JanuaryFinal2012ReviewSheet.pdf

American History

JANUARY FINAL 2012

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REATION OF THE

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Important differences between the northern states (such as Massachusetts Bay Colony) and the southern states (such as Virginia) during their development:

NORTH SOUTH

Houses were used permanent, since people tended to stay in specific communities

People tended to build houses that were meant to be temporary, since it was typical to move from place to place

Greater specialization; since the planting season was so short, people began to develop other professions. For example, fishermen were more prevalent in the North than in the South.

People lived off the land, there were more farmers, less communities

Money was invested in manufacturing; there was a smaller need for slavery and other labor, since slavery was not cost-effective in the relatively short farming seasons.

Money was mainly invested in slaves and agriculture due to the heavy emphasis on sustenance farming

Greater emphasis on community and education. Families often came to Massachusetts, bringing their money, possessions, and hired help.

Less emphasis for community, ever man for himself in Virginia. Often single males came to Virginia to work

Very religious Not so religious

Incorporation of other colonies:

 Maryland: Charted to Lord Baltimore to create a Catholic state. Baltimore tries to bring feudalism into the colonies (and makes everyone swear a loyalty oath to him) — it’s neither a corporate nor a royal company, since Baltimore is the sole proprietor.

 Plymouth: Like Maryland, Plymouth was established as a form of religious refuge, except Plymouth was for religious extremists seeking persecution. They were actually chartered for Virginia, but got “lost” and established Plymouth.

 Massachusetts Bay Colony: Established by Puritans, who also were seeking refuge from religious persecution. All Congregationalists (members of the Church) were allowed to vote. They were actually chartered for Massachusetts.

 Pennsylvania: Established by William Penn in an effort to be a Quaker state. He would later invite Germans, who were mainly Mennonites and Anabaptists (whose beliefs were similar to that of the Quakers) to populate the country — that is why we have the Pennsylvania Dutch.

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Partible Inheritence: The idea of dividing the inheritance equally amongst the sons — previously the oldest would get the largest share.

Declension: The general decline of religious fervor.

Half-way Covenant (1662): Provided partial membership to the Church for children and grandchildren of Puritans. They were allowed to be baptized, but could not vote or hold office.

King Philips War: Perhaps the closest thing to successful Native American revolt, a band of Native Americans, under King Philips, burned a number of towns in North America.

Various Rebellions that influenced the colonies during the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries:

 Bacon’s Rebellion: Bacon offered to wage war against the nearby Native Americans around Virginia, but the legislature, which was on good terms with the surrounding Native Americans at the time, refused. Angered, Bacon gathered a militia and (assumedly) massacred hundreds of defenseless Native Americans. England had to call in 1,000 troops to put down the rebellion. Bacon’s Rebellion showed that poor whites and poor blacks at the time had similar interests, and made the richer whites segregate the blacks by making them lesser citizens, changing the interests of the poor whites and the poor blacks. There are three different theories as to what motivated Bacon:

 Personal ambition

 Altercations between leaders

 Power struggle among everyone

 Governor Andros: To control his colonies, George II sends over Governor Andros. He abolishes most government and eradicated religious tolerance. When the Glorious Revolution comes to the colonies, Andros is overthrown.

 Leisler: Leisler seized a fort in the name of William and Mary (the new monarchs after the Glorious Revolution), but refused to hand it over when to the new monarch’s troops. He was tried and executed, but then pardoned by the crown posthumously.

 Coode: Coode led a group in Maryland against the corrupt leadership. Unlike Leisler, though, he recognized the new leadership. He was ultimately asked to step down and allow Maryland to become a royal colony. In 1715, however, Maryland was returned to Lord Baltimore IV, although his powers were limited.

 Salem Witch Trials: The Salem Witch Trials were used as a scapegoat for the declining economy in New England, as well as the rampant disease and destruction as a result of the King Philips War (see above). People were moving further inland, causing depreciation in housing prices in the bigger cities. The younger, newer generation began accusing the older generation of witchcraft; many older women were tried and executed for such a crime. 19 were executed, until the point the governor had to put a stop to it.

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EVELOPMENT OF THE

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Different ways that the colonies began to develop through the 1600 and 1700s, leading up to the French-Indina War and the War of Independence:

 Natural increase: People began living longer due to the healthier living conditions, allowing them to have more children. It is here that grandchildren are discovered.

 Immigration:

o 250,000 Scots-Irish came to the colonies after being placed in Ireland to help assimilate the Irish and covert them to Protestantism. They moved mainly to western Pennsylvania and Ohio.

o Germans were invited over by William Penn because the Germans (who were mainly Anabaptists and Mennonites) were closely related to the Quakers

o 25,000 Scots came to America after fleeing a failed uprising in Scotland  Economic expansion: The colonies began producing products such as rice, cotton, timber, and coal that were all exported back to England. These new crops and industries inspired new laws and philosophies as to how the colonies should be treated by England:

 Mercantilism: The philosophy that the purpose of the colonies was to enrich only the mother country. This inspired the Navigation Acts, which forced the colonies to trade only with England.

 Triangular Trade: Sugar and molasses were sent to America (where it was developed into rum) from the Carribean, which was then carried to Africa and traded for slaves, which were then sold to the Indies for more sugar and molasses. This route compensated for the mercantilism and made some Americans quite wealthy.

The Enlightenment hits America in a much tamer way. Concepts such as original sin with human nature; God begins to be viewed as benevolent. American even produced its own geniuses, such as Benjamin Franklin, and Copley. People began to find scientific/mathematical/rational reasons for seemingly irrational phenomena:

 Locke: Everyone is entitled to life, liberty, and property as guaranteed by the government. If the government did not guarantee these rights, then it was the responsibility of the citizens to overthrow the government and establish a new one that did guarantee these rights. He was later quoted by American political activists as reason for why the colonies should be allowed to have their own legislatures.

 Table rasa: “clean slate”

 Voltaire: opponent of any form of censorship. Any institutions that do not serve a purpose should be shut down.

 Rousseau: Believed in the general will, or the belief that we surrender a certain amount of individuality for the greater good.

 Hume: He believed that man could understand anything.

Additionally, many philosophers believed in deism, or the belief that God was a hands-off creator. God may have created the world, but God does not take an active role in the goings-on of the world today.

Great Awakening: a renewed religious fervor that brought people closer to religion:

 Itinerant ministers: travelling ministers, which were almost like colonial popstars.

 Personal salvation: the belief that you are responsible for your own salvation. Everyone is equal in the eyes of God.

 Decline of deference: the connection between you and God is extremely personal—ministers should serve as an aid, and only when needed.

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OAD TO THE

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EVOLUTION

By midway through the eighteenth centuries, the various colonial assemblies had assumed many of the powers that Parliament had assumed, even though the colonies were still “virtually” represented in Parliament by everyone who cared for the wellbeing of the British empire, although the Americans refused to believe that this was actually true. In 1754, the Americans gather in Philadelphia for the First Continental Congress. After the French and Indian War, the Treaty of Paris (1763) was signed:

 The American colonists gain control from the Arctic to the Gulf of Mexico and from the Atlantic Ocean to the Mississippi River, including Florida.

 Canada was given to England

 The Spaniards get some land in Louisiana

Pontiach’s Rebellion: A response to the colonists moving to the Interior.

Various taxes/acts passed by the British on the Americans after the French and Indian War:

 Sugar Act: Enacted to pay off debt, this revolutionized the way the colonies were viewed by Parliament. The colonies were now expected to provide revenue for England; the Sugar Act was also to discourage smuggling and bribery that prevented the Navigation Acts (see Chapter 4) from being effective.

 Admiralty Courts: Colonists suspected of crimes were tried in Halifax by naval officers, which were stricter and conveniently really, really far away from the colonies. Additionally, since British naval officers were running the courts, there was less of a chance of being acquitted.

 Stamp Act: The passing of the Stamp Act sparked a massive political movement within the colonies. Special seals or stamps had to be used to certify that legal documents had been taxed properly.

 Virginia Resolves: Written by Patrick Henry, the Resolves stated that Virginia had the right to tax itself, and that the British taxation of the colonies was unconstitutional and illegal.

 Stamp Act Congress: Held in New York in 1765, nine states gathered together to draft a petition that basically said the same thing that Patrick Henry (↑) said, that taxes should not be imposed without the colonies’ joined consent. There was no mention, however, of disloyalty or rebellion.

 Currency Act: The declaration that British currency was the only acceptable form of currency within the colonies. This was also meant to discourage smuggling.

 Quartering Act: A law that allowed British soldiers to set up shop in colonial (civilian!) homes.

 Declaratory Act: Withdrew the Quartering Act, but only to show that it’s the British who have the final say, not the Americans.

 Townshed Acts: Created by the eponymous Townshend, this act was aimed at taxing the exportation of:

 Glass

 Lead paint

 Lead

 Goods that could be bought from England

 Tea Act: Lowered the tax on British tea in an effort to buy business back in the companies and save the failing East India Company from bankruptcy. Americans were now able to buy tea at wholesale prices (directly from the manufacturer).

 Intolerable/Coercive Acts: Following the Boston Tea Party, these acts were meant to punish Boston for the Boston Tea Party by closing Boston Harbor and reinstating the Quartering Act.

 Quebec Act: Opened up Quebec to the Interior, although Americans saw this as a threat to liberty. Many colonists who wanted to move into the Interior, but stopped wanting to because there was freedom of religion (which allowed for Catholics); additionally, there was no say in government.

 Prohibitory Act: This act prohibited all trade between the colonies and subjected all colonial ships to seizure by the Royal Navy.

American responses to these acts:

 Stamp Act Congress: see above

 Sons of Liberty: Political dissents, they staged tar-and-feathers, and encouraged the taunting of high-ranking officials.

 Boycotts: Slowly, the colonists began weaning themselves off of British imports as a way to protest the rampant taxation. People began buying specifically what they need, and nothing more to avoid paying t the taxes. Women took a central role in the boycotts, since they were the ones in charge of buying food and other commodities. Women began making using homemade cloths and shunned using items that had been taxed by the British. Boycotts hurt the British in two key ways:

 Economically: the British lost revenue as a result of the boycotts

 Parliament: Riche merchants who sat in the House of Commons were hurt by the boycotts and blockades.

 Committees of Correspondence: Started originally in Massachusetts, this was to allow for colonists to hear the various new grievances. This was copied in other states, and created a form of political cooperation not seen before within the colonies.

 Gaspee Incident: Americans lured a British ship into a wreck along the Rhode Island shore, but no one was actually charged with a crime. This caused the British to reinstate the admiralty courts in Halifax.  Boston Tea Party: A response to the Tea Act, the colonists in Boston refused to allow a British ship

filled with tea to dock in Boston Harbor, and then destroyed the tea later that night. This sparked the

Intolerable Acts.

 Suffolk Resolves: a bold statement that demanded forcible resistance to the Coercive Acts.

 The Association: an inter-colonial agreement to halt all commerce with Britain repealed the Coercive Acts.

Changes in colonial life:

 Towns, cities, and communities are getting larger, stronger, and more populous. Mortality rates are increasing. Because inheritances are becoming increasingly smaller, these younger people are moving to the cities looking for money and work.

 Less land is being left fallow, and agriculture is suffering because the land is not recovering — there are more people, but less food.

 People are getting married at later ages, and more children are being born out of wedlock.

 Single men and women are moving to the larger cities (like Boston); married couples are moving out into the countryside. There is a roughly equal male-to-female ratio in the colonies, especially in New England

The Boston Massacre: The Boston Massacre was inspired by the response to the British setting up shop in Boston, which was perceived as peaceful. After the Massacre, colonial newspapers and artists labeled the violence as a “massacre,” and the poor, defenseless, American teenagers were perceived as martyrs.

First Continental Congress: In 1774, a gathering of fifty-five elected delegates gathered in Pennsylvania from every colony except Georgia. Here, the delegates began planning what they wanted to do with Britain: some favored a more moderate approach; others demanded a more radical approach.

Second Continental Congress: In 1775, the Second Continental Congress convened in Philadelphia. Since the Revolution was now in full swing, the Americans were in desperate need for a strong leadership. Reluctantly, the Continental Congress took control of the continental army, and put Washington at its head.

British advantages during the war:

 Larger army and manufacturing base; the army was freely supplemented by German Hessian

(mercenaries).

 Many officers had years of military experience.

American advantages during the war:

 Better/more allies than the British — the Americans enlisted the help of the French and the Spanish.

 The French provided 90% of the American gunpowder.

 Foreign commanders (such as Lafayette) trained American soldiers and aided Washington.

 After Dunmore’s Decree, which freed any slave that promised to serve the British during the war, the South, which was previously neutral, favored independence because they needed their slaves.

 The Americans learned to fight and quickly adapt

 America was able to communicate quicker than the British, since the British were receiving orders from their commanders thousands of miles away, across the Atlantic Ocean. They were also able to get supplies to their troops quicker than the British were.

 America was far too large to be conquered using conventional military methods.  American soldiers were more dedicated to their ideology than the British were.

Key battles during the War of Independence:

 Lexington and Concord: This was the first battle of the war.

 Bunker Hill: Showed American perseverance. 700 British soldiers were killed during this battle. Additionally, Washington was also successfully able to drive the British out of Boston and all the way north to Halifax, and then to New York, which had a large loyalist faction.

 Battle of Brooklyn Heights: Washington faces the British, and loses most of his army. He manages to escape to Manhattan, and then the Bronx. He only manages to escape because:

 the British army was over-confident

 the British thought the Americans were incapable of winning

 the British wanted to negotiate with Washington.

 Battle of Trenton: On Christmas Eve, 1776, Washington made his face boat ride across the Delaware Water Gap, and took 900 soldiers by surprise. Successful, Washington marched on Trenton again, but again attacked under the cover of night, and surprised them at Princeton. The British, who needed to consolidate their troops, left most of New Jersey in the hands of the Continental Army.

 Battle of Saratoga: The Americans meet the British at Saratoga in Upstate NY, and ended with an American victory. After winning, the French officially announced that they recognized and were backing the Americans (although they had been secretly supporting the Americans prior to the announcement).

o Treaty of Amity and Commerce: established formal commercial relations between America and France.

o Treaty of Alliance: In the event that Britain and England went to war (as they later would), the French would not make peace with England until America was recognized by England as an independent country.

o In return, the Americans pledged that they would not sign a separate peace treaty with Britain without first informing their new ally.

o This made the War of Independence an international conflict — there as even talk in Britain of a possible invasion by the French via the English Channel.

 The Final Campaign: Fought mainly in the South, the Final Campaign was in full swing by 1780.

 Battle of Cowpens: Although the Americans had only about 200 “good” soldiers, they were able to hide from the British to slowly kill off the entire British army that they were fighting. Meanwhile, the rest of the American army force the British north to Yorktown.

 Battle of Virginia Capes: After biding his time in Philadelphia, Washington goes down to meet General Green at the same time the French fleet sets sail from Providence, bound for the same destination. There, General Cornwallis finds himself surrounded and forced to surrender.

Despite the war in America ending, the British still faced a new uprising in India and an invasion from France. Additionally, Spain wanted control of Gibraltar, which was controlled by the British. The Treaty of Paris was signed to hastily end the violence:

 America got the entire Northwest, up to the Great Lakes and they got them some independence  Spain gets Florida and the Mediterranean

 France gets some fishing rights and tons of debt

 The Americans promised to help collect debt and compensate Loyalists whose land had been confiscated during the war.

In fall of 1783, the last redcoats set sail from New York Harbor and ended 176 years of colonial rule.

Historiography:

 Progressive: the average person won the war

 Neo-conservative: the war’s purpose was to provide Americans with the values that the British never gave them

 Intellectual: the war was sparked by the evolution of British values and American’s shunning thereof.

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ORGING A

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XPERIMENT

 Economic self-interest: Americans understood that they had to develop and become economically independent, but England was holding them back (mercantilism)

 Economic viability: By 1775, America had enough people, universities, money, and agriculture to become economically independent from England — our cities were often considered to be on-par with European cities.

For many American politicians and philosophers, “democracy” and “republicanism” represented more than just a form of government: it represented a way of life. Americans distanced themselves from any form of aristocracy — states abolished laws that protected primogeniture, or the passing of inheritance solely (or mainly) to the oldest son. States were encouraged to lower the requirements for voting. State capitals and legislatures moved to the centers of the states to allow for people to move further west. Although women enjoyed certain new freedoms, their status remained virtually identical to that of before the war.

States were encouraged to rewrite or write new constitutions that would replace the old royal charters that were filled with references to the English monarchy and government. These new constitutions were designed to guarantee certain basic civil rights. Legilatures reigned supreme in early state governments, since they were elected by the people; the powers of the governors were drastically reduced.

There were two different theories as to how the government should be structured:

 Democracy: the people have a direct say in government, and the majority rules. Always.  Republic: Elected officials (elected by the people) make the important decisions.

The Articles of Confederation: The Articles were needed to provide some unifying thread between the colonies. Although they were drafted in 1777, the Articles were ratified by the Continental Congress in 1781 due to:

 People arguing over what powers the government should have

 Not everyone was given a claim to the Interior; several states dominated the West, whereas others had no share in it whatsoever. Thus, until the land was distributed equally, several states refused to ratify the Articles

The Articles stated:

 We are a unification of individual states  We have a name

 The only time states will be allowed to band together is during times of war  Every state has an equal vote

 States have a unified foreign policy

 A common treasury will be designed to pay for the war  A state cannot have its own military

 Congress shall settle disputes between states  All states have to agree to ratify the Articles  Canada is not part of the U.S. (thank God!) Land Ordinances regarding the West:

 Land Ordinance: Each part of the West was divided into 36 sections; land could only be bought in gold, which catered to the wealthy and generated gold revenue for the government.

Foreign problems:

 England: The Americans never paid back the Torries and the pre-war loans; in response, the British were trading with the Native Americans in the Northwest, which frightened and angered many Americans.

 Spain: We shared a border with Spain along Florida and Louisiana. Spain also controlled the mouth to the Mississippi River, which they refused to let us use and therefore made it impossible to trade with the West.

 Barbary Pirates: Pirates that came from the eponymous Barbary Coast; to keep them from attacking our ships, we paid an obligatory sum of money.

Domestic problems:

 Each state had its own currency and tariffs, making trade really hard between states.

 Newburgh Conspiracy: A conspiracy theory that wanted to overthrow the Confederation and establish Washington as the new king.

 Shay’s Rebellion: During a convention where Washington proposed a new canal connecting the Potomac River to the Ohio, Daniel Shay and a group of followers took up arms because they were so poor as a result of paying for the war. Because of the Confederation and the Articles, the government was unable to help Massachusetts, and the private banks had to hire their own militia to put down the rebellion.

The Beginning of the Constitution: In 1786, James Madison proposed to Virginia to host a convention to discuss federal commercial regulations, and from thus came the Constitutional Convention, which was held in Philadelphia. There were two main plans for the new government:

 Virginia Plan (power of population): offered by Madison. There would be a:

 single legislature chamber based on population

 legislature would appoint a president

 president would appoint a supreme court

 New Jersey Plan (power of representatives): advocated for very specific powers granted to the federal government:

 each state has one vote

 there is a president

 the federal government was allowed to tax

In reality, our government is a combination of the two, a result of the Great Compromise. Additionally, the issue of slavery had to be resolved in order for everyone to be happy. Thus came the 3/5 Compromise, which said that each southern slave-owner would have to only pay taxes on 3/5 of his slaves and that each slave would count for 3/5 of a person when it came to representation in government — otherwise, the South would have a much larger population than the North because of the large slave population.

Federalists: These were the supporters of the new Constitution; this term suggested a grand federation, not a government. Those who opposed to Constitution were dubbed antifederalists, which came with a more negative connotation.

The Bill of Rights: The hallmark of the antifederalist movement, this guaranteed basic rights for all citizens, such as freedom of religion, etc. They were quickly passed through both Houses of Congress and ratified by ¾ of the states, and thus came the first amendments.

 Article I: Defines the legislature  Article III: Defined the judicial branch.

 Federal funding bills must originate in the House, the only fully elected branch of the federal government.

 Responsibilities of the Congress (War, etc.)

 Elastic Clause: the federal government reserved the right to pass laws that are deemed necessary to run the country effectively.

 Article IV: New states and citizens

 Article V: Amendments can be made by 2/3 of the state legislatures and ¾ of Congress. To ratify an amendment, you need ¾ of Congress and ¾ of the state legislatures (when started by Congress). The Constitution is much, much easier to amend than the Articles were.

 Bill of Rights:

 Freedom of religion, speech, press, peaceful assembly

 The right to bear arms

 No quartering act. At all. Done.

 No search-and-seizure without a warrant, due process, double jeopardy (can’t get prosecuted for the same crime twice), self-incrimination, eminent domain

 Quick and speedy trial by jury, right to cousel (lawyer)

 Right to civil trial by jury

 Prohibition of excessive bail and cruel/unusual punishment

 Protection of rights not enumerated here

 Powers of states and people; this was basically the first clause of the Articles.

Objections to the Constitution:

 It was written by people who appointed themselves.

 The state governments were not consulted during the process  The Confederation was not consulted

 Brutus: America is far too large to be a republic.

 The state and the federal government could not tax you  The Constitution would only cater to the rich.

Federalist Paper Number X: Written by Madison, Jay, and Hamilton (all of whom were Federalists). This paper was a direct response to Brutus.

Historiography:

 Nationalist: Everyone had their own interests, but they all agreed.

 Progressive: the Constitution was a result of the manipulation of the super-rich

 Revisionist: Although the Founding Fathers started out trying to protect their property, they really created something that suited everyone. Their end result really benefited all of humanity.

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George Washington: Washington advocated for a strong, centralized government, and often supported Hamilton’s ideas and philosophies, which would later be aligned with the Federalist Party. He resisted efforts by Congress to limit his authority. Compared to today, Washington’s government was incredibly small.

 Hamilton: Treasury. He was an anglophile, and modeled many of his proposals after England.

o Report on Public Credit: A report that showed that the U.S. owed $54 million. He calculated how much each state owed to the government, how much was owed to other countries and to individual citizens. He proposed that the federal government assume all of the debt that the individual states owed — this way, the country could never fail to pay of its debt.

o Proposal to charter a national bank: This privately-owned institution would lend the government money at really, really cheap rates to help pay of the debt faster.

o Report on Manufacturing: A proposal that money would be invested in the National Bank for interest; the bank would be run by private individuals who also invest their money in the bank.

This is a near-perfect copy of the Bank of England. Hamilton convinces Washington that this is necessary, despite Jefferson’s opposition and indignation.

Judiciary Act of 1789: Mandated the establishment of a Supreme Court presided over by nine justices, one of which is a Chief Justice.

1789 Tariff: Would impose an approximately 5% tax on all imports. Even before the tariff went into effect, however, it sparked controversy because planters from the South relied heavily on imports to help their economy function.

Treaty of 1783: The British agreed to evacuate the Northwest completely. Additionally, small American ships were allowed to trade with the British West Indies

Whiskey Rebellion: Farmers living in Western Pennsylvania protested the federal tax on whiskey that was passed in 1791. The President called out 15,000 militia men and put down the rebellion. In total, two men were arrested, and both were pardoned. Jefferson viewed this as Hamilton’s excuse for creating a military to intimidate the Republicans.

***Foreign Policy (Washington Administration):

1

The primary concern during Washington’s administration was the Native Americans, who were still considered to be part of a sovereign nation. When Americans tried to move into the Northwest, the Native Americans fought back. Throughout the Confederation and Federalist periods in American History, the Native Americans continued to revolt and resist American invasion. After the Native American defeat at Fallen Timbers, we receive:

 Southern Indiana  Ohio

Another main concern that would carry over into the Adams administration was the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars:

 Because Europe was so divided, America had a very hard time finding anyone to trade with.

 Some believed that since the French were following in our footsteps in the creation of a democracy, it is our duty to help them do it right.

 Letters of Mark: Letters that were issued to pirates that allowed them to be treated as naval officers, if they were captured.

 There was a general distrust of the British following the War of Independence and they were still living in the Northwest. Some of the cabinet (such as Hamilton) sided with the English, whereas others (Jefferson) sided with the French.

Reasons to support England:

 They were stronger

 We imported many of our things from them

 The Treaty of 1788 was no longer valid, because the king of France was dead, thus, we were now allowed to side with whomever we chose.

*Citizen Genet: A French ambassador that arrives in America seeking to enlist the help of the Americans during the French Revolution. He lands in South Carolina, which is pro-Jefferson (thereby giving him the advantage). He begins to issue Letters of Mark to American pirates, which angers Washington, who almost deports him.

Rule of 1756: Any port that was closed during times of peace was closed during times of war, too. Thus, any port that the French had closed previously was still closed, practically smothering the French colonies.

*Jay Treaty:

 The British agree to evacuate the Northwest

 We are allowed to trade with British-Asian colonies.

 The British agree to arbitration:a third party will listen to both sides and create a resolution that both sides must abide by.

 We accept the Rule of 1756.

 The British were allowed to trade with Native Americans

 The British would not provide compensation for runaway slaves.

*Pinckney’s Treaty:

 The Northern border of Florida is set at the 31st Parallel.  We have Mississippi, Alabama, and parts of Tennessee.  We are allowed the right of deposit in New Orleans:

 We could store goods there

 Done to keep the Americans from pushing the Spanish out of Florida.

Washington’s Farewell Address:

 *We should behave justly toward all nations.  We should not hold grudges.

 We should not be overly loyal to any one country or team up with specifically one country.  *We should be weary of foreigners

 We should not be stupid

 *We should make only commercial agreements with other countries, not lasting treaties.  We should stay away from political parties.

The Two Political Parties:

 Federalist:

 Favored a stronger, more centralized government

 States along the Atlantic coastline in the Northeast

 Less secure about the future

 *not as happy about foreigners

 *not really expansionists

 Tended to be WAPSs, Episcopalians, Puritans/Congregationalists

 Pro-industrialization  Democratic-Republican:

 Ran a grassroots campaign (shaking hands, kissing little babies)

 Favored smaller governments.

 They were more secure in our future

 Pro-agriculture

Virginia Statute: Allowed all religious minorities to vote.

Adams’ Election: Hamilton, who did not particularly like Adams, tried manipulating everyone to get Jefferson or Pinckney elected, leaving Jefferson the vice president.

***Foreign Policy (Adams Administration):

The French felt betrayed because of the Jay Treaty. To avoid war, diplomats are sent to France, but are forced to pay tribute to even speak to Tali Ran, the French foreign minister. Nothing is resolved: the Federalists want to go to war, but the Democratic-Republicans do not. Adams, who did not want to give Hamilton control of the war, began an unofficial-quasi-war.

 *XYZ Affair: American diplomats who refused to pay the tribute to reconcile with France were given the names X, Y, and Z during a speech given by Adams before Congress. Following this, the Federalists called for war.

 Washington forced Adams to give Hamilton second-in-command when leading the army.  *Anti-immigration laws passed by Congress:

 Alien Enemies Law: the government can deport foreigners from a country with which they are in a state of war

 Alien Law: You can deport foreigners during times of peace if they are acting suspiciously.

 Naturalization Law: You must live in the States for a minimum of 14 years in order to be naturalized.

 Sedition Law: you can be arrested and tried for libel against the government if the government can prove that you are lying or intentionally being malicious or slanderous against the government.

These laws, obviously, angered the immigrants, causing them to side with the Democratic-Republicans. In response, Madison and Jefferson issued the Virginia and Kentyck Resolutions, which stated that the aforementioned laws do not apply in those states—the implication was that the states could chose to disregard federal laws, laying the groundwork for some of the arguments for the secession and the Civil War.

Midnight Judges: Before being voted out of office, Adams appointed judges to the Supreme Court that would take Federalist stances on all cases that were brought before them, ensuring that the Federalist Party maintained power in at least one branch of government after Adam stepped down and Jefferson was elected.

Election of 1800: Jefferson won; there were no huge rebellions.

Why did the Federalists fall?

 The Party was divided between Hamilton and John Adams

 As the country became more secure, people began to figure out what they wanted from the government.

 Immigrants mostly aligned with the Democratic-Republican Party following the Alien and Sedition Acts, which targeted them.

What were some of the contributions of the Federalist Party?

 They introduced a looser interpretation of the Constitution.  They provided a time of economic stability

 They introduced a peaceful transition between ruling powers.

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Jefferson first repeals the Whiskey Act (see above), and tries to repeal the Alien and Sedition Acts, but fails. Although the Democratic-Republican Party now controls both the Executive and Legislative branches of government, the Federalist Party still controlled the Supreme Court (because of the midnight judges). Jefferson, in an effort to close the national debt, consolidated the federal government even further; he also cut down the army and the navy, which they perceived to be a Federalist tool to control the Democratic-Republican Party. He closed several embassies in Europe.

Important court cases:

 Marbury vs. Madison: Jefferson proposed removing the position of the judges, and Marbury almost becomes a judge. Marbury appeals to the Supreme Court, asking for a decree that said that he should be inducted as a judge, although Marshall (the Chief Justice) said that Marbury was acting on a part of the Constitution that was deemed unconstitutional. In the end, Marshall and the Supreme Court regains its respect.

 Fletcher vs. Peck: This court case preserved the sanctity of the rights of the innocent — effectively, plausible deniability. This is also the first time that a state ruling/law was declared unconstitutional, which further expanded the powers of the Supreme Court.

The most striking changes to America during the Jeffersonian Era occurred in the West: Ohio joined the Union, and numerous other territories were established in the West. Many who moved out West tried to transplant their familial customs. They were met with fierce opposition from the Indians, who desperately tried (and ultimately failed) to protect their land. Jeffersonians even tried to create large reservations in modern-day Mississippi and tried to “civilize” the Indians, to no avail.

Jeffersonian America was very focused on agriculture. The South tended to focus on tobacco, rice, and cotton; the North tended to focus on livestock and grain. The biggest innovation of the period was in the North by a man who tried to breed the fittest and strongest animals by offering prize to the people that brought him the best livestock. The cities served as ports for international trade. Additionally, America prospered because of the “carrying trade”, or the shipment of other country’s goods between its colonies and its motherland. This trade, however, did not last because, in 1805, both the British and the French began seizing American ships.

Aaron Burr:

 After the 1800 election, Burr is dropped from the ballot.

 He becomes involved in the Essex-Junto Plan, a conspiracy where the North would secede.

 After failing in this, Burr runs against Hamilton for governorship of New York. He fails, and challenges Hamilton to a duel, where Hamilton dies. He is forced to leave New York, and flees to England.

 In England, he gets involved in a plan to create a new empire in Spanish Louisiana. He is brought to trial, but the charges are dropped due to lack of evidence.

Orleans, although Napoleon returned with an offer for $15 million for all of Louisiana. To gather the necessary money to pay for the new land, the government began issuing bonds. In March 1804, the Louisiana Governor Bill narrowly passed the House, but earned condemnation from Jefferson’s own party, since the bill imposed taxes on Louisiana without their consent. This bill also allowed the government to appoint leaders for the new territories as a transitional government.

Lewis and Clark Expedition: A very “politically correct” expedition. It remained unclear whether or not the expedition was actually tied to the negotiations with France over Louisiana. The purpose of the expedition was to see if the Missouri River — which traveled into uncharted territory — was indeed the most direct route to the West. The expedition was successful, and Lewis and Clark created a map of the territory that was initially measured in terms of days necessary to cross a certain span of land. Over the course of the expedition, only one man died, and that was of a burst appendix.

*Conflict with the Barbary Pirates: The Barbary Pirates captured American ships. In 1801, Jefferson responded to their demand for tribute in return for safe passage. Tripoli—the base of the pirates—put up a stiff resistance, and even captured the crew of a United States frigate, leaving the government to pay an additional $60,000.

The slave trade: In December 1806, Jefferson urged Congress to pass a legislation that would end the slave trade. Northern representatives generally favored a strong bill, while Southern representatives favored a weaker bill. The end result was a bill that prohibited the importation of new slaves, but permitted the slaves between states.

Historiography (Jefferson):

 Late 1800s: The Democratic-Republican Party came to power by attacking the Federalists.

 Progressive: Jefferson was elected because he wanted to help everyone, not just a specific group of people.

 1960s: Jefferson was successful because he used Federalist policies to achieve Democratic-Republican goals.

*Europe at war: During the initial stages of the war, America profited, since they were neutral. They traded with whoever would trade with them. Americans traded between France and their colonies (since France was prevented from doing so due to a British blockade).

 *Orders in Commerce: A decree passed by Britain that forbade neutral trade; any ships found trading neutrally would be subject to seizure.

 *Continental System: A decree by Napoleon that was similar to that of the Orders in Commerce.

 Berlin/Milan Decrees: Part of the Continental System, these closed Continental ports to the British.

*This unhappy turn of events baffled Jefferson, since he had always believed that other civilized would respect a neutral country’s desire to remain neutral. In response, Jefferson enacted an embargo on France and England, and refused to trade with either country. This was a form of diplomacy known as peaceful coercion. As a result of general protest, the embargo also brought with it a number of laws that grew harsher and harsher over the course of fourteen months. The North, which was much more involved with trade and import/export, was less in favor of the embargo than the South was, which was also supported Jefferson. This caused a brief revival of the Federalist Party in New England.

this opportunity, but this never went through the Foreign Minister, who disagreed. In May 1810, Congress passed Macon’s Bill #2, which reestablished trade with both England and France. Additionally, it said that as soon as one country recognized the right to neutrality, America would cease trading with the other. Napoleon told the U.S. minister in Paris that he would repeal the hated Berlin/Milan Decrees, causing Madison to proclaim that unless Britain did the same, all trade would be ceased with England. Napoleon did not, however, keep up his side of the bargain.

Tippecanoe: General William Henry Harrison defeated the Shawnee Tribe, making him a war hero. This caused Tecumseh to enlist the help of the British.

All the while, several notable American politicians — including Clay and Calhoun — spoke of nationalism and advocated for war on the basis of nationalism. They repudiated Jefferson’s attempts at peaceful coercion and his efforts to resist war. In the end, Madison caved to the demands of the War Hawks and wrote up a declaration of war. Thus began the War of 1812. His major desire was for British to respect American maritime rights in the Caribbean. Despite this declaration, however, Congress refused to mobilize resources or be in any way prepared for war.

Important battles in the War of 1812:

 Tippecanoe (see above)

 Plattsburgh: The Americans successfully warded off a British flotilla near the Canadian border. This would later speed up the peace process, since after news of this battle reached London, the British decided that protecting the Canadian border were futile.

 Baltimore: The Americans were able to successfully ward off a British attack, causing the British to give up the operation.

 New Orleans: Although this battle took place after the war had technically ended, this battle boosted our morale and made Jackson’s career.

Treaty of Ghent: After Napoleon had been overthrown for the first time, peace talks were started. No land changes hands, and there is no clear winner or loser.

Historiography (War of 1812):

 This war was about the British not respecting our rights (similar to the Neo-Conservative view of the purpose of the War of Independence).

 This was about nationalism and our desire to conquer Canada (built off the War Hawks/Southern Republicans)

 There was a general desire to do something.

Hartford Convention an ultimatum issued by the Federalist Party. This caused the final demise of the Federalist Party:

 Eliminate the 3/5 rule

 The president can only serve for one term  2/3 House vote on:

 War

 Annexation of new states

 Institution of commercial regulations

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After the demise of the Federalist Party, Madison ran again unchallenged, since there was only one political party. This ushered in the Era of Good Feelings:

 Everyone agreed on tariffs.

 Everyone agreed on the establishment of a national bank.

 Industrialization was favored. However, when the South failed to industrialize, they changed their stances on some things later on.

The War of 1812 highlighted our national inadequacies, namely:

 Our lack of industrialism

 Our lack of infrastructure and poor transportation  Our very small army and navy

Fearing invasion, France sold is Florida in 1819, which led to the signing of the *Adams-Onis Treaty, which defined our national borders. Additionally, the *Rush-Begot Treaty was signed, which defined our borders with Canada and called for the disarmament thereof.

Monroe Doctrine: We issued the Monroe Doctrine, which basically screwed everyone out of taking a stake in the New World except for us.

Following the War of 1812, the Americans began expanding further westward, due to:

 The elimination of the Native American threat

 The Democratic-Republican-controlled government worked to make land more accessible and cheaper.

Most people moved to the river bottom land, near the river banks, where the land was richer.

National infrastructure improvements:

 National Road: A road built that connected the Ohio and Potomac Rivers. Although this provided some extra ease of transportation, the road was slow and a toll road. This was mainly used by families and livestock being driven to market, since it was economically impractical for larger commercial companies to use the roads.

 Lancaster Pike: Another toll-road, this connected Philadelphia to Pittsburgh. Additionally, there were also numerous other privately-funded roads that were charted by the states

 Erie Canal: The largest canal of its era, this connected Lake Erie (Buffalo) with the Hudson River (Albany). Transportation by water was both faster and cheaper than by land. Over the course of the 1820s, various canals were constructed, and died down only when it became apparent that this mode of transportation ceased being profitable.

 Fulton Ferry/Steamboat: The invention of the steamboat allowed for travel against the natural flow of the river. This was not only the principal form of passenger transportation in the East, but also revolutionized western commerce and catalyzed the development of cities like New Orleans and St. Louis.

grow and develop, making cities in the Northeast, such as Philadelphia, Boston, and New York, to become hubs for commerce and transportation — it is no surprise, then, that institutions such as the stock exchange were based in these cities. New York became especially prominent for trade because of its proximity to the Erie Canal and its large natural harbor. Additionally, slavery, which, in the South, was more prominent than ever before, made agriculture boom in ways it had never before.

Rise of Corporations:

 Corporations made it harder to lose money that you invest — previously, if you invested your money and then made a bad gamble, you could lose everything. In investing in a corporation, you can only lose the money that you invest in it.

 Corporation Law: a law that made it much easier to create a corporation.

 Tappan’s Mercantile Agency: With the rise of corporations came the rise of statistics and analytics companies, such as Tappan’s Mercantile Agency (which was the first such company).

Rise of industry in America: Due to the rise of the market system in America, people began relying on factories to create finished products. The first such factories produced textiles in New England:

 Machinery made it easier to streamline sizes and create clothing/textiles

 Machines also created mainstream sizes

 Division of labor: Instead of one person making an entire finished product, people in factories performed one specific task. This also required less training.

 Paid laborers: Factory system created paid jobs for Americans; slavery was often suboptimal since different factories had different peak seasons (depending on the raw materials that they used), so owners of factories would have to pay for slaves for the rest of the year.

Factory systems often employed single, young women who were looking for money. In the early days of the factory system, these women were treated very well — they were offered education, entertainment, and room and board, as well as a salary. Despite this, however, America had still not experienced an industrial revolution.

Throughout this, of course, was the underlying theme of nationalism, which spurred expansion and gave Americans the belief that we had a specific purpose in America. It was during this period that Henry Clay proposed the *American System: this was a very high protective tariff that was designed to spur “infant businesses” (read: small businesses) and industrialization within the United States.

Monroe: One of Monroe’s top responsibilities was to encourage the Era of Good Feelings. He worked harder for national harmony than he did for economic prosperity

Missouri Compromise: In 1820, Missouri, which had a large slave population, applied for statehood. This spurred a number of different proposals as to how to deal with Missouri:

 Congressman Tallmadge proposed that slave-owners in Missouri can keep their slaves, but no new slaves can be brought into Missouri. Although this made it past the House, it was defeated in the Senate.

 Henry Clay proposed that Maine be annexed as a separate state (it was previously part of Massachusetts) and that Missouri be annexed as a slave state, but all states below its border — the 36˚30’ line be annexed as slave states, and states above that line be annexed as free states. This became known as the Missouri Compromise.

political, economic, or social equality. He believed that the role of the Supreme Court was to interpret the Constitution and enforce in a way that encouraged economic development.

 Dartmouth vs. Woodward: Marshall ruled that, since Dartmouth University had a federal charter, it could not be turned into a public university.

 Maryland vs. McCullon: Ruled that states were subordinate to the federal government. They cannot tax taxes imposed by the federal government.

 Gibbons vs. Odgen: This case defined the federal government’s ability (and responsibility) to regulate inter-state commerce. This would encourage economic development through competition.

Adams: John Quincy Adams suceded Monroe, but only after a hotly-contested election. Adams advocated for scientific research and higher education, but this was not supported by the rest of the country, since it was inaccessible to them and they derived no direct benefit from it. Adams brought an end to the Era of Good Feelings.

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During the Age of Jackson, there are a number of different initiatives that take place during this time:

 Property/voting qualifications were lowered, making the voting base much larger  Judges are elected, as opposed to appointed.

 The caucus system was eliminated and replaced with the primary election system, which made elections available to more people.

 All white men — regardless of social class or background — enjoyed the same rights.

 The idea of popular sovereignty became more prominent during the Age of Jackson. Social classes were leveled, and by 1830, all inherited titles were effectively abolished. People believed that equality was governing America.

 Literacy improved, and America saw the birth of popular literature and authors:

 Edgar Allen Poe: The inventor of gothic horror

 Washington Irving: He harbored many of his tales in Dutch New York.

 Walt Whitman: Whitman celebrated the common man. He destroyed poetic standards of the time

 Emerson: A transcendentalist, he was very interested in nature and believed that all knowledge comes to us through the senses.

 Hawthorne: He was very pessimistic; the present is the result of a past that we can never escape.

 Public school was offered, but was not compulsory.

Tariff of abominations: So many items were added to the tariff that the price of living skyrocketed, and Adams was blamed — people even initially thought that Jackson instigated this to get elected. Additionally, exporters got into a tariff war with other countries: if you put a tariff on imports from another country, that other country can put a tariff on goods imported from your country.

 Worcester vs. Georgia: Jackson condoned Georgia’s defiance of a Supreme Court order that told them that they had no right to control Native American lands.

Mayville Pike: A road through Kentucky that Jackson refused to support because:

 It would support Clay, who lived in Kentucky

 He favored a smaller government, and felt that this was out of the government’s control

John C. Calhoun: Calhoun emerged as the champion of states’ rights. He, supported by South Carolina, put forth a proposition to nullify the Tariff of Abominations. This angered Jackson, which caused him to advocate for the Force Act that mandated that states must submit to federal laws.

Gag Rule: Prohibited speaking of abolition in Congress and the mailing of abolitionist propaganda via federal mailing systems.

Biddle’s Bank: Jackson was against the national bank, which he viewed as funding for his political enemies. When the bank has to reapply for a new charter, Jackson vetoes the proposition because of its supposed unconstitutionality. The original charter, however, lasted for four more years. In the meantime, Jackson began withdrawing federal investments from the bank and invested the money, instead, in state banks.

Species Circular: The requirement to pay off a mortgage to the government in gold or silver.

Jackson’s Supreme Court was very different from previous courts, because it placed public interest ahead of everything else. This helped epitomize the Jacksonian Revolution:

 The president’s ability to say “NO” to something because he/she did not like it.  The government had the ability to keep the union together through military force.

Whig Party: Jackson’s antics gave rise to a new political party, which drew support from National Republicans (like Clay) and former-Federalists from the North. This party had many different views and general forms of constituents, and each region picked its own candidate. This led to van Buren’s victory and succession of Jackson.

Tocqueville: A Frenchman who studied the American political party system. He praised the government for not sacrificing personal freedoms (as he believed France had done). He also saw that American whites were very prejudiced against people of color

Panic of 1837: Due to the Species Circular and the bumper crop of cotton, which cause a depreciation in the cost of cotton, banks were collapsing and people out West were losing their land. Van Buren did very little to help the Panic, and allows this economic depression to carry on for years. The only thing that van Buren did do was place federal money in sub-treasuries, which helped distribute and invest federal dollars in smaller banks.

Historiography:

 19th Century: Jackson’s election was a huge mistake

 Progressive: Jackson was symptomatic of a greater value—the notion that the common man is valued over prosperity.

 Entrepreneurial: Jackson was speaking for entrepreneurs and capitalists. He was truly the champion of the common man.

1840 Election: van Buren loses to Harrison, who dies of pneumonia, and then is replaced by his vice president, James Polk.

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The 19th Century was also a period of tremendous social reform in America:

 The Second Great Awakening: a new religious revival; people began to believe that sin is voluntary (you are not pre-destined to sin).

 Southern/Western: Traveling priests would visit towns for days at a time. They preached that the Church was not hierarchical and encouraged the separation of Church and State. Camp Meetings, which were often used as social time, were discouraged in favor of protracted meetings in Church. Southern Evangelical churches (such as Baptists and Methodists) saw a surge in membership.

 Northern: In the North, evangelists fell under influence of earlier Puritan and Congregationalist teachings; as a result, societies that were dedicated to the salvation of man in general (and America in particular) were popular. Additionally, Calvinist traditions and views were favored over newer, more modern views. The Northern Great Awakening was also influenced by the Unitarian Church, which worked to justify science and religion.

o Nethaniel Taylor: A Congregationalist minister who basically worked the concept of pre-destination out of the Puritan belief system.

 Rejectionists: The hipsters of the Great Awakening:

o Ararat Experiment: A group of Jews tried to build a temple on an island off the Great Lakes

o Mormons: Founded by Joseph Smith. Because of their socialist and polygamist views, they were kicked out West, where Smith (their Messiah) was lynched.

o Shakers: Founded by a woman, she believed that sin entered the world through sex. Shakers were often skilled craftsmen, and they survived by virtue of the fact that they ran orphanages.

o Miller Rights: They are today’s Seventh Day Adventists; they held the Sabbath on Saturday. They predicted the rapture.

o Magdalene Society: Saved women from prostitution

o Brooke Farm: A transcendentalist experiment.  Changes in marriage roles and family:

 Abstinence from alcohol was encouraged

o Teatoler: the vow to only drink after marriage

o Blue Laws: Prohibited the sale of alcohol

 This is the first time that terms of endearment were used.

 Women were given power as heads of the household

 Doctrine of two spheres: women tended to the children and provided refuge in the house for their husbands

 This was the first time that children were perceived as special and requiring special care and attention. The purpose of the family was to raise and care for children. The custom of naming a child after a dead older sibling died out.

 Education reforms:

 Pestalozzi advocated for practical education in school.

 Merriam-Webster: the first American dictionary.

 Oberlin was the first co-ed university

 Holyoke was the first women’s college

 Eugenics vs. Euthenics:

o Eugenics: Your genetics defines you; you cannot change

o Euthenics: Your personality and education define you; you can change  New Penitentiary systems:

 Solitary confinement

 Auburn system: You were taught a new skill in prison, which would help you integrate back into society after prison.

 This period saw the creation of asylums for the insane or mentally incapacitated  Rise of the women’s rights and abolitionist movements:

 Nat Turner’s Rebellion: Turner led a failed slave rebellion, and this was by far the most violent of all of the rebellions.

 William Garrison: Published the Liberator, which was well-known for its abolitionist attitude and pacifist approach.

 Tappan Brothers: They received threats because their enterprises often funded anti-slavery activities.

 Elijah Lovejoy: an anti-slavery editor of a publication who was shot and killed.

 Theodore Weld: Advocated for gradual abolition of slavery through working the political system.

 Fredrick Douglas: Advocated for complete freedom and equality for African-Americans.

 Grimke Sisters: They started as abolitions, but then feminism. They are interesting because they are from the South, their women, and they go from abolitionists to feminists.

 Seneca Falls: Founding statement of American feminism.

o Declaration of Sentiments: highlighted the inherent hypocrisy of denying women rights. Worded similar to the Declaration of Independence, they listed all of their grievances to men (as opposed to George III).

 Socialist experiments:

 New Harmony: communal ownership of a factory

 Utopian socialism: a Marxist form of socialism, this is the ideal form of socialism.

 Fourier: A French philosopher that believed that there were 600 distinct types of personalities, and then matched up couples based on these personalities. It is Fourier that coined the term “feminism.”

 Father Noyes: Began an industrial commune. He believed in eugenics and only selected couples that he deemed suitable. Although you could only get married to your assigned spouse, you could have sex with whomever you wanted. Women had short haircuts and wore pants, and men worked in the kitchens.

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 Certain types of agriculture were exhausted on the existing land

 After the Panic of 1837, people began moving to where land was cheaper.  The further out you got, the cheaper land was.

Webster-Ashburn Treaty: Proposed by Daniel Webster, a Whig from the North, this treaty defined Maine’s border with Canada.

Mojave Mountains: The Wisconsin border, this has one of the greatest iron reserves in North America.

Texas Revolution: After Mexico gained independence, the Mexican government invited people over into Texas with the intention of making them Catholic and Mexican, although those who came to Texas had no intention of doing this. The Texans, who really wanted to be part of the United States, disobeyed all kinds of Texan regulations, causing a war to break out between Texas and Santa Anna, the Mexican dictator. In 1836, Texas declared independence. Within days of the declaration, the famous battle at the Alamo was fought, where only approximately 180 Texans fought off a much larger Mexican army.

Polk:

 Annex Texas!

 Annex California, New Mexico, and Oregon  Anti-internal improvements.

 Decentralization of government.

Within one term, he accomplishes almost everything that he promises. We get all of Oregon until the 44th Parallel. He then moves onto take over California and New Mexico, but the Mexicans would not hear of it, sparking another war — this time with America. Many of the battles are fought by Whig generals. After the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, we buy California and New Mexico for $15,000,000 and set the Texas border at the Rio Grande. We did not take a lot of Mexico because:

 They’re Catholic  They’re not American

 They’re not native English speakers

The Railroads: Railroads — especially in the North — were mainly built by cities that did not have good canals that could carry goods to/from the Interior. By 1860, all states East of Mississippi River were connected by railways. The railroads were the catalysts that jumpstarted the American Industrial Revolution, which brought with it mass waves of immigration, mainly from Ireland and Germany. These were, by and large, unskilled laborers, and found themselves working in jobs that displaced the old middle class in the cities.

Historiography:

 Merck: We didn’t take Mexico because we were racist nationalists.

 Gaebner: The North was willing to go along with the purchase of California, but did not want the rest because they feared it would be a slave state.

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