k; vOJk; NghJk; mjw;fhf xJf;fg;gl;l tpNrl cgfuzk; gad;gLj;j Ntz;baJk; Fiwe;j nrytpy; ,yFthf nra;Jnfhs;sf;$ba tha;gG ; ,y;yhikahYk; ,t;thwhd mnrsfupaq;fis mfw;wp kpd;id gad;gLj;jp mopf;ff;$ba epuy;gLj;jy; thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk; jahupf;fg;gl;lJ. ,e;j rpg;ig jahupj;jjd; gpd; fPo;f;fhZk; mD$yq;fs; cUthfp cs;sd. • kPz;Lk; vOJk;NghJ rpg;ig nghUj;jpa ,lj;jpypUe;J mfw;w Njitg;glhJ. • KO rpg;igAk; mopj;J tplhky; mtrpakhd gFjpia kl;Lk; kPz;Lk; vOj KbAk;. • cs;slf;f juTfis mopg;gjw;fhd tpNrl cgfuzk; Njitg;glhik. Jupj epidtfk; -. Flash Memory. kpd;dhy; mopf;ff;$ba epuy;gLj;jf;$ba thrpg;G khj;jpu epidtfk; rpg;gpy; 1byte kl;LNk kPz;Lk; vOj KbAk;. MdhYk; ,J ke;j fjpapy; eilngWk;. ,t; tplak; xUtifapy; ,yFthdjhapUe;jhYk; ,U nfhs;ssit vOJtjw;F ntF Neuk; nry;tJ xU gpujp$ykhff; fUjyhk;. Xu; cgfuzj;jpd; cs;slf;fg;gl;l rpg;gpy; cs;s juTfspd; jpBu; khw;wq;fs; Vw;gLj;j Ntz;Lk; vdpd; mt;thwhf cgfuzq;fSf;F ,j;jifa rpg;fs; kpfTk; nghUj;jkw;w jhFk;. ,j;jifa gpd;thq;fSf;Fj; jPu;thf Jupj epidtf rpg; jahupf;fg;gl;lJ.. 8.

(17) ,t;tifahd rpg;gpy; juT kPy; vOJk;NghJ xNuabahf ghupa gFjpahf (chunks) vOj KbAk;. mjhtJ 512 igl;fspd; gFjpia xNuabahf vOjyhk;. kpf NtfkhfTk; ,yFthftk; kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; vOj Kbahjjhy; mjw;nfd;W tpNrl cgfuzk; Njitg;gglhjjdhy; Jupj epidtfk; kpfTk; gpugy;akhfpAs;sJ.. mbg;gil cs;sPl;L> ntspaPl;L Kiwik. (Basic Input Output System - BIOS). ,J fzpdpia jahu;g;glj;Jk; epiyg; nghUshFk;. fzpdpapw;F kpd; njhlu;ig toq;fpaTld; nraw;gLk; KjyhtJ nkd;nghUs; ,e;epiy nghUshFk;. CMOS ,r;rpg; gpujhd gyiff;Fg; nghUj;jg;gLtJ mg; gyifia jahupf;Fk; NghNjahFk;. ,e; epiyg;nghUspd; mbg;gil eltbf;ifahdJ fzpdp Kiwikapd; td; jl;L> tpirg;gyif> Rl;b kw;Wk; midj;J cs;sPl;L> ntspaPl;L ghfq;fis milahsk; fhzy;> guPl;rpj;jy;> kw;Wk; Muk;gj;ijg; ngw;Wf; nfhLj;jyhFk;. ,q;F Kiwikapy; cs;s td;nghUs;fs; KiwikfSf;F Vw;wkhd Kiwf;F mikj;Jj; jUk;. ,jw;fhf ,t; td;nghUl;fspd; xl;Lk; nkd;nghUl;fis mZfy; nra;J mt; td;nghUl;fis fl;Lg;ghl;il Kiwikf;F toq;Fk;. ,r; nraw;ghL booting my;yJ boots up vd rhjhuzkhf miof;fg;gLk;. ,ij bootstrapping vdTk; miof;fg;gLk;.. epug;G cNyhf xf;irl;L Fiwflj;jp. (Complementry Metel Oxide Semi-conductor. - CMOS Chip). ,J fzpdp jha;gg ; yifapy; nghUj;jg;gl;bUf;Fk; rpwpa rpg; MFk;. ,jpy; Kiwikapd; jpfjp> Neuk; kw;Wk; Vida mikg;Gfs; (settings) mlq;fpAs;sJ. ,e;j rpg;gpw;Fj; Njitg;gLtJ kpfr; rpwpa kpd; rf;jp vd;gjhy; mr; rf;jpia rpwpa ypjj ; pak; gl;lupnahd;why; toq;fg;gLk;. ,e;j gl;lupia gy tUlq;fs; ghtpf;f KbAk;. ,ij C M O S gl;lup vd miof;fg;gLk;. epiyahd epidtf tiffSf;F mlq;Fk; ,d;DnkhU epidtfkhf ,uz;lhe;ju fsQ;rpakhf miof;f KbAk;. ,it gy tbtq;fspy; fhzyhk;. fPo; fhl;lg;gLtJ mjd; rpyjhFk;. - Magnetic tapes 1. fhe;j ehlhf;fs; 2. td; tl;Lfs; - Hard disks 3. xspapay; ehlhf;fs; - Optical disks. fhe;j ehlhf;fs; fhe; j xspg; g jpT nra; t jw; f hd ClfkhtJ ,f; fhe; j elhf; f Ns. nky; y pa fzj;ijf;nfhz;l> ePz;l gpsh];bf; ehlhit fhe;jg;gLj;Jtjd; %yk; ,e;j fhe;j ehlhf;fs; mikf;fg;gLk;. ngUk;ghYk; xyp> xsp juTfs; Nghd;W fzpdp juTfis fsQ;rpag;gLj;jpitf;f ,it gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. Kjd; Kiwahf ,f; fhe;j ehlhf;fis jahupjj ; tu;fs; N[u;kdpapdu; Mthu;fs;. ,e;ehlhf;fs; xyp> xsp xspgg ; jpT nra;tjw;Fk;> kPs; Xl;lTk; (play back) $ba gy cgfuzq;fspy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. cjhuzkhf Nlg;. 9.

(18) nuf;Nfhlu; kw;Wk; tPbNah nuf;Nfhlu;fis fhl;lyhk;. fzpdp juTfis fsQ;rpag;gLj;J tjw;fhf ,f;fhe;j ehlhf;fis nrYj;Jk; gFjp ehlh nrYj;jp (Tape Drive) vd miof;fg;gLk;. Kw;fhyj;jpy; fzpdpapd; ,uz;lhe;ju fsQ;rpakhf gad;gLj;jg;gl;lJ. ,f;fhe;j ehlhf;fisg; ghJfhg;G Nrkpj;jYf;fhfg; (backup) gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. ghupa mytpyhd juTfis fsQ;rpag;gLj;Jtjw;F ,it jw;NghJk; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd.. td;tl;L. (Hard disk). fzpdpapd; gpujhd fsQ; r pakhf gad; g Lj; j g; g LtJ td; t l; l hFk; . vz; z pay; FwpaPlhf;fg;gl;l juTfis fsQ;rpag;gLj;jg;gl;l fhe;j Kfg;igf;nfhz;l tisahj> Ntfkhf Rw;Wk; tl;Lfs; gy Nru;f;fg;gl;l td;tl;L Xl;bnahd;W etPd fzpdpfspy; fhzg;gLk;. ,it gy nfhs;ssTfspy; ngw;Wf; nfhs;syhk;. fhe;j ehlhf;fis tpl kpff;$ba juTfis mZfy; nra;Jnfhs;s Kbak;. ,j;jl;Lfs; etPd fzpdpfspy; gutyhff; fhzyhk;.. xspapay; tl;Lfs; ,it jl;ilahd tl;ltbt tl;L tiffshFk;. ,jpy; vz;zpay; juTfis fsQ;rpag;gLj;Jk;NghJ ,t;tl;by; cs;s rpwpa gs;sq;fs; (pits)> NkLfs; mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L vz;zpay; 0 kw;Wk; 1 thrpff ; f;$ba tifapyhd njhopyE ; l;gk; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. ,j; juTfs; thrpf;fg;gLtJ Nyru; xspf;fjpu; cjtpAldhFk;. ,t;tl;by; juTfisf; fsQ;rpag;gLj;jg;gLtJ Nyru; %yk; my;yJ ,ae;jpug; gjpT %ykhFk;. nghJthf ,t;tl;Lfs; xsptl;L (Compact Disk-CD-R) vd miof;fg;gLk;. ,jpy; xUKiw kl;LNk juT vOj KbAk;. kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; vOJtjw;fhf CD-RW tifapyhd xyptl;Lfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. ,jpy; mNefkhf fzpdp juTfs; fsQ;rpag;gLj;jg;gLtJld; xyp> xsp juTfSk; fsQ;rpag;gLj;jyhk;. ,j;jl;Lfspy; fsQ;rpag;gLj;jpajy;y. jpiug;glq;fs;> ghly;fs; nghd;wtw;iw re;ijapy; ngwyhk;. jw;NghJ mNefkhf gad;gLj;jg;gLtJ DVD tl;LfshFk;. ,j;jl;Lfs; gy nfhs;sTfspy; cs;sd. etPd fzpdpfspy; gad;gLj;Jk; ,it tpiyapYk; Fiwe;jitahFk;.. 10.

(19) Nju;r;rp 6. :. fzpdpapd; KO mstpyhd nraw; g hLfisAk; Kfhikj; J tk; nra; t jw; F ,af; f Kiwikia cgNahfpgg ; hu;.. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 6.3 :. xU ,af;f KiwahdJ fzpdpapd; nraw;ghLfis vt;thW epu;tfpf;fpd;wJ vd;gij Muha;thu;.. ghlNtis. Ie;J ghlNtis. fw;ww; NgWfs;. : :. gy;njhopy; kw;Wk; gy;epuy; Kiwikfspd; gz;Gfis tpsf;Fthu;. nray; K iwfs; ,Uf; F k; epiyfisAk; mit NtWgLk; tpjj; i jAk; njspTgLj;Jthu;. • ,af;f Kiwik nray;Kiw cgepuy; %yk; nray;Kiw Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;ag;gLk; tpjk; gw;wp tpsf;Fthu;. • KOtijAk; Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;tjw;fhf rpW gFjpfshf Ntwhf;fpf; nfhs;Sthu;. • $ba nraw;wpwidg; ngw;Wf; nfhs;tjw;F Neuj;ij Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;thu;. • •. fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;: gpuNtrk; ifalf;fj; njhiyNgrpnahd;wpd; nraw;ghl;ilAk; mjpy; fhzg;gLk; NritfisAk; gw;wp khztu;fsplk; tpdtTk;. • fhj; j pUf; F k; miog; G ( Call waiting) Nritnahd; W nraw; g Lk; tpjk; gw; w p fye;JiuahlTk;. • fPo;f;fhzg;gLk; tplaq;fis ntspf;nfhzUk; tifapy; fye;Jiuahlnyhd;iw Nkw;nfhs;sTk;. • ifalf;fj; njhiyNgrp miog;G xd;wpy; <Lgl;bUf;Fk; Ntisapy; ,d;DnkhU miog;G tUkhapd; xyp rkpQi ; rAk;> jpiuapy; njd;gLk; nra;jp xd;Wk; fpilf;Fk; vd;gJ. • Njitnadpd; ,izg;gpy; ,Uf;Fk; miog;ig jw;fhypfkhf epWj;jptpl;L Gjpa miog;Gld; ,izaf;$baJld; mg;Gjpa miog;ig epWj;jp kPz;Lk; gioa ,izg;Gld; njhlu;G glTk; KbAk; vd;gJ. • ,r;nraw;ghl;bd;NghJ ifalf;fj; njhiyNgrp %yk; xNu jlitapy; gy tplaq;fis Nkw;nfhs;sf;$ba trjpfs; toq;fg;gl;Ls;sd vd;gJ. • ,r;nraw;ghL gy;njhopy; (multitasking) vdg;gLk; vd;gJ. • ,r;nraw;ghLfs; ifalf;fj; njhiyNgrpapd; ,af;f Kiwik %yk; Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;ag;gLfpd;wJ vd;gJ. • fzpdpapYk; gy;njhopy; nraw;ghLfs; eilngWtJld; mtw;wpd; Kfhikj;Jtk; ,af;f Kiwik %yk; eilngWfpd;wJ vd;gJ. •. 11.

(20) fw;wYf;fhd cj;Njr mwpTWj;jy;fs;: •. • •. • • •. fPo;f; Fwpg;gplg;gl;Ls;s jiyg;Gf;fspy; ckJ FOtpw;Ff; fpilf;Fk; jiyg;gpd; kPJ ftdk; nrYj;jTk;. • gy;njhopy; kw;Wk; gy;epuy; ,af;f Kiwikfspy; • Neug;gfpu;T (time sharing) kw;Wk; nraypapd; cr;r gad;ghL(processor utilization) • nray;KiwfSk; (processes) mtw;wpd; epiyfSk; (process states) • nray;Kiwfis ml;ltizg;gLj;jy; (process scheduling) thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuj;ij KOikahfTk; ckJ jiyg;gpw;Fupa gFjpapd; kPJ $ba ftdKk; nrYj;jTk;. fzpdpapd; nraw;ghl;bDs; nray;KiwfSk;> mtw;wpd; cgepuy; gLj;jy;fSk;> gy;njhopy; my;yJ gy;epuy; Kiwf;F cjTk; tpjk; gw;wp rpW FOf; fye;Jiuahl nyhd;iw Nkw;nfhs;sTk;. nraypapd; gad;ghl;il nraw;wpwDld; gpuNahfpg;gjw;F nray;Kiw epuy;fs; %yk; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; nray;fis jkJ FOtpw;F Kd;itj;Jf; fye;JiuahlTk;. nray;Kiw epiy (process states) fspd; %yk; Neuj;ij Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;tJld; nraw;wpwid mjpfupjJ ; f; nfhs;Sk; tpjk; gw;wp ftdk; nrYj;jp kjpgg ; l P b ; w;Fl;gLj;jTk;. cq;fsJ fUj;Jf;fis $l;lhfTk; gilg;ghw;wy; kpf;fjhfTk; KO tFg;gpw;Fk; Kd;itg;gjw;F jahuhfTk;.. ghl tplaq;fis njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;b: • • • •. rpW FOf;fspd; fUj;Jf;fis KO tFg;gpw;Fk; Kidtf;fTk;. Kd;itj;j FOtpw;Nf tpupTiug;gpw;fhd Kjy; re;ju;g;gj;ij toq;fTk;. Vida FOf;fspd; Mf;fg+u;tkhd fUj;Jf;fis tprhupf;fTk;. fPo;f;fhzg;gLk; tplaq;fs; kPJ ftdk; nrYj;JtJld; rhuhk;rg;gLj;jTk;. • fzpdp nraypapd; nraw;wpuid mjpfupg;gjw;fhf mjd; Neuj;ij mjp$ba mstpy; gad;gLj;jj;jf;f mtrpak; Vw;gl;lJ vd;gJ. • ,jw;fhf nraypia mjp$ba mstpy; gad;ghl;bw;F vLj;Jf; nfhs;sf;$ba gy;epuy; kw;Wk; gy;njhopy; ,af;f Kiwikfs; cUthfpd vd;gJ. • ,t;tpaf;f KiwikfSf;F nraypapd; Neuj;ij Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;J nfhs;t Jld; mjd; mjp$ba cw;gj;jpj;jpwid ngw;Wf;nfhs;s KbAk; vd;gJ. • ,t;tpaf;f KiwikfspYs;s gpujhd ,ay;ghdJ nraw;ghL vd;W miof;fg;gLk; epuy; gFjpfs; ghtpf;fg;gLtJ vd;gJ. • ,r;nray;Kiwfs; mtw;wpd; gy;NtW epiyfspw;F (states) toq;fg;gl;L mit VNjDk; xU xOq;fpy; nraypf;F mDg;gg;gl;L Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;ag;gLfpd;wd vd;gJ. • ,k;Kfhikj;Jtj;ij Nkw;nfhs;tJ nray;Kiw xOq;fikg;G (process sheduler) vdg;gLk; Kiwnahd;wpd; %ykhFk;. • ,r;nray;Kiw FWq;fhy> ,ilf;fhy> ePzl ; fhy vd;w %d;W tiffshyydJ vd;gJ.. 12.

(21) • •. ,t; xt;nthU gFjpfspYk; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; tplak; xd;wpw;nfhd;W NtWgl;l njd;gJ. etPd fzpdpfspy; ghtpf;fg;gLfpd;w gy;njhopy; kw;Wk; gy;epuy; ,af;f Kiwik fSf;F ,r;nray;Kiw %yk; fzpdp juT xOq;FgLj;Jk; nray;Kiwapid njhlu;r;rpahfg; Ngzf;$ba tha;g;G Vw;gl;Ls;sJ vd;gJ.. thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk; gy;epuy;gLj;jy;. (Multiprogramming). Muk;g fhy fzpdpfspy; nraypnahd;wpd; Neuk; ngWkjpkpf;fjhf ,Ue;jJld; ,e;Neuj;ij mjp$bastpy; gad;gLj;jpf; nfhs;tJ fbdkhdjhy; fzpdpg; ghfq;fspy; nraw;ghL kpfTk; ke;jfjpahapUe;jJ. mt;thW elg;gjw;F nraypnahd;W VNjDnkhU tplaj;jpy; <Lgl;bUf;Fk;NghJ NtnwhU ghfk; my;yJ nkd;nghUs; %yk; ,ila+WU Vw;gl;l clNd ,Jtiu nra;J nfhz;bUe;j Ntiyia epWj;jptpl;L ,ila+W(Interupt) f;Fg; gjpyspf;fg;gLk;. ,J KO Kiwikf;Fk; Vw;gl;l ghupa tpUk;gj;jfhj epfo;thFk;. ,e;epiyf;F jPu;thf 1960 fspy; gy gadu;fs; (Multiuser) xNu jlitapy; Ntiy nra; a f; $ baJk; epfo; r ; r pfs; gytw; i w (Multiprogramming) xNu jlitapy; nraw;gLj;jf;$baJkhd Kiwikfs; mwpKfg;gLj;jg;gl;ld. ,k;Kiwikfs; nraypahy; njhlu;eJ ; nraw;ghLfis Nkw;nfhs;sf;$ba tifapy; jpUj;jpaikf;fg;gl;ld. vdNt> ,r;nray; cau; nraw;wpwDld; $banjd;gij njspTgLj;jpaJ. ,k;Kiwikfspy; xNu jlitapy; gy nkd;nghUl;fis ,af;ff;$ba trjp Vw;gl;lJ. etPd fzpdpfspy; VNjDk; nkd;nghUl;fis ,af;Fk;NghJ mk;nkd;nghUspd; xd;Wf;F Nkw;gl;l gpujpfis xNu jlitapy; gpujhd epidtfj;jpw;F cl;nrYj;jf; $baJld; ,jd; %yk; xNu jlitapy; gyuhy; ,k;nkd;nghUis ghtpff ; f;$ba trjp fpilf;fpdw ; J. mJ khj;jpukd;wp rpy nkd;nghUl;fspy; xU gpujp khj;jpuk; gpujhd epidtfj;jpw;F cl;gLj;jg;gl;L mg;gpujp gyUf;F xNu jlitapy; mjid gad;gLj;jf;$ba trjpia ngw;Wj; jUfpdw ; J. ,q;F xNu nkd;nghUspd; FwpaL P nghJthf gfpue ; J ; nfhs;sf;$ba Kiwnahd;W ghtpff ; g;gLfpdw ; J. ,k;Kiw kPsn ; rYj;jp (Re-entered) Kiw vd;w ngauhy; miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ. nrayp xd;W xU jlitapy; xU nraw;ghl;by; xU fl;lisia khj;jpuk; nraw;gLj;Jk;. vdpDk;> VNjDnkhU Neu ,ilntspapy; gy nraw;ghLfis Njf;fp itj;Jf; nfhs;Sk;. ,r;nraw;ghLfSf;fhf nrayp %yk; Neuk; xJf;fg;gLk;. xJf;fg;gl;ll Neuk; fpilf;Fk; tiu> kpFjp nraw;ghLfis jw;fhypfkhf nraypoe;j epiyapy; itj;Jf; nfhs;Sk;. VNjDk; nraw;ghLfs; rpy xNu Neuj;jpy; nraw;glhky;> VNjDk; Neu xOq;fpw;fika nraw;gLkhapd; mt;thW eilngWtJ ~~Vffhy ,af;fk;|| (Concurent excecution) vd;W miof;fg;gLk;.. 13.

(22) gy;epuy; gy;njhopy; ,af;f Kiwiknahd;wpy;> $ba vz;zpf;ifapyhd nraw;ghLfs; Fwpj;j ,ilNtisf;Fs; nraw;gLj;jg;gly; eilngWk;. gy; epuy;fSf;fhf nrayp %yk; xt;nthU nraw;ghl;bw;Fk; Fwpj;j Neu xJf;fy; Njitg;gLk;. mNj Nghd;W Fwpj;j Neuj;jpy; mr;nraw;ghLfs; g+u;j;jp nra;ag;gly; Ntz;Lk;. ,r;nray;fs; epiwtiltjw;F Kd;dNu nrayp %yk; Neu xJf;fis epiwT nra;ag;gLnkdpd;> mjid $ba tpiutpy; kPz;Lk; Muk;gpj;J mjd; kpFjpg; gFjpia epiwT nra;tjw;F re;ju;g;gk; toq;fg;gl Ntz;Lk;. Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;lthW nraw;ghLfs; epiwtiltjw;F Kd; ,ileLNt epWj;jf;$ba re;ju;g;gq;fs; ,uz;L cs;sd. mitahtd: 1. NtnwhU nraw;ghl;bd; %yk; Kiwikf;F ,ila+W nra;jp toq;fg;gly;. ,r;re;ju;gg ; k; ~~nkd;nghUs; ,ila+W|| (Software Interrupt) vdg;gLk;. 2. td;nghUs;fs; %yk; ,ila+U nra;jp (Hardware Interrupt) toq;fg;gLk;. ,r;re;ju;gg ; k; ~~td;nghUs; ,ila+U|| vdg;gLk;. xU nraw;ghl;il epWj;jp NtnwhU nraw;ghl;il tyq;Fjy; re;ju;g;g Msp (Context Switch) vdg;gLk;. etPd ,af;f Kiwikfspy; xU nraw;ghL gy cgnrw;ghLfisf; nfhz;bUf;f KbAk;. mt;Tgr; nraw;ghLfs; threads vd miof;fg;gLk;. ,t;thwhd cgnraw;ghLfspdhy; jdpahf nraw;gl KbAk;.. Neug;gfpu;T. (Time shearing). gy gadu;fSf;fpilapy; gy;njhopy; gy;epuy; ,af;f Kiwikfs; %yk; nra;ag;gLfpd;w Neu Kfhikj;Jtk; ~~Neug;gfpu;T|| vdg;gLk;. ,J Kjd; Kjyhf 1960 fspy; mwpKfg; g Lj; j g; g l; l Jld; > 1970 Mk; jrhg; j kstpy; fzpdpj; njhopEl; g j; j py; jpUg;GKidia Vw;gLj;jp fzpdp ,af;f Kiwikapd; gpujhd gz;ghf mike;jJ. ,jd; %yk; fpilf;fg;ngw;w gpujpgydhdJ gy gadu;fs; xNu fzpdpia ghtpg;gjd; %yk; gz tpuaj;ijf; Fiwj;Jf; nfhs;sf;$ba re;ju;g;gk; Vw;gl;lJ. NkYk; xNu fzpdp gpuNahf nraw;ghl;bd;NghJ xNu jlitapy; gyUf;F ,ilr; nraw;ghLfs; %yk; njhlu;GgLtjw;Fk; ,jd; %yk; tha;g;Gf; fpl;Lfpd;wJ. xU gadu; nraw; w pwdw; W ,Ug; g pDk; $ba vz; z pf; i fapyhd gadu; f s; gpuNahfg;gLj;jg;gLkplj;J $ba nraw;wpwDld; nraw;gLjtw;Fupa rhj;jpaj;ij ikakhff; nfhz;Nl ,t;ntz;zf;fU cUthdJ. ,q;F xU gadu; fzpdpAld; VjhtnjhU nraiy nra;JKbj;J gpd; ntnwhU nraiy Muk;gpg;gjw;F mjpf Neuk; vLf;Fk;NghJ nrayp mf;fhyg; gFjpapy; cjhrPdk; nra;ag;gLfpdw ; J. gadu;fsJ vz; z pf; i f mjpfkhf ,Uf; F k; N ghJ NtnwhUtuJ gad; g hl; b w; F ,e; N euk; gad;gLj;jg;glf; $bajhAs;sJ. ,t;thW gw;gadu; nray;fSf;fhf gad;gLj;jg;gLk; FO nghUj;jkhd vz;zpf;ifapy; ,Uf;Fk;NghJ KO nray; KiwAk; kpfTk; nraw;wpwDs;sjhf mikAk;. NkYk; tl;L> ,Wtl;L> tiyaikg;G Nghd;wtw;wpypUe;J fpilf;Fk; cs;sPLfSf;fhf fhj;jpUf;Fk; FWfpa Neuj;ij NtnwhU gadupd; ghtidf;fhf cgNahfpg;gLj;jy; ,q;F eilngWfpd;wJ.. 14.

(23) nraypapd; cr;r gad;ghL. (Processor Utilization). fzpdpapd; %yk; nray; xd;iw my;yJ gytw;iw nra;J nfhs;Sk;NghJ ,Uf;Fk; gy tsq;fs; gad;gLj;jg;gLfpdw ; d. ,tw;wpy; Kf;fpakhd tskhdJ kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L myfhFk;. ,jd; nra;wwpwid cr;r mstpy; gad;gLj;jy; ~nraypapd; cr;r gad;ghL|| vdg;gLk;. xU nraw;ghL khj;jpuk; nraypy; ,Uf;Fk;NghJ nraypapy; cr;r gad; Fiwe;J fhzg;gLk;. vdpDk; gy;nraw;ghLfspd;NghJ nraypapd; gad;ghL cr;r epiyia milAk;. mt;Tr;r epiyia miltjw;fhf ,af;f KiwikapDs; gy;NtW cghaq;fs; ghtpf;fg;gLfpd;wd. nray;Kiw xOq;FgLj;jYk; ,jd;NghJ kpf Kf;fpa gq;fspg;igr; nra;fpd;wJ.. nraypfSk; nray; epiyfSk;. (Processors and Process States). fzpdp ,af;f Kiwikapd; %yf;fU (Kernel) %yk; nrad;Kiw Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;ag;gLk;NghJ gy;NtW fl;lq;fspd; fPo; ,r;nray;Kiwfs; nraw;ghl;bw;Fl;gLj;jy; tupirg;gLj;jg;gLk;. mt; xt;nthU fl;lj;jpd; NghJk; nray;Kiw Nkw;nfhs;sg; gl;bUf;Fk; epiyfs; ngauplg;gl;Ls;sd. gy;NtW ,af;f Kiwikfspy; ,g; ngau; khWgl;bUg;gpDk; xt;nthU epiyapYk; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; nray;fs; xj;jjhf ,Uf;Fk;. nray;Kiw ml;ltizg;gLj;jy; %yk; nray;KiwfSf;F nghUj;jkhd epiyfs; xg; g ilf; f g; g LtJld; me; e piyfs; khw; w g; g l; L Kfhikj; J tk; nra; a g; g Lk; . ,e;epiykhw;wy; re;ju;g;g Msp (Context Switch) vdg;gLtJld; nray;Kiw cgepuy; %yk; ,r; n ray; Nkw; n fhs; s g; g Lfpd; w J. ,t; t hW gy; N tW epiyfspd; fP o ; Nkw;nfhs;sg;gLk; nray;Kiw nraw;gLj;jg;gLk; re;ju;g;gj; njhlupd; gpd; mtw;wpd; nraw;ghL Kbtile;J gpujhd epidtfj;jpypUe;J ePf;fg;gLk;. nrad;Kiwfspd; mbg;gil re;ju;g;gq;fisAk; mr;re;ju;g;gq;fspy; epyTk; epiyfisAk; ftdpg;Nghk;.. 15.

(24) nray;Kiw epiy tiuglk;. (Process State Diagram). cUthf;fg;gl;l(Gjpa). epWj;jg;gl;ll/KbTw;w. Created (New). Terminated. fhj;jpUj;jy;/ jahuhapUj;jy;. ,af;f epiyapYs;s Running. milgl;l/ jLf;fg;gl;l. Waiting or Redy. gpujhd epidtfk;; Main Memory. Blocked. khw;wg;gl;lJk; fhj;jpUg;gJk;. khw;wg;gl;lJk; jLf;fg;gl;lJk;.. Swapped out and. Swapped out and. Waiting. Blocked. kiwKf epidtfk; Virtual Memory. NkYs;s tiuglj;jpd; tl;lq;fspd; %yk; nray;Kiw re;ju;g;gq;fSk; mtw;wpw;F Vw;glf;$ba ~re;ju;g;gk; khWjy;| njhlu;ghf mk;Gf;Fwpfs; %yKk; fhl;lg;gl;Ls;sJ. mjd;gb cUthf;fg;gl;l (created) nray;Kiwnahd;W jahu; epiyf;Ff; nfhz;L tug;gl;L mJ gpujhd epidtfj;jpw;F tUtjhy; me;epiy ,af;f epiyf;F cl;gLj;jg;gl;L nraypf;F nry;tjw;F my;yJ kiwKf epidtfj;jpw;F nrd;W fhj;jpUf;f NeupLk;. ,af;f epiyf;F cl;gLkhapd; me;epiy epiwT nra;ag;gl;L> gpujhd epidtfj;jpypUe;J epf;fg;gLtjw;F epWj;jg;gl;l my;yJ KbTw;w epiyf;F (Terminated State) cl;gLtjw;F my;yJ ,il epWj;jg;gl;L ,ila+W Vw;gl;l epiyf;F cl;gl;L kiwKf epidtfj;jpy; fhj;jpUf;f Neuplf;$Lk;.. mbg; g il nray; K iw epiyfs; cUthf;fg;gl;l my;yJ Gjpa epiy. (Created or New State). Kjy; jlitahf nray;Kiwnahd;W cUthf;fg;gl;lJk; me;epiy cUthf;fg;gl;l (Created) my;yJ Gjpa (New) epiy vdg;gLk;. ,e;epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; nray;Kiw jahu;epiyf;F tUk;tiu fhj;jpUf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,it ePz;l fhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jy; (Long Term Sheduler) vDk; nkd;nghUspd; %yk; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLfpd;wJ. jahu; epiyapy; (Ready State) ,Uf;Fk; ,r;nrad;Kiw ePz;lfhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jy; %yk; mLj;J tuf;$ba epiyf;F khw;wg;gLtJld; mJ jhkjkiltjw;F my;yJ me;epiyf;F cl;gLj;jhJ mg;Gwg;gLj;jg;gLtjw;Fk; tha;gG ; z;L. mNef Nkirf; fzpdpfspy; (Desktop). 16.

(25) ,g;gpuNjrk; Rakhf eilngWtJld; epfo; Neu xOq;FgLj;jy; (Real Time Processing) eilngWk; fzpdpfspy; ,jw;fhf jhkjk; Vw;gLk;. ,jw;Ff; fhuzk; epfo; Neu xOq;FgLj;jypdN ; ghJ nray;Kiwfs; gytw;iw epidtfj;jpwF ; mDkjpgg ; Jld; mit ,af; f epiyf; F cl; g LtjpYs; s Nghl; b apd; fhuzkhf ,Wjpg; ngWNgiw ngw;Wf;nfhs;s vLf;Fk; fhyk; ePbj;jyhFk;.. jahu;epiy. (Ready State). ,e;epiy ~~fhj;jpUj;jy; (wating)" my;yJ ~~,af;fj;jf;f epiy(runable) || vdTk; $wg;gLfpd;wJ. Gjpa epiyapy; fhzg;gl;l nray;Kiw xd;W mLj;J cl;gLtJ ,e;epiyf;fhFk;. ,e;epiyf;Fl;gLk; nray;Kiw gpujhd epidtfj;jpy; jq;fpapUg;gJ mr;nray;Kiw fzpdpapd; kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L myF %yk; ,af;f epiyf;F cl;gLj;jg;gLk; tiughFk;. ,t;tpaf;f epiy ~~XLepiy|| (Running State) vd miof;fg;gLk;. jdp nraypAila fzpdpnahd;wpy; xNu jlitapy; nraw;gLtJ xU nray;Kiw khj;jpuNk. Mifahy; jahu; epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; nray;Kiwfs; gy mit ,af;f epiyf;F cl;gLk; tiu gpujhd epidtfj;jpy; tupirg;gLj;jp itf;fg;gl;bUf;f Ntz;Lk;. vdpDk; etPd fzpdpfspy; fhzg;gLk; tYkpf;f nraypfs; nray;Kiwfs; gytw;iw xNu jlitapy; nraw;gLj;jf;$ba ,ay;Gilad.. XL epiy. (Running State). ,e;epiy ~~nraY}f;fKs;s (Active)|| my;yJ ~~,af;f (Executing) epiy|| vdg;gLk;. NtW tifapy; $Wtjhdhy;> VNjDk; xU re;ju;g;gj;jpy; kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L myfpy; nraw; g Lk; nrad; K iw ,g; n gauhy; miof; f g; g Lk; . ,e; e piyapy; fhzg; g Lk; nray;Kiwanhd;wpd; nraw;ghL Kbtiltjw;Fupa Neuj;ij tpl $ba Neuk; vLf;fyhk;. mt;thwhd nray;Kiwnahd;W kPzL ; k; jahu; epiyf;Fl;gLj;jg;gLk;. mt;thW eilngWk; NghJ jw;fhypfkhf jilg;gl;l epiyf;F (Blocked State)my;yJ jahu; epiyf;F (Ready State)cl;gLj;jg;gLk;. jilg;gl;l epiy. (Blocked State). ,e;epiy ~~cwq;Fepiy|| (sleeping state) vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpwJ. VNjDnkhU nray;Kiw ,e;epiyf;F cl;gLkhapd; mjid kj;jpa nraw;ghl;L myfpypUe;J mfw;wg;gl;L gpujhd epidtfj;jpy; my;yJ kiwKf epidtjf;jpy; jf;f itf;fg;gLk;. ,t;thW ,Uf;Fk; nray;KiwfSf;Fg; nghUj;jhkhd tsq;fs; fpilf;Fk; tiu ,ila+U epiyapNyNa ,Uf;f NeupLk;. mt;tsq;fs; fpilj;j clNdNa ,ila+U epiy jahu; epiyf; F khw; w g; g l; L ,af; f epiyf; F cl; g Ltjw; F kP z ; L k; tupirg;gLj;jg;gLk;.. epWj;jg;gl;l/KbTw; KbTw;w epiy. (Terminated State). nraw;ghnlhd;W ,aq;fpf; nfhz;bUf;Fk;NghJ ,ileLtpy; epWj;jptply; my;yJ ,aq;fp Kbe;j gpd; epWj;jg;gly; ,g;ngauhy; miof;fg;gLk;. rhjhuzkhf ,e;epiyf;F cl;gLk; nray;Kiwnahd;W gpujhd epidtfj;jpy; my;yJ kha epidtfj;jpypUe;J ePff ; g;gLt Jld; mt;thW ePf;fk; nra;ag;glhj nraw;ghLfs; mtjhuq;fs; (Zombies) vdg;gLk;.. 17.

(26) Nkyjpf nray;Kiw epiyfs; (Additional Process States) kiwKf epidtfk; ghtpf;fg;gLfpd;w fzpdp Kiwikfspy; nray;Kiw Nkyjpf epiyfs; ,uz;L fhzg;gLk;. ,t;tpuz;L epiyfspYk; nray;Kiwfs; ,uz;lhe;ju Nrkpg;gfq;fspy; (Secondary Storage) Njf;fp itf;fg;gLk;.. khw;wg;gl;lJk; fhj;jpUg;gJkhd epiyfs; (Swapped. out and waiting). jahu; epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; nray;Kiwnahd;W mjpf Neuk; gpujhd epidtfj;jpy; Njq;fp ,Ug;gpd; tpiutpy; ,af;fg;glNtz;ba NtW nray;KiwfSf;Fg; gpujhd epidtfj;jpy; ,lk;ngw;Wf; nfhLg;gjw;fhf ,r;nray;Kiwfs; ,uz;lhe;ju epidtfj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk; kiwKf epidtfj;jpw;F khw;wg;gLk;. ,t;thW khw;wg;gl;l gpd; mJ ,Uf;Fk; epiy ~~khw;wg;gl;lJk;> fhj;jpUg;gJkhd|| epiy vdg;gLk;. ,t;tif nray;Kiwfs; kPz;Lk; nraw;gLj;Jtjw;F Njit Vw;gl;l clNd jahu;epiyf;F cl;gLj;jg;gl;L gpujhd epidtfj;jpw;F khw;wg;gLk;.. khw;wg;gl;lJk; jilg;gl;lJkhd epiy. (Swapped and blocked). Nkw;Fwpgg ; pll ; epiyiag; Nghd;Nw ,r;re;ju;gg ; j;jpYk; gpujhd epidtfj;jpy; jilNaw;gl;l epiyfSld; $ba nray;Kiwfs; ,uz;lhe;ju Nrkpg;ghf kiwKf epidtfj;jpw;F khw;wg;gLk;. mg;NghJ kiwKf epidtfj;jpy; ,r;nray; ~~khw;wg;gl;lJk; jilg;gl;lJ khd|| (swapped out and blocked) epiyapNy fhzg;gLk;. vdpDk; ,e;epiy kPz;Lk; ~~khw;wg;gl;lJk; fhj;jpUg;gJkhd|| (Swapped out and waiting) epiyf;F khWglyhk;. gpd; mJ jahu; epiyf;Fl;gLj;jg;gl;L gpujhd epidtfj;jpw;F kPz;Lk; tuyhk;.. ml;ltizg;gLj;jy;. (Sheduling). gy;njhopy; kw;Wk; gy;nray; ,af;f Kiwikfs; cUthf;fg;gLk;NghJ gpuNahfg;gLj;jg; gLk; gpujhdkhd Nfhl;ghlhf ,J fUjg;gLk;. ,q;F fzpdpnahd;wpy; fhzg;gLk; nraypfspd; vz;zpf;ifiatplf; $ba vz;zpf;ifahd nray;Kiwfs; nraypapDs; nraw;gl;Lf; nfhz;bUg;gjhYk;> ,Uf;fk; xOq;FgLj;jy; myFfisf; nfhz;L rfy nray; KiwfisAk; nraw;gLj;Jtjw;F NeupLtjhYk; ,r;nray; Kiwfs; VNjDk; xU xOq;fpw;fika nraypw;F mDg;Gk; nranyhd;W fzpdp ,af;f Kiwik %yk; nraw;gLj;jg;gLj;jg;gLfpwJ. ,r;nray; ~~ml;ltizg;gLj;jy;|| (Sheduling) vdg;gLtJld; mij nraw;gLj;Jtjw;F ~~ml;ltizg;gLj;jp|| (Sheduler) vd;w ngaupdhy; miof;fg;gLk; epunyhd;W cs;sJ. mt;tl;ltizg;gLj;jp ~~mDg;gp|| (dispatcher) vd;W miof;fg;gLk;. ,e;epuy; fPo;f;ffhzg;gLk; tplaq;f;s gw;wp tpopg;GldpUf;Fk;. 1. kj;jpa nraw;ghl;lyF cr;r nraw;wpwDld; ghtpf;fg;gly; 2. rhjpj;j msT (Throughput) - Neu mynfhd;Wf;Fs; nray;gLj;jg;gl;L Kbf;fg; gLk; nray;Kiwfspd; vz;zpf;if. 3 KO nray; Neuk; (Turnaround) - nray;Kiwnahd;W nraypfF ; ngw;Wf;nfhLf; fg;gl;lJk; mr;nray; Kiw nraw;gl;Lf; nfhz;bUf;Fk; Neuk;.. 18.

(27) 4 5 6. fhj;jpUj;jy; Neuk; (Waiting time) - nray;Kiwnahd;W nraypfF ; ngw;Wf;nfhLg; gjw;F Kd;G jahu;epiyapy; tupirg;gl;bUf;Fk; Neuk;. gjpyspg;G Neuk; (Response Time) - nray;Kiwnahd;wpwF ; VNjDk; mwpTWj;jy; fpilj;jy; Neuk; Kjy; mjid nraw;gLj;Jtw;F Muk;gpf;Fk; tiuahd fhyk;. nraypapd; xt;nthU nray;Kiwf;Fk; nraw;ghl;lyF Neuj;ijr; rhjhuzkhfg; ngw;Wf; nfhLj;jy;.. ml;ltizg;gLj;jp tiffs; (Sheduler Types) fzpdp Kiwiknahd;wpy; njspthf ml;ltizg;gLj;jpfs; %d;W ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. mitahtd: 1. ePz;lfhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jp(Long term sheduler) ,it gpuNtr ml;ltizg;gLj;jp (admission sheduler) my;yJ cau;kl;l ml;ltizg; gLj;jp (highlevel sheduler) Nghd;w ngau;fshy; miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ. 2. kj;jpafhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jp (Mid term sheduler) 3. FWq;fhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jp (Short term sheduler) ,J mDg;gp vdTk; miof;fg;gLfpd;wJ.. ePz;lfhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jp (Long term sheduler) jahu;epiy tupirg;gLj;jYf;F cl;gLj;jg;glNtz;baJ ve;j nrad;Kiw vd;gij jPu;khdpg;gJ ,e;j ml;ltizg;gLj;jp %ykhFk;. mNjNghd;W ve;j nray;Kiw Kiwikapy; nraw;gl Ntz;Lk; vd;gij jPu;khdpg;gJk; ,jd; %ykhFk;. NkYk; njhlu;r;rpahf nraw;gLk; nray;Kiwfspd; vz;zpf;if mjpfupf;f Ntz;Lkh my;yJ Fiwa Ntz;Lkh vd;gJk; ,jd; %yk; jPu;khdpf;fg;gLk;. etPd ,af;f Kiwikfspy; epfoNeu nraw; g Lj; j pypd; NghJ nrad; K iwfs; nraw; g Ltjw; f hf kj; j pa nraw;ghl;lyfpdhy; Nghjpa Neuk; ngw;Wf;nfhLj;jYk; ,jd; %yk; eilngWfpd;wJ. ,t;tif ml;ltizg;gLj;jp ghupa mstpy; njhFjp nray;gLj;jy; (batch processing) fspy; <LgLtJk; ghupa mstpyhd kPf;fzpdp Nghd;wtw;wpw;F kpfg; nghUj;jkhdJ.. kj;jpa fhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jp (Mid term sheduler) ,t;tl;ltizg;gLj;jp %yk; nray;Kiw gpujhd epidtfk; kw;Wk; kiwKf epidtfk; Nghd;wtw;wpw;fpilapy; khw;Wjy; eilngWk;. ,J khw;wy; (Swapping) vdg;gLk;. ,t;thW eilngWtJ gpujhd epidtfj;jpy; jahu; epiyapy; ePz;l Neuk; jupj;jpUj;jy; nray;Kiwfs; mfw;wg;gl;L Kd;Dupik toq;fg;gl Ntz;ba nray;KiwfSf;Fg; gpujhd epidtfj;jpy; Eiotjw;F Njitahd ,ltrjpia ngw;Wf; nfhLg;gjw;fhFk;. ,t;thW kiwKf epidtfj;jpwF ; khw;wg;gl;l nray;Kiwfs; ,af;f epiyf;F cl;gLj;j Ntz;ba re;ju;gg ; q;fspd;NghJ mr;nray;Kiwfs; kiwKf epidtfj;jpypUe;J gpujhd epidtfj;jpw;F khw;Wjy; ,jd; %yk; eilngWk;.. 19.

(28) FWq;fhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jp (Short term sheduler) ,t; t l; l tizg; g Lj; j pia ~~mDg; g p (Dispatcher)|| vd; w iof; f g; g Lk; . jw; N ghJ nray;epiyapy; ,Uf;Fk; nry;Kiwapd; gpd; gpujhd epidtfj;jpy; ,Uf;Fk; nray;Kiwfspy; vr;nray;Kiw nraypf;F mDg;Gtjw;Fg; nghUj;jkhdnjd;gij ,J jPuk ; hdpf;Fk;. mJ nraw;gLj;jg;gLtJ fbfhu ,ila+W (clock intrupt) %yk; my;yJ cs;sL P /ntspaL P Nghd;wtw;wpypUe;J tUfpdw ; ,ila+W xd;wpd; (I/Ointrupt) %yk; my;yJ ,af;f Kiwikapdhy; toq;fg;gLfpd;w rkpQ;ir my;yJ nra;jp my;yJ NtW ,aw;if rkpQ;ir Nghd;w FWf;fPLfspd; gpd;ghFk;. NkYk; Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;l ePz;lfhy> kj;jpafhy ml;ltizg;gLj;jpfis tpl ,e;j ml;ltizg;gLj;jp ve;NeuKk; ghtidf;F vLf;fg;gLk;. ,q;F ,Uf;Fk; nkhba+y; xd;whd mDg;gp %yk; nraypfF ; mDg;gg;gLfpdw ; nray;fis nraw;gLj;Jtjw;F kj;jpa nraw;ghl;lyif fl;Lg;gLj;jy; re;ju;g;g Msp (Context Switch) vdg;gLfpd;w nray;Kiwfspd; epiyia khw;Wjy; ,jd; %yk; eilngWfpd;wJ. ,t; mDg;gp nkhba+y; mjp$ba NtfKilajhf ,Uj;jy; Ntz;Lk;. mt;thW mika Ntz;baJ xt;nthU nray;Kiw khw;wkilAk; re;ju;g;gq;fspYk; ,t; mDg;gp nraw;gLtjd; fhuzj;jpdhyhFk;. xU nray;Kiw epWj;jg;gl;L NtnwhU nray;Kiw Muk;gpg;gjw;F ,t; mDg;gp vLf;Fk; fhyk; ~~Gyg;glhj mDg;gp fhyk; (Dispatcher Latency Time)|| vd miof;fg;gLk;.. 20.

(29) Nju;r;rp 6. :. fzpdpapd; KOmstpyhd nraw; g hLfisAk; Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;tjw;F ,af;f Kiwikfis cgNahfpgg ; hu;.. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 6.4 :. fzpdpfspd; epidtfj; i jAk; cs; s P l ; L ntspaP l ; L nraw;ghLfisAk; XU; ,af;f KiwikahdJ v;thW epu;tfpf;fpd;wJ vd;gij Muha;thu;.. ghlNtis. Ie;J ghlNtis. fw;ww; NgWfs;. : :. fzpdp epidtf Kfhikj;Jtj;jpw;F mbg;gilahFk; mq;fq;fisg; ngaupLthu;. fzpdpnahd;wpy; epidtf Kfhikj;Jtg;gLj;Jk; Kiwia tpgupg;ghu;. cs;sPl;L> ntspaPl;L cgfuz Kfhikj;Jtj;ij td;nghUs;> nkd;nghUs; ,af;fj;jpd; mbg;gilahff; nfhz;L tpgupg;ghu;. • xU nray; Ntfkhfr; nraw;gLjtw;fhf gy cghaq;fisg; gad;gLj;Jthu;. • midj;J nraw;ghLfisAk; njhlu;r;rpahff; nfhz;L nry;tjw;F rk;ge;jg;gl;l nraw;ghLfis ,aq;F epiyapy; itj;Jf; nfhs;Sthu;. • • •. fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;: gpuNtrk; • •. fzpdp epidtfk; gw;wpa khztu;fspd; Kd; mwpitf; Nfl;lwpaTk;. fPo;f;fhZk; tplaq;fis ntspf;nfhzUk; tifapy; fye;Jiuahly; xd;iw Nkw;nfhs;sTk;. • fzpdpapd; nraw;ghl;bw;F mjd; epidtfk; mj;jpahtrpakhdJ vd. • fzpdpf;F nghUj;jg;gLfpd;w rhjdq;fSk; fzpdpapd; epidtfj;ij cgNahfg; gLj;jg;gLfpd;wd vd. • Mifahy; fzpdp nraw;ghl;bd; NghJ mjd; epidtf Kfhikj;Jtk; mtrpak; vd.. fw;wYf;fhd cj;Njr mwpTWj;jy;fs;: • •. thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuj;ij ed;F guprPyid nra;aTk;. fPot ; Uk; jiyg;Gfspy; ckJ FOtpwF ; upa jiyg;igg; gw;wp $ba ftdk; nrYj;jTk;. • epidtf Kfhikj;Jtk; • epidtfj;ij cs;sf epidtfk;> ntspaf epidtfk; vdg; gpupj;jy;. • cs;sf kw;Wk; ntspaf epidtfq;fspd; rpwg;gk;rq;fs; • epidtf Kfhikj;Jtj;jpd; gpur;rpidfSk; thjq;fSk;. • epidtf xJf;fPL nra;jy;. • khw;wy;> gf;fkhf;fy;> milahskply;.. 21.

(30) cs;sPl;L> ntspaPl;L cgfuzq;fis Kfhikj;JtKk; td;nghUs;> nkd;nghUs; fSf;fpilapyhd ,ilj;njhlu;ig itj;Jf; nfhs;tjw;fhd cgfuz Xl;b nkd;nghUl;fs; mtrpak; vd. • ckJ fz;lha;Tfis $l;lhfTk;> Mf;fj;jpwDs;sjhfTk; tFg;giwf;F Kd;itf;f Maj;jkhfTk;. •. thrpg; G g; gj; j puk; fzpdp epidtf Kfhikj; J tk; fzpdpapd; epidtfk; gpujhdkhf cs;sf kw;Wk; ntspaf vd ,U ghfq;fshfg; gpupf;fyhk;. cs;sf epidtfkhff; fUjg;gLtd: 1. gjptfq;fs; (Registers) 2. gJf;F epidtf kl;lk; I (Cache 1) 3. gJf;F epidtf kl;lk; II (Cache 2) 4. vOkhW mDfy; epidtfk; (R A M) nghJthf Nehf;Fk;NghJ midj;J cs;sf epidtfq;fSk; fPot ; Uk; rpwg;gk;rq;fsif; nfhz;litahf ,Uf;Fk;. 1. Fiwe;j nfhs;ssT 2. kpff; Fiwe;j gpuNtr Neuk; 3. cau;e;j tpiy (tpiy igl; mbg;gilahff; fzpf;fg;gLfpd;wJ.) ntspaf epidtfkhdJ 1. kpFe;j nfhs;ssitf; nfhz;lJ. 2. kpff;$ba gpuNtr Neuk; 3. Fiwe;j tpiy gjpTfis kl;Lk; ftdpf;Fk;NghJ mit Ntfkhf ,aq;Fk; jd;ik cilajhapDk; nraypapd; cs;Ns cs;s cgfuzkhdjhy; mJ ngWkjp tha;e;jjhFk;. mjd; nfhs;ssT Fiwe;jjhFk;. gpuNtr Neuk; Fiwe;jjhFk;. tpiuT epidtf kl;lk; I kw;Wk; tpiuT epidtf kl;lk; 2 IAk; ,NjNghy; gad;gLj;j KbAk;. ,y;iynadpd; ,jw;Ff; fPo;j; juj;jpy; cs;s vOkhW mDfy; epidtfk; (R A M) gad;gLj;jg;gl KbAk;. ,jd; gpuNtr fhyk; $bajhFk;. nrytplf;$ba tpiyapy; cs;sd nfhs;ssTk; $bajhFk;. fzpdpapd; rfy nra;wghLfisAk; ftdj;jpw;nfhs;Sk;NghJ tpiy> gpuNtr fhyk;> kw;Wk; nfhs;ssT rpwe;j Kiwapy; elhj;jg;gLtjw;F Nkw;gb epidtf tiffs; ,uz;ilAk; Kfhikj;Jtg;gLj;jy; mtrpakhFk;.. 22.

(31) epidtf Kfhikj; J tj; j pw; f hd gpur; r pidfSk; > thjq; f Sk; 1. epidtf xJf;fPL (Memory Allocation)) fzpdp nraw;ghl;bd;NghJ vjpu;ghu;f;fg;gLk; ntspaPl;il ngWtjw;fhf mjw;Fupa epuiy epidtfj;jpw;Fg; gpuNtrpj;J ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,jw;fhf Kjd;ik epidtfj;jpd; ,lk;ngWkhdk; NghJkhdjhfTk;> Njitf;Nfw;g xJf;fg;gl;bUe;jYk; Ntz;Lk;. 2. gupkhw;wk;> ,izj;jy;> Jz;lhf;fk; fzpdpapd; epidtfj;ij xJf;fPL nra;Ak; gpujhd nghWg;G fzpdpapd; ,af;f KiwikiaNa rhUk;. fzpdpapy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; gyjug;gl;l epuy;fSf;fhf Kjd;Kiwahf xJf;fL P nra;jy; ,yFthdjhFk;. Mdhy; fzpdpapDs; rpy nraw;ghLfs; epiwNtwpaTld; my;yJ mfw;wpaNghJ NtW epuy;fs; kPzL ; k; epidtfj;jpw;F nrYj;jp mtw;iw xJf;fPL nra;tJ kpfTk; f\;lkhdjhFk;. ,jw;F Kf;fpa fhuzk; mr;nraw;ghLfs; epidtfj;jpypUe;J mfw;Wk;NghJ mjd; epidtf Jisnahd;W cUthFk;. ,it vOkhwhf cWthtjhFk;. ,e; epidtfj;Jis cUthtjd; gpur;rpidia xOq;fhf Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;J nfhs;s Ntz;Lk;.. Fg;ig jpul;Ljy; (Garbage Collection) rpy epuy;fspy; ,af;ftpay; juT (Dynamic Data) tbtikg;G gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. ,it epidtff; fyq;fis cgNahfj;jpwF ; vLj;Jf;; nfhs;sg;gLtJ Nghd;W ntspNaw;WjYk; eilngWk;. njhopy;El;g uPjpapy; ftdpj;jhy; njhlu;e;Jk; Njitapy;yhj juTfis ePf;Fk;NghJ mt;tplq;fspy; ntw;Wf; fyq;fs; cUthfpd;wd. vOkhwpahf cUthFk; ntw;wplf; fyq;fis $l;lkhf xd;W Nru;j;jy; ,af;f Kiwikapdhy; cldbahf elg;gjpy;iy. mt;thW mike;j ,lq;fs; Fg;ig gpuNjrq;fshf miof;fg;gLk;. ,f;Fg;igfs; mjpfupfF ; k;NghJ epidtfj;jpy; mdhtrpakhd ,l neUf;fb Vw;gLfpdw ; J. ,J epidT xJf;fl P b ; w;F Neubahf ghjpg;gopf;Fk;. Mifahy; Fg;igfs; Xuplg;gLj;jy; nra;a Ntz;b cs;sd.. ghJfhf;Fk; nraw;ghLfs; (Protecting Processes) fzpdp epuy;fspy; ,Uf;ff;$ba FiwghLfspdhy; xU nraw;ghl;bw;fhf xJf;fPL nra;ag;gl;l epidT fyq;fs; NtnwhU nraw;ghl;bd; %yk; Mf;fpukpj;jy; nra;ag;gLk; re;ju;g;gq;fs; fhzyhk;. ,af;f Kiwikapd; %yk; ,t;thwhdit elf;fhjpUf;f toptFf;f Ntz;Lk;. ,af;f Kiwikapd; ,r; rpwg;gk;rk; nraw;ghL ghJfhg;G vd miof;fg;gLk;.. kha epidtfk; nghJthf nraypapw;F kha epidTf; fyq;fs; njupe;;jhYk; fzpdpapy; ngsjpfkhf cs;sJ kpfTk; Fiwthd msNtahFk;. Mifahy; ju;f;f epidtf Kftupnahd;iw ngsjpf epidtf Kftupahf khw;wpf;nfhs;Sk; tpjpKiwnahd;W ,Uf;f Ntz;Lk;. 23.

(32) kha epidtj;jpd; %yk; ngupa mstpyhd Kftup ntw;wplk; (Address Space) epu;khdpf;fg;gLk;. nraw;ghl;bd; MAw;fhyj;jpy; mJ nraw;gLtJ mijr; #oTs;s mwpTWj;jy;fs; rpytw;iwf; nfhz;NlahFk;. xU nraw;ghL gad;gLj;JtJ mjw;F rk;ge;jg;gl;l juTfs; mlq;fpa rpy epidT fyq;fisNaahFk;. Fiwe;j epidtf fyd;fSldhf ,Ue;jhYk; kpfr; nraw;wpwDld; epidtfj;ij Kfhikj;Jtg;gLj;JtJ gf;fkhf;fy; kw;Wk; Jz;lfj;jpwF ; cWJizahf mikAk;. kha epidtfk; rl;lfnkhd;wpd; Kftupf;F xg;ghd ngsjpf epidtfKs;s rl;lfnkhd;wpw;F ,izg;gJ milahsg;gLj;jy; (Mapping) vdg;gLk;. nraw;ghl;nlhd;wpd;NghJ nefpo;Tj; jd;ikia ngw;Wf;nfhs;tjw;fhf VjhtJ gf;f nkhd;wpd; VjhtJ rl;lfnkhd;wpw;F milahsg;gLj;jy; nra;a KbAk;.. gf;fkhf;fYk; ((Paging)) milahskplYk; ((Mapping)) ntspg;Gw Nrkpg;G epidtfq;fspy; cs;s juTfis fzpdpapd; gpujhd epidtj;jpw;F nfhz;L nry;tjw;fhd gy topKiwfs; cs;sd. mjpy; epidtf Kfhikj;Jt topKiwahf gf;fkhf;fk; fUjg;gLk;. ,jpy; ntspg;Gw Nrkpg;G Clfj;jpYs;s juT Kfhikj;Jtg; gLj;jf;$bathW xNuasthd rpW ghfq;fshfg; gpupj;Jf;nfhs;sg;gLk;. ,t;thwhd ghfnkhd;iw gf;fk; vd miof;fg;gLk;.gf;fq;fshf gpujhd epidtfj;jpw;F juT my;yJ epuy; gFjpfs; gpuNtrpg;gjhy; mq;f ,Uf;Fk; ,lg;gpukhdk; Kfhikj;Jtk; nra;af;$bajhf cs;sJ. NkYk; ,it Gj;jfg; gf;fq;fs; NghYs;sgbahy; Njitahd gf;fj;ij khj;jpuk; gpuNtrpf;fr; nra;a KbAkhAs;sJ.. cs;sPl;L kw;Wk; ntspaPl;L cgfuzq;fspd; Kfhikj;Jtk; ,Jtiu ehk; fye;jhNyhrpj;jJ epfo;T Kfhikj;Jtg;gLj;jy; KiwfisNaahFk;. kdpjd; fzpdpAld; ,ilj;njhlu;G Vw;gLj;jpfn ; fhs;tJ cs;sl P L ; > ntspal P L ; f; fUtpfspd; %yNkahFk;. fzpdpnahd;iw gad;gLj;Jk;NghJ mk;KiwikfspYs;s cghaq;fs; gytw;iw xNuabahf gad;gLj;j Ntz;b tUk;. nraw;ghnlhd;wpd;NghJ fzpdpapd; gy cgfuzq;fs; xd;Wld; xd;W ,ilr; nraw;ghl;by; <LgLk;. ,J ,af;f Kiwikapd; mbg;gil nraw;ghlhFk;. ,jpy; Kiwikapd; cgfuzq;fs; midj; J k; Vffhyg; g Lj; j g; g l; L s; s d. vjpu; Vffhyg; g Lj; j y; nraw; g hl; b d; vr;re;ju;g;gj;jpYk; epfoyhk;. ,q;F nraw;ghLfs; Vffhyg;gLj;Jtjw;fhf xU nraw;ghl;bw;Fupa fhyj;jpy; kw;iwa cgfuzk; Nru Ntz;Lk;. ,t;thwhd nraw;ghLfs; gy xNuabahf eilngw KbAk;. ,r; nraw;ghLfs; xd;NwhL xd;W ,iztJ rkpQ;irfs; %ykhFk;.. 24.

(33) fzpdp cgfuz Xl;b nkd;nghUs; ,it fzpdp epuy;fshFk;. ,it ,af;fKiwik kw;Wk; td;nghUl;fSf;fpilNa Vw;gLk; njhlu;ghlYf;F cjTk;. cjhuzkhf mr;R ,ae;jpunkhd;iw fzpdpapw;F nghUj;jp ,af;Fk;NghJ mjw;Fupa Xl;b nkd;nghUs; ,ilKfkhf gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.. ghl tplaq;fisj; njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;b • • • •. rpW FOf; fz;lha;Tfis KO tFg;gpw;Fk; toq;fr; nra;aTk;. tpupTiug;gpw;fhf Kd;te;j FOtpw;Nf Kjy; re;ju;g;gj;ij toq;fTk;. Vida FOf;fspd; tpUj;jpAld;$ba MNyhridfisf; Nfl;lwpaTk;. fPo;f;fhZk; tplaq;fspd; kPJ ftdQ; nrYj;JtJld; mjid ntspf;nfhzUk; tifapy; fye;Jiuahlnyhd;iw Nkw;nfhs;sTk;. • epidtf Kfhikj;Jtj;jpd;NghJ fPo;tUk; nraw;ghLfs; eilngWk;. • xJf;fPL nra;jy;. • • • • •. • gupkhw;wk;> ,izj;jy;> Jz;lhf;fk; • mdhtrpakhdij mg;Gwg;ggLj;jy; • nraw;ghLfis ghJfhj;jy;. gpujhd epidtfj;jpw;F Gwk;ghf kha epidtfk; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; vd. ghtidapd;NghJ gf;fkhf;fYk; milahsg;gLj;jYk; eilngWk; vd. cs;sl P L ; > ntspaPlL ; cgfuzq;fs; ,af;f Kiwikapdhy; Kfhikj;Jtg;gLj; jg;gLk; vd. mjdhy; cgfuzq;fs; nkd;nghUs;fSf;fpilapyhd ,ilj;njhlu;ig itj;Jf; nfhs;sg;gLk; vd. ntspthupahf fzpdpf;F nghUj;jg;gLk; cgfuzq;fs; xoq;fhf nraw;Gupa cgfuz xl;b nkd;nghUs; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; vd.. 25.

(34) Nju;r;rp 7. :. fzpdp fl;lisj; njhFg;gpw;Fw;gLj;jp gpur;rpidfis jPug ; g ; jw;F fzpdp fl;lisj; njhFg;G nkhopfisg; ghtpgg ; hu;.. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 7.7 :. fl; l isj; njhFg; G fis mgptpUj; j p nra; t jpy; fl;Lg;ghl;Lf; fl;likg;Gfisg; ghtpg;ghu;.. ghlNtis. Ie;J ghlNtis. fw;ww; NgWfs;. : :. fzpdp epuy;fis fl;Lg;gLj;Jtjw;fhf fl;Lg;ghl;Lf; fl;likg;Gfisg; ghtpg;ghu;. epuy;fis tpUj;jp nra;Ak;NghJ tupirKiw> vspaKiw> gy;Kiw Nghd;w kPs; nray; Kiwfisg; ghtpg;ghu;. • kPs; nray;fSf;fhf fzpj fl;Lg;ghl;il my;yJ ju;f;ff; fl;Lg;ghl;il Njitf; Nfw;g njupT nra;thu;. • xU gpur;rpidia jPu;f;Fk;NghJ gy tifahd jPu;TKiwfs; ,Uf;Fk;NghJ kpfTk; nghUj;jkhd jPu;T Kiwia Nju;e;njLg;ghu;. • gpur;rpid jPu;f;Fk;NghJ mjd; fl;likg;ig ,dq;fz;L mg; gpur;rpidia NkYk; ruskhf;fpf;nfhz;L jPu;T fhz;ghu;. • •. fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;: gpuNtrk; ngUksT khztu;fs; fye;Jnfhs;Sk; guPl;irnahd;wpd; Nju;r;rp ml;ltizia jahu;nra;ag;gLk; Kiwapid khztu;fSld; fye;jhNyhrpf;fTk;. • ,q;F eilngWk; juT nraw;ghl;il tpsf;Ftjw;fhf Rakhf Kd;tUk; khztDf;Fr; re;ju;g;gj;ij toq;fTk;. • fPo;f;fhZk; tplaq;fis ntspf;nfhUWk; tifapy; fye;Jiuahly; xd;iw Nkw;nfhs;sTk;. • guPl;irapd;NghJ xt;nthU ghlj;jpw;Fk; ngw;w Gs;spfis fzpdpapw;F cs;sPL nra;J ngw;w Gs;spfSf;Fupa juj;ij ngwyhk; vd;gJ. • Vw;fdNt jPu;khdpj;j Gs;sp guk;gy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; vd;gJ. • juj;jpidg; ngw;Wf;nfhs;Sk;NghJ Gs;spfis xg;gpl;L mjw;Fupa juj;ij ngwg;gLk; vd;gJ. • ,r;nraw;ghL midj;J khztu;fspdJk; Gs;spfis cs;sPL nra;J KbAk; tiu kPs; nraw;ghL nra;ag;gLk; vd;gJ. •. fw;wYf;fhd cj;Njr mwpTWj;jy;fs;: •. ckf;F toq;fg;gl;l thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuj;ij ed;F ftdpf;fTk;.. 26.

(35) •. fPof;fhZk; gpur;rpidfspy; ckJ FOTf;F toq;fg;gl;Ls;s gpur;rpidiag; gw;wpa $ba mtjhdk; nrYj;jTk;. • VjhtJ xU ghlj;jpd; Gs;spfisg; ngw;Wf;nfhz;L mjw;Fupa juj;ij ntspaPL nra;jy;. ,jw;fhf fPo;tUk; xOq;fikg;igg; gpd;gw;Wf. • guPl;irapd;NghJ xt;nthU ghlj;jpw;Fk; ngw;w Gs;spfis fzpdpapw;F cs;sPL nra;J ngw;w Gs;spfSf;Fupa juj;ij ngwyhk; vd;gJ. • Vw;fdNt jPu;khdpj;j Gs;sp guk;gy; gad;gLj;j;gLk; vd;gJ. • juj;jpidg; ngw;Wf;nfhs;Sk;NghJ Gs;spfis xg;gpl;L mjw;Fupa juj;ij ngwg;gLk; vd;gJ. • ,r;nraw;ghL midj;J khztu;fspdJk; Gs;spfis cs;sPL nra;J KbAk; tiu kPs; nraw;ghL nra;ag;gLk; vd;gJ.. Gs;spfs;. juk;. 75 ,w;F Nky;. A. 65 ,ypUe;J 75 tiu. B. 55 ,ypUe;J 64 tiu. C. 45 ,ypUe;J 54 tiu. S. 0 ,ypUe;J. W. 44 tiu. VjhtJ xU vz;zpd; 1 ,ypUe;J 12 tiu tha;g;ghl;L ml;ltiziaj; jahupj;jy;. • nghUl;fspd; tpiyfis cs;sPL nra;J mtw;wpd; $l;Lj;njhifia ngw;Wf; nfhs;sy;. (nghUspd; tpiy ~0| Mf cs;sPL nra;jhy; NkYk; cs;sPL nra;jy; KbtilAk;.) • ckf;Ff; fpilf;fg; ngw;w gpur;rpidia ed;F tpsq;fp mjidj; jPu;g;gjw;Fupa epuiy jahu; nra;f. • ckJ FOtpd; tpilfis Cu;[pjg;gLj;Jtjw;fhf rpW FO fye;Jiuahlnyhd;iw Nkw;nfhs;f. • ckJ fz;lha;Tfis $l;lhfTk;> gilg;ghw;wy; kpf;fjhfTk; KO tFg;gpw;Fk; Kd;itg;gjw;Fj; jahuhfTk;. •. thrpg; G g; gj; j puk; vy;yh fzpdp epuy;fspYk; fPot ; Uk; fl;Lg;ghl;L fl;likg;Gfspy; Vjhtnjhd;W my;yJ mjw;F Nkw;gl;litfs; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. 1. tupir Kiw (sequence) 2. njupT Kiw (selection) 3. kPs; nray; (repetion). 27.

(36) fzpdp epuypy; cs;s tupirfis nraw;gLj;Jk; tupir Kiw fl;Lg;gl;L fl;likg;gpd; %yk; fl;Lg;gLj;jg;gLk;.. 1. tupir Kiw epunyhd;wpy; cs;s tupfis xd;wpd; gpd; xd;whf jug;gl;Ls;s Kiwapy; nraw;gLj;jy; ~tupir Kiw| vd miof;fg;gLk;. cjhuzk; 1: celsius=float(input(“Enter Celsius temperature: “)) fahrenheit = 1.8 * celsius + 32 print “Fahrenheit = “, Fahrenheit. ,e; epuypd; %yk; ntg;gj;ij nry;rpa]; ghifahfg; ngw;W mjid guidl; ghiff;F khw;wp ntspaL P nra;ag;gLk;. ,jpy; cs;s fl;lisfs; midj;Jk; gbg;gbahf nraw;gLk;. cjhuzk; 2: price=float(input(“Enter Price: “)) qty=int(input(“Enter Quantity: “)) amount=price*qty print “Amount is “, amount. ,e;epuypd; %yk; nghUspd; tpiy> nghUl;fspd; njhifapid thrpj;J mjw;fhf nrYj;j Ntz;ba KOj; njhifia fzpj;jy; nra;ag;gLk;.. 2. njupTKiw ,jpy; njupT nra;tjw;fhd khw;W ntspaPLfs; gy ,Ug;gpd; toq;fg;gl;l tiuaiwf;F mika guPl;rpj;J xU khw;W ntspaPl;bid kl;Lk; njupT nra;J nfhs;sg;gLk;. a).. ruykhd njupT. ,yf;fz tpjp (syntax) fi. expression: statement(s). [else. statements(s)]. cjhuzk; 3: a=int(input(“Enter a No: “)) if a%2==0: print “Even number”. 28.

(37) Nkw;gb cjhuzj;jpd;NghJ xU vz;izg; ngw;W mjid 2My; tFj;jhy; kPjp ~0| Mapd; mjid ,ul;il vz; (Even Number) vd ntspaPL nra;ag;gLk;. cjhuzk; 4: a=int(input(“Enter a No: “)) if a%2==0: print “Even number” else: print “Odd number”. ,t; cjhuzj;jpy; xUvz;izg; ngw;W mjid 2My; tFj;jhy; kPjp ~0| Mapd; print '''Even number' vd;Wk; ,y;yhtpl;lhy; print "Odd number" vd;Wk; ntspaPL nra;ag;gLk;. gy; n jupTfs; njhlupay; (syntax) b).. fi. expression: statement(s). elif expression2: statement(s) else: statements(s)]. cjhuzk; 5: price=int(input(“Enter Price: “)) if price>1000: discount=price*10/100 elif price>=500: discount=price*5/100 else: discount=price*2/100 net_price=price-discount print “Net Price is “, net_price. ,t;Tjhuzj;jpd; %yk; nghUnshd;wpd; tpiyiag; ngw;W mjw;Fupa fopT fzpff ; g;gLk;. nghUspd; tpiy &. 1000/- ,w;F $Ljyhf ,Ue;jhy; 10% fopTk;> mjd; tpiy &. 500 ,ypUe;J 1000/- tiuahapd; 5% fopTk; Vida tpiyfSf;F 2% fopTk; toq;fg;gLk;.. 29.

(38) cjhuzk; 6: no1=int(input(“Enter first number: “)) no2=int(input(“Enter second number: “)) print“1. Add” print “2. Substact” print “3. Multiply” print “4. Divide” choice=int(input(“Enter Choice: “)) if choice==1: print no1, “+” , no2, “=”, no1+no2 elif choice==2: print no1, “-” , no2, “=”,no1-no2 elif choice==3: print no1, “*” , no2, “=”,no1*no2 elif choice==4: print no1, “/” , no2, “=”,no1/no2 else: print “Invalid Entry!”. ,t; cjhuzj;jpd; %yk; ,uz;L vz;fis ngw;W mjid xU nkDtpd; %yk; njupe;njLf;fg;gLk; fzpj nraw;ghl;bw;F cupa tpilia ntspaPL nra;ag;gLk;.. 3. kPs; nray; $w;nahd;iw my;yJ gy $w;Wf;fis kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; nraw;gLj;jy; ~gd;Kiw nray;| vd miof;fg;gLk;. $w;W xU $w;iw my;yJ gy $w;Wf;fis rpy Fwpg;gpl;l jlitfs; gd;Kiw nra;tjw;fhf ,e;j For $w;W gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. ,jid ,uz;L re;ju;gg ; q;fspy; khj;jpuk; gad;gLj;jg; gLfpd;wJ. a) For. ) i. Fwpg;gpl;l ,yf;f vy;iyf;Fs; (tiuaiwf;Fs;) gd;Kiw nrayhf;Fk;. for var-name in range (stard-no,stop-no). i). juT gl;banyhd;Wld; gad;gLj;jy; for list-item in list statement(s). 30.

(39) cjhuzk; 7: for no in range(1, 5): print (no). ,jpy; 1 ,ypUe;J 4 tiu ,yf;fq;fis ntspaPL nra;Ak;. ,t; cjhuzj;jpYs;s range vd;gjd; %Yk; ngwg;gLk; Muk;g vz; 1 ,ypUe;J filrp vz; 5 tiu vz;is ntspaPL nra;ag;gLk;. (,jpy; filrp vz; 5 Nruf;fg;glkhl;lhJ.) cjhuzk; 8: numbers=[10,30,40,60,50] for number in numbers: print (number). Nkw;gb cjhuzj;jpd; %yk; for $w;iw juT gl;banyhd;Wld; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. ,jpy; Nkw;Fwpg;gpl;l ,yf;fg;gl;bay; gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. cjhuzk; 9: for letter in “Computer”: print(letter). ,t;Tjhuzk; gl;baYf;Fg; gjpyhf ))) gad;gLj;jg;gLk;. mq;F cs;s vOj;Jf;fspd; vz;zpf;ifapd; gb Fwpg;gpl;l mqk¾lrKh nra;ag;gLk;. $w; W ,f;$w;Wld; toq;fg;gl;l epge;jid cz;ikahf cs;stiu gz;Kiw nraw;ghL eilngWk;. b) while. cjhuzk; 10: num = int (input ('''Enter Number')) while. num>0:. if num%2==0: count + = 1 num = int (input ('''Enter Number')) print "Total Even numbers", count. Nkw;gb cjhuzj;jpy; Kjypy; xU vz;izg; ngw;Wf;nfhz;L mJ Neu; ngWkhdk; cs;sjhapd; num>0 epge;jid cz;ikahFk;. mt;thwhapd; while $w;wpDs; nry;Yk;. mq;F mt; vz; ,ul;il vz;zh vd;gijg; guPl;rpj;Jg; ghu;f;Fk;. mt;thwhapd; count ,id 1 ,dhy; mjpfupj;Jf; nfhs;Sk;. mjw;Fg; gpd; ,d;DnkhU vz;izg; ngw;Wf;nfhs;Sk;. toq;fg;gl;l epge;jid (no>0) cz;ikaw;wjhFk; tiu gd;Kiw gLj;jg;gLk;. toq;fg;gl;l ,ul;il ,yf;fq;fs; midj;jpdJk; vz;zpf;ifia ,e; epuy; %yk; ntspaPL nra;ag;gLk;. 31.

(40) Kf;fpa nrhy; - break (Keyword) for kw;Wk; while gd;Kiw. nraypypUe;J kPs;tjw;fhf break vd;gij gad;gLj;jg;gLk;.. cjhuzk; 11: i=I while 1<10: printi if i==5: print "stoping the loop" break i+=1. Nkw;gb cjhuzj;jpd; %yk; 1 ,ypUe;J 5 tiu ,yf;fq;fis ntspaPL nra;Ak;. i ,w;F nfhLf;fg;gl;l ngWkhdk; 1 Mapd; while $w;wpd; epge;jid i<10 cz;ikahFk;. mt;thwhapd; gd;KiwapDs; i ,d; ngWkhdj;ij ntspaPL nra;Ak;. mjd; gpd; fi $w;wpd; %yk; i ,d; ngWkhdk; 54 ,w;F rkdhdjh vd;gij guPl;rpj;Jg; ghu;f;fg;gLk;. VjhtJ xU re;ju;g;gj;jpy; i ,d; ngWkhdk; 5 ,w;Fr; rkdhdJk; "Stop the loop" vd;gij ntspaPL nra;J break $w;wpd; %yk; while $w;wpypUe;J tpLgLk;. Continue cjhuzk; 12: while True: name = input ("Enter a name less than four charactors or "quit" to stop") if name=="quit": break if len (name)>5: continue else: print name. Nkw;gb cjhuzj;jpd; "quit" vDk; cs;sPli ; l gz;Kiwg;gLj;jy; epWj;jg;gLk;. cs;sPL nra;ag;gLk; ngaupd; vOj;Jf;fspd; vz;zpf;if 5 Mapd; mg; ngaiu ntspaPL nra;Ak;. mt;thW ,y;iynadpy; gz;Kiwg;gLj;jy; kPz;Lk; Muk;gpf;Fk;.. 32.

(41) ghl tplaq;fisj; njspTgLj;jpf; nfhs;tjw;fhd topfhl;b • • • •. rpW FOf; fz;lha;Tfis KO tFg;gpw;Fk; toq;fr; nra;aTk;. tpupTiug;gpw;fhf Kd;te;j FOtpw;Nf Kjy; re;ju;g;gj;ij toq;fTk;. Vida FOf;fspd; Mf;fG+u;tkhd MNyhridfisf; Nfl;lwpaTk;. fPo;f;fhZk; tplaq;fis ntspf;nfhzUk; tifapy; fye;Jiuahlnyhd;iw Nkw;nfhs;sTk;. • fzpdp epuy;fSf;Fs; $w;Wf;fs; nraw;gLj;jg;gLk; xOq;FKiwnahd;W cz;L vd;gJ. • ,jw;fhf xt;nthU fzpdp epuypYk; fl;Lg;ghl;L fl;likg;G xd;Nwh my;yJ mjw;F NkyjpfkhfNth gad;gLj;jg; gLfpd;wnjd;gJ. • fzpdp xd;wpy;. nfhLf;fg; gl;Ls;s $w;Wf;fs; xt;nthd;whf xOq;FKiwf;fika nfhLf;fg;gl;l Kiwapy; nraw;gl itg;gJ tupirKiw vdg;gLk; vd;gJ. • njupTfis Nkw;nfhs;tjw;fhf khw;W topfs; gy ,Uf;Fkplj;J toq;fg;gl;l epge;jid guPlr ; pf;fg;gl;L khw;W topnahd;iw njupT nra;jy; Nju;T vdg;gLk; vd;gJ. • $w;W xd;W my;yJ gy kPz;Lk; kPz;Lk; nraw;gLj;jy; kPs;nray; vdg;gLk; vd;gJ.. 33.

(42) Nju;r;rp 8. :. tiyg;gq;fPL kw;Wk; juT> Fuy; vd;gtw;iw nraw;wpw Ds;s tifapy; njhlu;ghly; nra;tjw;fhf gupkhw;wj;jpd Jk; fzpdp gzpgg ; pdd ; y;/tiyg;gpdd ; ypdJk; gad;ghl;il Muha;thu;.. Nju;r;rp kl;lk; 8.9 :. tiyg;gpd;dYf;fhd xU Nkw;Nfhs; khjpupahf jpwe;j Kiwikfs; ,ilj;njhlu;G js cld;gL newpKiw tbtikg;igg; ghtpg;ghu;.. ghlNtis. Ie;J ghlNtis. fw;ww; NgWfs;. : :. jpwe;j Kiwik> %ba KiwikapdpilNa cs;s tpj;jpahrj;ij njspTgLj;Jthu;. jpwe;j Kiwik ,ilj;njhFg;G mLf;fg;gl;l cld;ghL (OSI) newpKiwapd; mLf;Ffisg; ngaupLthu;. • jpwe;j Kiwik ,ilj;njhFg;G mLf;fg;gl;l cld;gL newpKiwapd; Kf;fpa flikfisAk;> nghWg;Gf;fisAk; tpgupg;ghu;. • tiyg;gpd;dypd; jpwe;j Kiwik ,ilj;njhlu;G mLf;fg;gl;l cld;ghL newpKiw tbtikg;gpd; Kf;fpaj;Jtj;ij ntspf;nfhzUthu;. • •. fw;wy; - fw;gpj;jy; nraw;ghLfs;: gpuNtrk; jghy; epiya%lhf ed;gndhUtDf;F jghy; xd;iw mDg;Gtij tFg;gpd; ftdj;jpw;Ff; nfhz;L tuTk;. • fPo;f;fhZk; tplaq;fis ntspf;nfhzUk; tifapy; fye;Jiuahly; xd;iw Nkw;nfhs;sTk;. • jghy; epiya%lhf jghnyhd;iw mDg;Gk; nraw;ghL gy gFjpfshf eil ngWk; vd. • ,jpy; mDg;Ggtu;> ngWgtu;> mDg;Gk; Clfk; kw;Wk; nfhz;L nry;gtu; cs;shu;fs; vd. • fbjj;jpid vOJjy;> Kftupia vOjp ciwapypl;L jghy; ngl;bapy; NghLjy;> jghy; nfhz;L nry;gtu; jghy; ngl;bapypUe;J jghy; epiyaj;jpw;F nfhLj;jy;> jghy; epiyaj;jpypUe;J fbjj;ij vLj;J cupa jghy; epiyaj;jpw;F mDg;Gjy; Nghd;w mDg;Ggtupd; gFjp NkypUe;J fPohf cg gFjpfshfg; gpupf;f KbAk; vd. • ngWgtu; kpf njhiytpy; cs;stuhapd; mf;fbjj;ij kj;jpa jghy; gupkhw;W epiya%lhf mDg;g Ntz;Lk; vd. • kj;jpa jghy; gupkhw;W epiya%lhf ngWgtupd; jghy; epiyaj;jpw;F jghiy mDg;GtJ ngWtjw;F jghiy nfhLj;jy;> kw;Wk; ngw;wtu; jghiy jpwf;fTk; thrpf;fTk; vd ngWgtupd; ghfKk; fPopUe;J Nkyhd %d;W gFjpfshf gpupf;f KbAk; vd. •. 34.

(43) • • •. xt;nthU cg gFjpfF ; k; rupahd egUf;Fj; jghiy nfhLg;gjpy; cupa flikAk; nghWg;Gk; kw;Wk; cghaKk; cs;sd vd. vg;NghJk; Nky; cggFjp fPo; cg gFjpapd; Nritiag; ngw;Wf; nfhs;tJld; fPo; cggFjpapd; mr;Nrit Nky; cg gFjpapw;F ngw;Wf; nfhLf;Fk; vd. ,NjNghyNt fzpdp tiyg;gpd;dypd;NghJk; gy mLf;FfSf;$lhd jpwe;j Kiwik tbtikg;Gfs; fhzg;gLfpd;wd vd.. fw;wYf;fhd cj;Njr mwpTWj;jy;fs;: •. • • • •. fPo;tUk; jiyaq;fq;fspy; ckJ FOtpw;Fupa jiyg;igg; gw;wpf;$ba ftdk; nrYj;jTk;. • ru;tNjr ju epu;za epWtdk; (ISO) kw;Wk; jpwe;j Kiwik ,ilj;njhlu;G khjpup (ISO) mwpKfk;. • OSI tbtikg;gpd; xt;nthU mLf;fpd; mbg;gil flikfs;> nghWg;Gf;fs; ghtpfF ; k; cghaq;fs;. • OSI tbtikg;gpd; xt;nthU mLf;fpw;Fupa mbg;gil newpKiwfs;. thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuj;ij KOikahfTk; ckJ jiyg;gpw;Fupa gFjpia Kf;fpakhfTk; ftdpff ; . jpwe;j Kiwik kw;Wk; %ba Kiwikf;fpilapyhd mbg;gil NtWghLfisj; NjLf. thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuj;jpy; cs;sitfSf;Fg; Gwk;ghf ckJ jiyg;igg; gw;wp ckf;Fj; njupe;jtw;iw Fwpj;Jf; nfhs;f. ckJ fz;Lgpbg;Gf;fis $l;lhfTk; Mf;fj;jpwDs;sjhfTk; tFg;giwf;F Kd;itf;f Maj;jkhfTk;.. thrpg;Gg; gj;jpuk; ntsp cyfj; J ld; ,ize; J nrayhw; w f; $ baJk; trjpfis nfhz; l Jkhd Kiwikapid jpwe;j Kiwiknad miof;fg;gLtJld; mt;thW ntsp cyFld; ,izahJ mjd; midj;J nray;ghLfSk; mk; KiwikapDs;NsNa elhj;Jk; Kiwikapid %ba KiwiknadTk; miof;fg;gLk;. tiyg;gpd;dypd;NghJ nkd;nghUs; kw;Wk; td;nghUspd; tupaiuapNyNa (Specification) jq;fpapuhJ VjhtJ xU tpj;jpahrkhd jsq;fspypUe;Jk; njhlu;ghlYf;F ,lk; nfhLf;Fk; Kiwik tbtikg;G jpwe;j Kiwik vdf; fUjg;gLk;. jpwe;j Kiwik tbtikg;G vz;zf;fUthdJ ru;tNjr tpahghuj;ij xU rpwe;j topf;Ff; nfhz;LtUk;. ,izaj;jpNy xNu khjpupahd tpahghu Nehf;Fldhd tpahghupfSk; kw;Wk; gadu;fs; jw;fhy myFfisf; nfhz;l fzpdp Kiwikfisg; ghtpg;gu;.. 35.

(44) Kw;fhyq;fspy; fzpdp njhlu;ghly; ghupa fzpdpfis ikakhff; nfhz;L mike; jpUe;jd. mf;fzpdpAld; NtW cgfuzq;fs; gy ,izf;fg;gl;bUe;jd. tiyg;gpdd ; ypd; nraw;ghLfs; mjpfupjj ; jd; fhuzkhf mr; nraw;ghLfis gFjpfshfg; gpupf;f Ntz;b Vw;gl;lJ. mf; f hyj; j py; fzpdp tiy Kiwikfspd; njhlu; g hly; td; n ghUs; kw; W k; nkd;nghUl;fspd; tupaiuapNy jq;fpapUe;jJ NghyNt mur rhu;gpNyh (Arpanet) my;yJ jdpahu; fzpdp tpw;gidahsu;fshy; gutyhd mstpy; tiyaikg;G nra;ag;gl;lJ. ,t; tiyfspy; njhlu;ghlypd; NghJ gpur;rpidfs; vOe;jjdhy; nghJ tiyj; jug;gLj;jypd; Kf;fpaj;jJk; Vw;gl;ljdhy; mjw;F jPut ; hf [dPthtpd; ru;tNjr juepuz ; a epWtdj;jpd; %yk; jpwe;j Kiwik ,ilKiw njhlu;G tbtikg;G mwpKfg;gLj;jg; gl;lJ. xt;nthU tiyaikj;j fzpdp ,d;DnkhU tiyapd; fzpdpAld; njhlu;Ggl;L jfty; gupkhw; W k; Kiw ,r; r u; t Njr juepu; z a epWtdj; j pd; tbtikg; g py; tpgupf;fg;gl;Ls;sJ. ,J VO mLf;FfSldhd xg;gPl;L tbtikg;G MFk;. ep[ cyf tiyaikg;gpy; ,jid xg;gpLk; NghJ ,jpy; cs;s mLf;Ffs; rpytw;iw xd;whfr; Nrfupj;J NtnwhU mLf;F jahu;nra;J nfhs;s KbAk;. ,J xU gupe;JiuNaad;wp rl;lKiwikay;y vd;gij ftdpf;f Ntz;Lk;. jpwe;j Kiwik ,ilKfj;njhlu;G tbtikg;gpd; VO mOf;Ffs; fPo; jug;gl;Ls;sJ. 7'. gpuNahf mLf;F (Application Layer). 6'. Kd;itg;G mLf;F (Presentation Layer). 5'. njhlu; mLf;F (Session Layer). 4'. Nghf;Ftuj;J mLf;F (Transport Layer). 3'. gzpg;gpd;dy; mLf;F (Network Layer). 2'. juT ,izg;G mLf;F (Data Link Layer). 1'. ngsjpf epiy mLf;F (Physical Layer). njhlu;ghlypd; NghJ Kiwikfs; ,uz;bw;fpilapy; ,ilKfj;njhlu;G cs;s mLf;Ffs; cs;sd. mt; mLf;FfSf;Ff; nfhLf;fg;gl;l tpNrl flikAk; nghWg;Gk; cs;sd. mjw;Fr; rpy cghaq;fSk; cs;sd.. mDg;Ggtu; Kid. (Senders end). mDg;Ggtuhy; ngWgtUf;F juTfis mDg;Gk;NghJ mDg;Gk; KidapypUe;J juTfs; Vu; tupirahfr; nry;Yk;. juTfs; Nky; mLf;fpypUe;J fPo; mLf;fpw;Fr; nry;Yk;. (cjhuzk;: 7Mk; mLf;fpypUe;J Kjyhk; mLf;fpw;F). 36.

(45) ngWgtu; Kid. (Receivers end). ngWgtUf;F juTfs; fpilf;Fk;NghJ mit ,wq;F tupirapy; nry;tij fhzyhk;. mjhtJ fPo; mLf;fpypUe;J Nky; mLf;fpw;Fr; nry;Yk;.. gpuNahf mLf;F vDk; Vohk; mLf;F ,J OSI tbtikg;gpd; Nky; kl;lj;jpy; cs;sJ. gpuNahf nkd;nghUl;fs; tiyAld; ,ilj;njhlu;G Vw;gLj;Jk; tpjj;ijf; fhl;Lk;. mDg;Ggtu; 7 6 5 4 3 2 1. ngWgtu;. ngsjpf mLf;F 01000110. ,q;F Nritapd; juk; kw;Wk; njhlu;ghly; Nrhbia mwpeJ ; nfhz;L gadu; nraw;ghl;bw;F xj; j hir toq; F k; . ,q; F gadupd; milahsk; > jdpj; J tk; kw; W k; juTfs; mike;jpUf;Fk; Kiwfis ftdj;jpw; nfhz;L ,aq;Fk; ,t; mLf;F gpuNahfj;jpw;F tpNrlkhdjhFk;. Nfhit gupkhw;wr; Nritfs;> kpd; mQ;ry;> juT Nkyhd;ik Kiwikfs; kw;Wk; nkd;nghUl; Nritfs; ,t; mLf;fpy; mlq;Fk; Telnet kw;Wk; FTP, DNS, HTTP, SMTP Nghd;w newpKiwfs; ,t; mLf;fpy; NrUk;.. Kd;itg;G mLf;F vDk; 6Mk; mLf;F juT rhu;ghd Kd;itg;Gf;fs;> guptu;j;jidfs; kw;Wk; FwpaPLfs; Nghd;witfis nra;Ak; Kiwapid ,t; mLf;fpw; fhl;Lk;. MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension), XDR (External Data Representation). Nghd;w newpKiwfs;. ,t; mLf;fpw; NrUk;.. njhlu; mLf;F vDk; 5Mk; mLf;F gpuNahfq;fspw;fpilna njhlu;ig Vw;gLj;JtJ njhlu;rr ; pahf nfhz;L nry;tJ kw;Wk; epiwT nra;tJ ,t; Ie;jhk; mLf;fhFk;. xt;nthU KidapYk; gpuNahfq;fSf;fpilapy; ciuahly; gupkhw;W mjid elhj;jp epiwNtw;WtJ ,t; mLf;fpd; nrayhFk;. ,q;F gad;gLj;Jk; epakq;fs; ,uz;lhff; SIP (Session initiation protocol), RTP (Real time transport protocol) Fwpg;gplyhk;.. Nghf;Ftuj;J mLf;F vDk; 4Mk; mLf;F cgrupg;ghsUf;Fk; (Host) njhlu;ghly; Kidapw;Fk; ,ilapy; juTfis rk;g+u;dkhf gupkhw;wk; nra;Ak;. TCP (Transmmission Control Protocol) kw;Wk; UDP (User Datagram Protocol) Nghd;wit ,jpy; gad;gLj;jg;gLk; newpKiwfs; ,uz;lhFk;. 37.

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