Technical Report Writing
Technical Report Writing
Chemical Engineering Department
Chemical Engineering Department
Table of contents
Table of contents
1.
1. Introduction ... 1
Introduction ... 1
1.1.
1.1. Types
Types of
of Technical
Technical Reports ...
Reports ...
...
...
...
...
... 2
2
1.1.1.
1.1.1. Technical-background
Technical-background report ...
report ...
...
...
...
... 2
. 2
1.1.2. Instructions ... 2
1.1.2. Instructions ... 2
1.1.3. Fe
1.1.3. Feasibility, recommendation,
asibility, recommendation, and
and evaluation
evaluation reports ..
reports ...
...
... 2
2
1.1.4. Primary research report ... 2
1.1.4. Primary research report ... 2
1.1.5.
1.1.5. Technical
Technical specifications ...
specifications ...
...
...
...
...
... 3
.... 3
1.1.6.
1.1.6. Report-length
Report-length proposal ...
proposal ...
...
...
...
...
... 3
... 3
1.1.7. Business proposed ... 3
1.1.7. Business proposed ... 3
1.2.
1.2. Audience
Audience and
and Situation in
Situation in Technical
Technical Reports
Reports ...
...
...
...
... 3
3
1.3.
1.3. Topics
Topics for
for Technical
Technical Reports .
Reports ...
...
...
...
...
...
... 4
... 4
1.3.1. Editorializing ... 4
1.3.1. Editorializing ... 4
1.3.2. Fuzzy topics... 4
1.3.2. Fuzzy topics... 4
1.3.3.
1.3.3. Tough
Tough technical
technical topics
topics ...
...
...
...
...
...
... 4
... 4
1.4.
1.4. General
General Characteristics of
Characteristics of Technical
Technical Reports
Reports ...
...
...
...
... 4
4
1.4.1. Graphics ... 4
1.4.1. Graphics ... 4
1.4.2. Accurate detail... 4
1.4.2. Accurate detail... 4
1.4.3. Information sources ... 4
1.4.3. Information sources ... 4
1.4.4. Documentation ... 5
1.4.4. Documentation ... 5
1.4.5.
1.4.5. Realistic
Realistic audience
audience and
and situation
situation ...
...
...
...
...
... 5
... 5
1.4.6. Headings and lists ... 5
1.4.6. Headings and lists ... 5
1.4.7. Special format ... 5
1.4.7. Special format ... 5
1.4.8. Production ... 5
1.4.8. Production ... 5
1.4.9. Len
1.4.9. Length
gth ...
...
...
...
...
...
... 5
5
1.4.10.
1.4.10. Technical
Technical content
content ...
...
...
...
...
...
...
... 5
.... 5
2.
2. Visual Elements ... 6
Visual Elements ... 6
2.1.
2.1. Making
Making a
a visual
visual aid
aid truly
truly visual
visual ...
...
...
...
...
...
... 6
. 6
2.2.
2.2. Deciding
Deciding when
when to
to use
use a
a visual
visual aid
aid ...
...
...
...
...
...
... 7
7
2.3. Selecting
2.3. Selecting the best
the best type of
type of visual aid
visual aid in a
in a given situation
given situation ...
...
... 7
7
2.3.1.
2.3.1. Conventions
Conventions of
of Visual
Visual Perception
Perception ...
...
...
...
...
... 8
8
2.3.2.
Table of contents
Table of contents
1.
1. Introduction ... 1
Introduction ... 1
1.1.
1.1. Types
Types of
of Technical
Technical Reports ...
Reports ...
...
...
...
...
... 2
2
1.1.1.
1.1.1. Technical-background
Technical-background report ...
report ...
...
...
...
... 2
. 2
1.1.2. Instructions ... 2
1.1.2. Instructions ... 2
1.1.3. Fe
1.1.3. Feasibility, recommendation,
asibility, recommendation, and
and evaluation
evaluation reports ..
reports ...
...
... 2
2
1.1.4. Primary research report ... 2
1.1.4. Primary research report ... 2
1.1.5.
1.1.5. Technical
Technical specifications ...
specifications ...
...
...
...
...
... 3
.... 3
1.1.6.
1.1.6. Report-length
Report-length proposal ...
proposal ...
...
...
...
...
... 3
... 3
1.1.7. Business proposed ... 3
1.1.7. Business proposed ... 3
1.2.
1.2. Audience
Audience and
and Situation in
Situation in Technical
Technical Reports
Reports ...
...
...
...
... 3
3
1.3.
1.3. Topics
Topics for
for Technical
Technical Reports .
Reports ...
...
...
...
...
...
... 4
... 4
1.3.1. Editorializing ... 4
1.3.1. Editorializing ... 4
1.3.2. Fuzzy topics... 4
1.3.2. Fuzzy topics... 4
1.3.3.
1.3.3. Tough
Tough technical
technical topics
topics ...
...
...
...
...
...
... 4
... 4
1.4.
1.4. General
General Characteristics of
Characteristics of Technical
Technical Reports
Reports ...
...
...
...
... 4
4
1.4.1. Graphics ... 4
1.4.1. Graphics ... 4
1.4.2. Accurate detail... 4
1.4.2. Accurate detail... 4
1.4.3. Information sources ... 4
1.4.3. Information sources ... 4
1.4.4. Documentation ... 5
1.4.4. Documentation ... 5
1.4.5.
1.4.5. Realistic
Realistic audience
audience and
and situation
situation ...
...
...
...
...
... 5
... 5
1.4.6. Headings and lists ... 5
1.4.6. Headings and lists ... 5
1.4.7. Special format ... 5
1.4.7. Special format ... 5
1.4.8. Production ... 5
1.4.8. Production ... 5
1.4.9. Len
1.4.9. Length
gth ...
...
...
...
...
...
... 5
5
1.4.10.
1.4.10. Technical
Technical content
content ...
...
...
...
...
...
...
... 5
.... 5
2.
2. Visual Elements ... 6
Visual Elements ... 6
2.1.
2.1. Making
Making a
a visual
visual aid
aid truly
truly visual
visual ...
...
...
...
...
...
... 6
. 6
2.2.
2.2. Deciding
Deciding when
when to
to use
use a
a visual
visual aid
aid ...
...
...
...
...
...
... 7
7
2.3. Selecting
2.3. Selecting the best
the best type of
type of visual aid
visual aid in a
in a given situation
given situation ...
...
... 7
7
2.3.1.
2.4.2.
2.4.2. Making
Making a
a visual
visual aid
aid clear ...
clear ...
...
...
...
...
... 16
16
2.5.
2.5. Integrating the
Integrating the Visual
Visual Aid
Aid into
into the
the Test
Test ...
...
...
...
...
... 18
18
2.5.1. Positioning ... 18
2.5.1. Positioning ... 18
2.5.2. Printing ... 19
2.5.2. Printing ... 19
2.6.
2.6. Formatting Contentions
Formatting Contentions that
that Make
Make Reading
Reading Easier
Easier ...
...
...
... 19
19
3.
3. The technical Report ... 22
The technical Report ... 22
3.1. Types of Reports ... 22
3.1. Types of Reports ... 22
3.2. Organization of reports ... 24
3.2. Organization of reports ... 24
3.2.1.
3.2.1. Organization
Organization of
of a
a design
design report
report ...
...
...
...
...
... 24
.. 24
3.3. Preparing the report ... 27
3.3. Preparing the report ... 27
3.4. Presenting the results ... 27
3.4. Presenting the results ... 27
3.4.1.
3.4.1. Subheadings
Subheadings and
and Paragraphs
Paragraphs ...
...
...
...
...
... 28
... 28
3.4.2. Tables ... 28
3.4.2. Tables ... 28
3.4.3. Graphs ... 28
3.4.3. Graphs ... 28
3.4.4. Illustrations ... 29
3.4.4. Illustrations ... 29
3.4.5.
3.4.5. References
References to
to Literature ...
Literature ...
...
...
...
...
... 29
. 29
3.4.6. Sample Calculations ... 30
3.4.6. Sample Calculations ... 30
3.4.7. Mechanical Details ... 31
3.4.7. Mechanical Details ... 31
4.
4. Oral Presentations ... 32
Oral Presentations ... 32
4.1.
4.1. Topic
Topic and
and Situation
Situation for
for the
the Oral
Oral Presentation
Presentation ...
...
...
...
... 32
32
4.2.
4.2. Contents and
Contents and Requirements for
Requirements for the
the Oral
Oral Presentation
Presentation ...
...
...
.. 33
33
4.3. Preparing for the Oral Report ... 34
4.3. Preparing for the Oral Report ... 34
4.4.
4.4. Delivering
Delivering an
an Oral
Oral Presentation
Presentation ...
...
...
...
...
...
... 34
34
4.5.
4.5. Planning and
Planning and Preparing Visuals
Preparing Visuals for Oral
for Oral Presentations
Presentations ...
...
...
. 35
35
4.5.1. Tips
4.5.1. Tips for the
for the preparation off
preparation off the
the visuals
visuals ...
...
...
...
... 36
36
5.
5. Making
Making Your
Your Writing
Writing Readable
Readable ...
...
...
...
...
...
... 37
.... 37
5.1. Introduction ... 37
5.1. Introduction ... 37
5.2. Information selection ... 37
5.2. Information selection ... 37
5.2.1.
5.2.1. Establish
Establish your
your Topic
Topic and
and Purpose
Purpose ...
...
...
...
...
... 37
37
5.2.2.
5.2.2. Use
Use Keywords
Keywords Prominently ...
Prominently ...
...
...
...
... 38
38
5.2.3. Explain Important Concepts when Writing for Nonspecialist
5.2.3. Explain Important Concepts when Writing for Nonspecialist
Readers ... 38
5.2.6.
5.2.6. Construct
Construct Well
Well Designed
Designed Paragraphs ...
Paragraphs ...
...
...
.... 40
40
5.2.7. Field-Test Your Writing ... 41
5.2.7. Field-Test Your Writing ... 41
5.3. Information ordering ... 41
5.3. Information ordering ... 41
5.3.1.
5.3.1. Optimal
Optimal Ordering
Ordering of
of Noun
Noun Phrases
Phrases ...
...
...
...
...
... 42
42
5.4. Editing For Emphasis ... 45
5.4. Editing For Emphasis ... 45
5.4.1.
5.4.1. Combine
Combine Closely
Closely Related
Related Sentences
Sentences ...
...
...
...
... 46
.... 46
5.4.2. Be Concise ... 49
5.4.2. Be Concise ... 49
6.
6. Project Proposal ... 52
Project Proposal ... 52
6.1. The
6.1. The contents of project
contents of project proposal can
proposal can be structured
be structured as follows:
as follows: ...
... 52
52
6.2. NATURE OF THE REPORTS: ... 52
6.2. NATURE OF THE REPORTS: ... 52
6.3.
6.3. Technical-industria
Technical-industrial
l project
project proposals: .
proposals: ...
...
...
...
... 53
... 53
7.
7. Checklist
Checklist for
for the
the Technical
Technical Report ...
Report ...
...
...
...
... 54
.. 54
1.
1. INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
The major focus of many technical writing courses is the technical report. Just about The major focus of many technical writing courses is the technical report. Just about everything you study, everything you write is geared toward preparing you to write this final report. everything you study, everything you write is geared toward preparing you to write this final report. The early, short assignment involving instructions or descriptions and the like give you practice The early, short assignment involving instructions or descriptions and the like give you practice using headings, lists, notices, and graphics; in handling numbers and abbreviations; and of course in using headings, lists, notices, and graphics; in handling numbers and abbreviations; and of course in producing good, clear, well-organized writing.
producing good, clear, well-organized writing.
For many students, the technical report is the longest document they've ever written. It For many students, the technical report is the longest document they've ever written. It normally involves some research; often the information comes not only from published sources in normally involves some research; often the information comes not only from published sources in the library, but also sources outside the library, including nonpublished things such as interviews, the library, but also sources outside the library, including nonpublished things such as interviews, correspondence, and video tapes. It may also be the fanciest document: it uses binding and covers correspondence, and video tapes. It may also be the fanciest document: it uses binding and covers and has special elements such as a table contents, title page, and graphics.
and has special elements such as a table contents, title page, and graphics.
As you think about what you want to write about for this project, don't shy away from topics As you think about what you want to write about for this project, don't shy away from topics you are curious about or interested in, but don't know much about. You don't need to do exhaustive you are curious about or interested in, but don't know much about. You don't need to do exhaustive research; normally, you can pull together information for an excellent report from several books and research; normally, you can pull together information for an excellent report from several books and a half-dozen articles. Your real focus is the writing: how well adapted to a specific audience it is, a half-dozen articles. Your real focus is the writing: how well adapted to a specific audience it is, how clear and readable it is, how it flows, how it's organized, how much detail it provides. You are how clear and readable it is, how it flows, how it's organized, how much detail it provides. You are also focused on format: how well you use headings, lists, notices; how well you incorporate also focused on format: how well you use headings, lists, notices; how well you incorporate graphics; how well you handle the front- and back-matter elements; and how nice a job you do of graphics; how well you handle the front- and back-matter elements; and how nice a job you do of turning out the final copy of the report.
turning out the final copy of the report.
You don't need to be a trained graphic designer to produce a fine-looking report. Basic You don't need to be a trained graphic designer to produce a fine-looking report. Basic word-processing skills and a decent printer and access to nice (but inexpensive) binding are all you word-processing skills and a decent printer and access to nice (but inexpensive) binding are all you need. Plan on doing a first-rate job on the report; remember that past students have shown need. Plan on doing a first-rate job on the report; remember that past students have shown prospective employers their reports and have benefited by doing so.
prospective employers their reports and have benefited by doing so.
If you are planning a technical report, your job in this unit then is define the following: If you are planning a technical report, your job in this unit then is define the following:
Report topic Report topic::Decide what subject you are going to write on; narrow it as much as possible.Decide what subject you are going to write on; narrow it as much as possible.
Report audience Report audience:: Define a specific person or group of people for whom you are going toDefine a specific person or group of people for whom you are going to
write the report. Define the circumstances in which this report is needed. write the report. Define the circumstances in which this report is needed.
Report purpose Report purpose:: Define what the report will accomplishDefine what the report will accomplish — — what needs of the audience it iswhat needs of the audience it is
going to fufill. going to fufill.
Report type Report type:: Decide on the type of reportDecide on the type of report — — for example, technical background report,for example, technical background report,
feasibility report, instructions, or some other. feasibility report, instructions, or some other.
You can do these in any order: for some people, it helps to start by defining an audience or a report You can do these in any order: for some people, it helps to start by defining an audience or a report type first. For others, beginning by picking a topic is more stimulating.
type first. For others, beginning by picking a topic is more stimulating.
Once you have defined these elements, you can start testing your report-project ideas by asking Once you have defined these elements, you can start testing your report-project ideas by asking yourself these questions:
yourself these questions:
Is there hard, specific, factual data for this topic?Is there hard, specific, factual data for this topic?
Will there be at least one or two graphics?Will there be at least one or two graphics?
1.1. Types of Technical Reports
In this course you can choose to write one of the following types of reports
1.1.1. Technical-background report
The background report is the hardest to define but the most commonly written. This type of technical report provides background on a topic — for example, solar energy, global warming, CD-ROM technology, a medical problem, or U.S. recycling activity. However, the information on the topic is not just for anybody who might be interested in the topic, but for some individual or group that has specific needs for it and is even willing to pay for that information. For example, imagine an engineering firm bidding on a portion of the work to build a hemodialysis clinic. The engineers need to know general knowledge about renal disease and the technologies used to treat it, but they don't want to have to go digging in the library to find it. What they need is a technical background report on the subject.
1.1.2. Instructions
These are probably the most familiar of all the types of reports. Students often write backup procedures for the jobs they do at their work. Others write short user manuals for an appliance, equipment, or program. If there is too much to write about, they write about some smaller segment — for example, instead of instructions on using all of MS-Word, just a guide on writing macros in MS-Word.
1.1.3. Feasibility, recommendation, and evaluation reports
Another useful type of report is one that studies a problem or opportunity and then makes a recommendation. A feasibility report tells whether a project is "feasible" — that is, whether it is practical and technologically possible. Arecommendation report compares two or more alternatives and recommends one (or, if necessary, none). Anevaluationor assessment report studies something in terms of its worth or value For example, a college might investigate the feasibility of giving every student an e-mail address and putting many of the college functions online. The same college might also seek recommendations on the best hardware and software to use (after the feasibility report had determined it was a good idea). In practice, however, it's hard to keep these two kinds of reports distinct. Elements of the feasibility and recommendation report intermingle in specific reports — but the main thing is to get the job done!
1.1.4. Primary research report
Primary research refers to the actual work someone does in a laboratory or in the field — in other words, experiments and surveys. You may have written a "lab report," as they are commonly called, for one of your previous courses. This is a perfectly good possibility for the technical report as well. In this type of report, you not only present your data and draw conclusions about it, but also explain your methodology, describe the equipment and facilities you used, and give some background on the problem. You can modify this type by summarizing other primary research reports. For example, you could report on the research that has been done on saccharine.
1.1.5. Technical specifications
In this report type, you discuss some new product design in terms of its construction, materials, functions, features, operation, and market potential. True specifications are not much on writing -the text is dense, fragmented; tables, lists, and graphics replace regular sentences and paragraphs whenever possible. Thus, specifications are not a good exercise of your writing abilities. However, you can write a more high-level version - one that might be read by marketing and planning
executives.
1.1.6. Report-length proposal
As you may be aware, proposals can be monster documents of hundreds or even thousands of pages. (Please, not this semester.) Most of the elements are the same, just bigger. Plus elements from other kinds of reports get imported — such as feasibility discussion, review of literature, and qualifications; these become much more elaborate. The problem with writing a proposal in our technical-writing class is coordinating it with the proposal you write at the beginning of the
semester (a proposal to write a proposal, come on!). Several students have set up scenarios in which they proposed internally to write an external proposal, in which they went after some contract or grant.
1.1.7. Business proposed
If you are ambitious to run your own business, you can write a business plan, which is a plan or proposal to start a new business or to expand an existing one. It is aimed primarily at potential investors. Therefore, it describes the proposed business, explores the marketplace and the
competition, projects revenues, and describes the operation and output of the proposed business. Don't feel constrained by this list; if there is a type of technical document you want to write not listed here, talk to your instructor. It may be that we are using different names for the same thing.
1.2. Audience and Situation in Technical Reports
A critical step in your early report planning is to define a specific audience and situation in which to write the report. For example, if you wanted to write about CD audio players, the audience cannot be this vague sort of "anybody who is considering purchasing a CD player." You have to define the audience in terms of itsknowledge,background , andneed for the information.
Why does the audience need this information? How will readers get access to this information?
You also have to define the audience in terms of who they are specifically: that means things like names,organizationorcompany,street address and phone numbers, and occupation orposition. Just as critical to the planning process is defining the situation. When you define audience, you define who the readers are, what they know or don't know in relation to the topic, what experience or background they have in relation to the topic, and why they want or might need the information. Sometimes this leaves out a critical element: just what are the circumstances that bring about the need for the information.
1.3. Topics for Technical Reports
Just about any topic can be worked into a good technical-report project. Some are a little more difficult than others; that's where your instructor can help. And, that is why some technical writing course includes a proposal assignment: it gives your instructor a chance to see what you want to do and to guide you away from problems such as the following:
1.3.1. Editorializing
For the report project, avoid editorial topics. For example, don't attempt to write a technical report on the pro's and con's of gun control, abortion, marijuana, and the like. You can, however, develop these topics: for example, describe the chemical, physiological aspects of marijuana or the medical techniques for abortion or the developmental stages of the fetus. These get into substantial technical areas. But avoid editorializing — there are other courses where you can do this.
1.3.2. Fuzzy topics
Some topics just don't work, for some reason. For example, dream analysis can be very fuzzy and nebulous. So can UFOs. You want your report to have hard factual data in it. The preceding topics are difficult to pin down this way. However, good reports have been written on the apparatus used in dream research laboratories. Maybe somebody can even figure out a good way to handle UFOs.
1.3.3. Tough technical topics
As mentioned earlier, don't shy away from interesting topics that you don't feel you know enough about. No one expects a doctoral thesis. Use the report project as a chance to learn something new. Of course, it's common sense that we often write better about things we know about. If this is a concern for you, look around you in your work, hobbies, or academic studies. At the same time, however, don't be concerned that your has to be about computers, electronics, or some other "technical" topic. Remember that the wordtechnicalrefers to anybody of specialized knowledge.
1.4. General Characteristics of Technical Reports
You're probably wondering what this technical report is supposed to look like. Ask your instructor to show you a few example reports. In addition to that, here is a brief review of some of the chief characteristics of the technical report:
1.4.1. Graphics
The report should have graphics. Graphics include all kinds of possibilities, as a later chapter in this book will show. If you can't think of any graphics for your report project, you may not have a good topic. Get in touch with your instructor, who can help you brainstorm for graphics.
1.4.2. Accurate detail
The report should be very detailed and accurate. The point of the report is to go into details, the kind of details your specific audience needs.
1.4.3. Information sources
Your report should make use of information sources. These may include not only books and articles that can be found in libraries but also technical brochures, interviews or correspondence with
1.4.4. Documentation
When you use borrowed information in your technical report, be sure to cite your sources. The style of citing your sources (also called "documenting" your sources). One style commonly used in science and engineering is called thenumber system.
1.4.5. Realistic audience and situation
The report must be defined for a real or realistic group of readers who exist in a real or realistic situation. Most students invent an audience and situation. And the audience can't merely be something like "anybody who might be interested in global warming." Instead, it has to be real, realistic, and specific: for example, "Texas Coastal Real Estate Developers Association, interested in reliable information on global warming, to be used to aid in long-range investment planning."
1.4.6. Headings and lists
The report should use the format for headings that is required for the course, as well as various kinds of lists as appropriate.
1.4.7. Special format
The technical report uses a rather involved format including covers, binding, title page, table of contents, list of figures, transmittal letter, and appendixes. These have to be prepared according to a set standard, which will be presented in a later chapter.
1.4.8. Production
The technical report should be typed or printed out neatly. If graphics are taped in, the whole report must be photocopied, and the photocopy handed in (not the original with the taped-in graphics). The report must be bound in some way.
1.4.9. Length
The report should be at least 8 1.5 spaced typed or printed pages (using 3/4 -inch margins), counting from introduction to conclusion. This is a minimum; a report of this length is rather skimpy. There is no real maximum length, other than what your time, energy, and stamina can handle. But remember that sheer weight does not equal quality (or better grade). If you get into a bind with a report project that would take too many pages, contact your instructor — there are numerous tricks we can use to cut it down to size.
1.4.10. Technical content
You must design your report project in such a way that your poor technical-writing instructor has a chance to understand it - in other words, you must write for the nonspecialist. Also, at some point, you may get concerned about the technical accuracy of your information. Remember that this is a writing course, not a course in engineering, nursing, science, electronics, or the like. Make a good-faith effort to get the facts right, but don't go overboard.
2. Visual Elements
There are times when words alone are not the best way to transfer information or points of view. Also, sometimes words need to be combined with visual aids, formatting (the use of white space and indenting), or other visual elements. For example, appropriate formatting can make a technical report much easier to read, so much easier that the formatting becomes necessary given the limitations on the time and attention of an audience. The same can often be said of other visual elements, such as drawings, figures, charts, or graphs, which can quickly summarize an important point or present it in a different way.
It is known that you can increase the strength and memorability of a message simply by repeating it or, even better, by repeating it in a different form. Thus, when a visual presentation is added to a verbal one, the combination can produce a much stronger and more easily remembered message than either presentation alone. Further, a visual aid can present a compact summary of the main points of a verbal text. (Have you ever heard the expression "a picture is worth a thousand words"?) Finally, a visual element can often summarize in a more memorable form than words alone can. Given these advantages of visual aids, a communicator ought to be able to use them effectively. This involves knowing
1. How to make a visual aid effective 2. When to use the visual aid
3. How to select the best type of visual element in a given situation (e.g., pie chart, bar graph, line graph)
4. How to integrate the visual aid into the text
2.1. Making a visual aid truly visual
Take about 2 to 5 seconds to look at Table 2-1 and then cover it up. Do not look at any of the following tables or discussions. Now try to write .down the main points made by the table. When you have finished this, look at the presentation of the same information in Table 2-2 and see if you can quickly add any more main points to your list. Do this before you continue.
Typically, people who read only Table 2-1 note (1) that job satisfaction declines in each of the two main groups of occupations. These readers will sometimes notice (2) that there is a large difference in job satisfaction between the two groups-that is, that most of the first group is relatively satisfied (93 to 82 percent satisfied) whereas most of the second group is much less satisfied (only 52 to 16 percent satisfied). Very few readers of only Table 2-1 will notice (3) that the job satisfaction of skilled printers is higher than that of nonprofessional white-collar workers. These last two observations (points 2 and 3) are very hard to "see" in the format used in Table 2-1.
In contrast, most readers of Table 2-2 easily and quickly note all three observations, as well as a few other, more subtle ones, simply because of the format of the table. Notice that Table 2-2 makes it visually quite clear that the job satisfaction ratings of the two groups overlap and that the skilled trade and factory workers as a group are less satisfied than the professionals.
Table 2-1 Proportion of occupational groups who would choose similar work again
Professional occupation percent skilled trades occupations percent
Ubran university professors 93 Skilled printers 52
Mathematicians 91 Paper workers 42
Physicists 89 Skilled auto workers 41
Biologists 89 Skilled steel workers 40
Chemists 86 Textile workers 31
Lawyers 85 Unskilled steel workers 31
School superintendents 84 Unskilled steel workers 21
Journalists 82
White-collar workers 43
Table 2-2 Alternate arrangement for proportion of occupational groups who would choose similar work again
Professional occupation percent
Ubran university professors 93
Mathematicians 91 Physicists 89 Biologists 89 Chemists 86 Lawyers 85 School superintendents 84 Journalists 82 White-collar workers 43
skilled trades occupations percent
Skilled printers 52
Paper workers 42
Skilled auto workers 41
Skilled steel workers 40
Textile workers 31
Unskilled steel workers 31
Unskilled steel workers 21
2.2. Deciding when to use a visual aid
Communicators often wonder when they should use a visual aid in a communication. Three suggested principles for deciding this are to use a visual aid
1. Where words alone would be either impossible or quite inefficient for describing a concept or an object
2. Where a visual aid is needed to underscore an important point, especially a summary 3. Where a visual element is conventionally or easily used to present data
2.3. Selecting the best type of visual aid in a given situation
When you design a particular visual aid, you are consciously or unconsciously making
certain decisions. You are deciding-that the particular type of aid yon choose (a line graph,
bar chart, pie diagram, and photograph) is the best type to make your point and that the
arrangement and highlighting of material on the page is, again, the best to make your point.
Unfortunately, there is little information available on which to base such decisions. If you
are like most writers, you probably choose one type of visual aid over another simply
because it is the first thing you think of using.
The purpose of this section is to sketch out some better or more conscious reasons for
choosing. The section will first identify some conventions of visual perception and then
examine several common types of visual -aids to see what they do and do not show well.
2.3.1. Conventions of Visual Perception
There are a number of general statements we can make about our expectations of visual information. First, we expect written things to proceed from left to right. Note that in scientific and technical graphs, we place the independent variable on the x-axis so that the more important variable moves from left to right. For instance, we plot time on the x-axis and frequency on the y-axis, as illustrated in Figure 2-1. This pattern is so universal that Figure 2-2 looks at best odd and at worst disturbing.
Figure 2-1Preferred location of independent variable on a graph
Figure 2-2 Unconventional location of independent variable on a graph
Second, we expect things to proceed from top to bottom, and, third, we expect things in the center to be more important than things on the periphery. Fourth, we expect things in the foreground to be more important than things in the background; fifth, large things to be more important than small things; and sixth, thick things to be more important than thin things. Note that writing that, is larger, thicker, or bolder than the surrounding type is usually more important: a heading, a title, or an especially important word in a passage. Seventh, we expect areas containing a lot of activity and information to contain the most important information. Eighth, we expect that things having the same size, shape, location, or color are somehow related to each other. Lastly, ninth, we see things as standing out if they contrast with their surroundings because of line thickness, type face, or color.
2.3.2. Some types of visual aids and their uses
There are six main types of visual aids with which a scientist or engineer should be familiar: (1) line graphs, (2) bar graphs, (3) pie charts, (4) tables, (5) photographs, and (6) line drawings. Each of these types has particular strengths and weaknesses, and to use any one appropriately, you must decide what point you are trying to make and then select the type of visual aid which makes that
LINEGRAPHS
Line graphs, show well continuity and direction as opposed to individual or discrete points, direction as opposed to volume, and the importance of a nodal point, if there is one. These characteristics are illustrated in Figure2-3. Line graphs do not show well them importance of one particular point which falls of a node, the relationship of many lines, or the inter section of three or more lines, lf its important to be able to trace each line on a graph, you should probably not put more than three or four on a single graph, especially if they intersect frequently, or you may produce a graph as hard to follow as the one in Figure 2-4.
Figure 2-3 River flow before (1963) and after (1977) construction of Aswan High Dam on the Nile River
Figure 2-4 Reference of families for girls versus boys in six countries
BAR GRAPHS
Bar graphs show relatively well the discreteness or separateness of points as opposed to their continuity, volume as opposed to direction, the relationships among more than three or four items at a time, the contrast between large and small numbers, and the similarities and differences between similar numbers. These characteristics are evident in the variant of the bar graph presented in Figure 2-5 and in Figure 2-6. Bar graphs can be arranged with either horizontal (Figure 2-5) or vertical bars (Figure 2-6), depending on the type of information they represent. The bars are normally separated by spaces.
Figure 2-6
Vertical bar chart
HISTOGRAMS
A histogram looks like a bar chart, but functionally it is similar to a graph because it deals
with two continuous variables (functions that can be shown on a scale' to be decreasing or
increasing). It is usually plotted like a bar chart, as shown in Figure 2-7. The chief visible
difference between a histogram and a bar chart is that there are no spaces between the bars
of a histogram.
Figure 2-6
Histogram for failure records
SURFACE CAHRTS
A surface chart is shown in Figure 2-8. It may look like a graph, but it is not. To a technical person its' construction may seem so awkward that he might wonder when he would ever need to use one. Yet as a means for conveying Illustrative information to non technical readers, it can serve a very useful purpose.
Figure 2-8 Surface chart adds thermal data to hydro data to show total energy resources
Like a graph, a surface chart has two continuous variables that form the scales against which the curves are plotted. But unlike a graph, individual curves cannot be read directly from the scales. The uppermost curve is achieved as follows:
1. The curve containing the most import-ant or largest quantity of data is drawn first,inthe normal way. This is the Hydro curve in Figure 2-8.
2. The next curve is drawn in above the first curve, using the first curve as a base (i.e. zero) and adding the second set of data to it. For example, the energy resources shown as being available in 1980 are:
Hydro 15,000 MW
Thermal 7,000 MW
In Figure 2-8, the lower curve for 1980 is plotted at 15,000 MW. The 1980 data for the next curve is 7,000 MW, which is added to the first set of data so that the second curve indicates atotalof 22,000 MW. (If there is a third set of data, it is added on in the same way).
PIE DIAGRAMS
Pie diagrams show relatively well the relationship among three or four items which total 100 percent, the contrast between large and small percentages, and the similarities between relatively similar percentage (they show that well that 27 percent and 29 percent are about equal). Pie diagrams do not show well the small differences between two similar percentages (you can not usually see the differences between 27 and 29 percent).
They also do not show well absolute values (unless you label the parts of the pie) or the relationship among more than five or six parts; with too many parts it is hard to see relationships of part to part and part to whole. These strengths and weakness is illustrated in figure 2-9.
Figure 2-9 Distribution of fatalities in 181 fatal car-truck crashers TABLES
Tables are convenient for presenting lots of data and for giving absolute values where precision is very important. However, since they present items one at a time in columns, they emphasize the discrete rather than the continuous and make it very difficult to show trends or direction in. the data. Tables are not predominantly visual: the reader's mind must translate each number into a relationship with each other number, as already described in the job satisfaction example at the beginning of this chapter. Thus, for maximum visual impact, tables should probably be a last choice as a visual aid and used only when it is important to provide a great deal of information with precision in a very small space.
PHOTOGRAPHS
Photographs are useful when you do not have the time, the money, or the expertise to produce a complicated line drawing; when you are trying to produce immediate visual recognition of an item; when you are emphasizing the item's external appearance (as opposed to its internal structure or a cross section); and when you are not concerned with eliminating the abundant detail a photograph provides. While photographs can be air-brushed to eliminate some undesired detail, they still are not preferred when you need to focus on some one aspect by eliminating a lot of detail and when you have the time and resources to produce a good line drawing.
LINE DRAWINGS
The term line drawing includes several types of drawings which focus on external appearance, physical shape, function, or relationship. These include "simplified photos," maps (see Figure 2-10), anatomical drawings, parts charts, and drawings of models (such as atomic or molecular models as seen in Figure 2-11) or objects from any field of science or engineering. Also included are flow charts, organizational charts, schematic charts, block diagrams, as seen in Figure 2-12, architectural plans, and blueprints. While there are many types of line drawings, all of them share certain functions. They allow you to show things which you can't normally see in a photograph because of size, location, or excessive detail. They also allow you to easily highlight a particular shape, part, or function.
Figure 2-10 map Showing UK Standard regions Figure 2-11 Model for polyethylene
2.4. Designing the visual aid
Once you have decided .where a visual aid is needed and what type it should be, you must design it so that it is as relevant, clear, and truthful as possible. This will usually be at least a two-stage process: designing a rough copy and then producing the finishedCOPY, If you work for a company which has an art or illustration department you may be able to get a technical illustrator to produce the finished copy for you and to counsel you in the design stage. However, even if you have such help, you should be the real designer of the visual aid: you have the best knowledge of the subject and best know the purpose of the aid and the context in which it is being used.
2.4.1. Making a visual aid relevant
Since you place a visual aid in a text to make a point, you should be sure that it makes the point you intend. For instance, suppose that you are discussing expected energy saving from the use of solar energy in the future. You have posed three possible sources of the savings-residences, total energy systems such as industrial parks and shopping centers, and solar-based electric power plants-and have broken down the specific savings as illustrated in Table 2-3.
Table 2-3 Expected annual saving from solar energy
Annual Savings (1015 Btu)
Year Residences Total energy
systems Solar-based electric power plants 1985 0.4 0.24 -1990 1.2 0.92 1.4 1995 1.9 1.9 53
Now that you have your data, you want to construct a visual aid to show the growth in savings and the relative contributions of each source. You construct five possible versions of a visual aid, presented in Figures 2-13 through 2-17, and now have to choose the one most appropriate to your point. On what basis do you choose? What are the differences among the five visual aids?
Figure 2-14 Annual energy savings from solar energy, version 2
Figure 2-17 Annual energy savings from solar energy, version 5
First let us consider the bar graphs. Among the bar graphs, Figure 2-13 presents the most information in the smallest space and the clearest vision of total growth; however, in comparison to the other charts, it obscures the comparisons between items in the same year and between the same item in different years. Figure 2-14 obscures the total growth but makes the comparisons already mentioned much clearer, especially between the same item in different years. On the other hand, Figure 2-15 clarifies the comparison between items in the same year but obscures comparisons between years. The line graphs in Figures 2-16 and2-17 have the same strengths and weaknesses as their respective bar graph counterparts, but in addition they also bring out more strongly the idea of direction and rate of change. So how do you choose one (or two) from among the group? You pick the one which best matches the focus you wish to take in your report or talk.
If you are not much concerned about total growth but want to focus on the contribution of each area for savings, then you would probably choose Figure2-14. If you are interested in the growth of the contribution of each area, you would probably choose Figure 2-16. If you are primarily interested in the increase in total savings, you would probably choose Figure 2-13 or 2-17.
2.4.2. Making a visual aid clear
Making a visual aid clear involves two separate activities: making it conceptually clear and making it technically clear. Making it conceptually clear means having a clearly defined and relevant point and a good form for the point. Conceptual clarity is discussed above. Technical clarity is a simpler matter and will be treated here. It involves having an informative title, appropriate headings and labels, and enough white space so that an audience has the best possible chance of finding the "right" meaning for the visual aid.
To really see the benefit of proper labeling and sufficient white space, look at the series of graphs presented in Figure 2-18. Graph (a) is an extremely bad example of a visual aid since it has none of the labeling information usually presented. Graphs (b) and (c) present more information, but still not enough to really get the message across. (Notice that graph c lacks enough information even though it provides everything except the title and two critical labels.) Graph (d) provides an adequate title and labels, but the grid in the background is so obtrusive that a reader can hardly see
message (you should note that version d is typical of most student reports, which are done quickly checked mainly for accuracy rather than readability).
2.5. Integrating the Visual Aid into the Test
Once you have decided to use a visual aid in a particular spot in the text, you must incorporate it so that it seems to belong there. The visual aid needs to be tied to the text and explained since it appears in the text and make sense to readers. In addition, if the communicator does NOT EXPLAIN the importance of the visual aid (its main point, limitations, assumptions and implications), then the readers will have to provide these of information for themselves. As a general rule, when readers are put in the position, they will -at least sometimes- see points or implications rein those the communicator's wants them to see or perhaps even completely miss the communicator's point. The easiest way to integrate a visual aid with the text is to explain its main points and any special implications a reader should note.
2.5.1. Positioning
Try to always put the visual aid after you have mentioned it and not are reverse: in other words, do not put a visual aid in a spot within the text. Before pointing out to it, for example do not put a figure in the text, and then point to it. Note that all illustrations in the present notes are referred to first, then they are inserted into the text.
You must not only refer to every illustration in a report, but a real effort must be made to keep the illustration on the same page as the description it supports. This can become problem if the description is long.
However, a reader who has to keep flipping back and forth between the text and illustrations will soon tire, and the reason for including the illustrations will be defeated.
When reports are typed on only one side of the paper, full page illustrations can become an embarrassment. Try to limit the size of the illustrations so they can be placed beside, above or below the words, and lien to make sure that they are correctly placed. Horizontal full page illustrations may be inserted sideways on a page (landscape), but must always be positioned so that they are read from the right, see Figure 2-19. This holds true whether they are placed on a left- or right-hand page.
Figure 2-19 Page-size horizontal drawings should be positioned so they can read from the right
When an illustration is too large to fit on a normal page, or is going to be referred to frequently, you should consider printing it on a foldout sheet and inserting it at the back of the report. If the illustration is printed only on the extension panels of the foldout, the page can be left opened out for continual reference while the report is being read, see Figure 2-20. This technique is particularly
Figure 2-20 large illustrations can be placed on a fold out sheet at rear of report
2.5.2. Printing
Always discuss printing methods with the person who will be making copies of your report before you start making reproduction copy. Certain reproduction equipment cannot handle some sizes, materials and colors. For example, heavy blacks and light blues may not reproduce well on some electrostatic copiers, light browns cannot be copied by other types of equipment, and photographs can be reproduced clearly by very few.
2.6. Formatting Contentions that Make Reading Easier
There are many features of technical writing that make it look different from most writing we see in newspapers, books and personal letters. Look for instance at Figure 2-21, the beginning of a typical engineering report. You will notice that its has some very interesting formatting features:
1. Single-spacing 2. Short paragraphs 3. Lists
4. Headings (underlined titles)
5. Numbers to mark the various paragraphs 6. Liberal use of white space
All of these features occur frequently in scientific and technical writing because they are functional; single-spacing saves space, and the others make a text easier to read, especially for busy and inattentive readers. Headings clearly announce the contents of a section so that, busy readers can skip that section if they don't need details. Short paragraphs and white space make a report easy on the eye, even though it may be single-spaced. The numbering, indentation and lists provide clues to the organization of the report: they allow a reader to skip freely from section to section without reading everything.
To get a good idea of how helpful these simple formatting considerations can be, look at the unformatted version of the Discussion section of the report, presented in Figure 2-22. Do you agree that it is much more difficult to read? Do you agree that formatting makes the version in Figure 2-21 more functional, that is, easier to read and understand?
3. THE TECHNICAL REPORT
A successful engineer must be able to apply theoretical and practical principles in the development of ideas and methods and also have the ability to express the results clearly and convincingly. During the course of a design project, the engineer must prepare many written reports which explain what has been done and present conclusions and recommendations. The decision on the advisability of continuing the project may be made on the basis of the material presented in the reports. The value of the engineer‟s work is measured to a large extent by the results given in the written reports covering the study and the manner in which these results are presented.
The essential purpose of any report is to pass on information to others. A good report writer never forgets the words “to others.” The abilities, the functions, and the needs of the reader should be kept in mind constantly during the preparation of any type of report. Here are some questions the writer should ask before starting, while writing, and after finishing a report:
What is the purpose of this report? Who will read it?
Why will they read it? What is their function?
What technical level will they understand?
What background information do they have now?
The answers to these questions indicate the type of information that should be presented, the amount of detail required, and the most satisfactory method of presentation.
3.1. Types of Reports
Reports can be designated as formal and irtfortrrul. Formal reports are often encountered as research, development, or design reports. They present the results in considerable detail, and the writer is allowed much leeway in choosing the type of presentation. Informal reports include memorandums, letters, progress notes, survey-type results, and similar items in which the major purpose is to present a result without including detailed information. Stereotyped forms are often used for informal reports, such as those for sales, production, calculations, progress, analyses, or summarizing economic evaluations.
Figures 13-1 through 13-3 present examples of stereotyped forms that can be used for presenting the summarized results of economic evaluations. Although many general rules can be applied to the preparation of reports, it should be realized that each industrial concern has its own specifications and regulations. A stereotyped form shows exactly what information is wanted, and detailed instructions are often given for preparing other types of informal reports. Many companies have standard outlines that must be followed for formal reports. For convenience, certain arbitrary rules of rhetoric and form may be established by a particular concern. For example, periods may be required after all abbreviations, titles of articles may be required for all references, or the use of a set system of units or nomenclature may be specified.
Figure 3-1 Example of form for an informal summarizing report on factory manufacturing cost.
Figure 3-3 Example of form for an informal summarizing report on income and return.
3.2. Organization of reports
The organization of a formal report requires careful sectioning and the use of subheadings in order to maintain a clear and effective presentation? To a lesser degree, the same type of sectioning is valuable for informal reports. The following discussion applies to formal reports, but, by deleting or combining appropriate sections, the same principles can be applied to the organization of any type of report.
A complete design report consists of several independent parts, with each succeeding part giving greater detail on the design and its development. A covering Letter of Transmittal is usually the first item in any report. After this come the Title Page, the Table of Contents, and an Abstract
or Summary of the report. The Body of the report is next and includes essential information, presented in the form of discussion, graphs, tables, and figures. The Appendix, at the end of the report, gives detailed information which permits complete verification of the results shown in the body. Tables of data, sample calculations, and other supplementary material are included in the Appendix. A typical outline for a design report is as follows:
3.2.1. Organization of a design report
1. Letter of transmittal
Indicates why report has been prepared
Gives essential results that have beenspecifically requested
2. Title page
Includes title of report, name of person to whom report is submitted,writer‟s name and
organization, and date 3. Table of contents
Indicates location and title of figures, tables, and all major sections
4. Summary
Briefly presents essential results and conclusions in a clear and precise manner
5. Body of report A. Introduction
B. Previous work
Discusses important results obtained from literature surveys and other previous work
C. Discussion
Outlines method of attack on project and gives design basis
Includes graphs, tables, and figures that are essential for understanding the discussion Discusses technical matters of importance
Indicates assumptions made and their justification Indicates possible sources of error
Gives a general discussion of results and proposed design
D. Final recommended design with appropriate data
Drawings of proposed design
a. Qualitative flow sheets b. Quantitative flow sheets c. Combined-detail flow sheets
Tables listing equipment and specifications Tables giving material and energy balances
Process economics including costs, profits, and return on investment
E. Conclusions and recommendations
Presented in more detail than in Summary
F. Acknowledgment
Acknowledges important assistance of others who are not listed as preparing the report
G. Table of nomenclature
Sample units should be shown
H. References to literature (bibliography)
Gives complete identification of literature sources referred to in the report
I. Appendix
i. Sample calculations
One example should be presented and explained clearly for each type of calculation
ii. Derivation of equations essential to understanding the report but not presented in detail in the main body of the report
iii. Tables of data employed with reference to source iv. Results of laboratory tests
1. If laboratory tests were used to obtain design data, the experimental data, apparatus and procedure description, and interpretation of the results may be included as a special appendix to the design report.
3.2.1.1. Letter of Transmittal
The purpose of a letter of transmittal is to refer to the original instructions or developments that have made the report necessary. The letter should be brief, but it can call the reader‟s attention to certain pertinent sections of the report or give definite results which are particularly important. The
3.2.1.2. Title Page and Table of Contents
In addition to the title of the report, a title page usually indicates other basic information, such as the name and organization of the person (or persons) submitting the report and the date of submittal. A table of contents may not be necessary for a short report of only six or eight pages, but, for longer reports, it is a convenient guide for the reader and indicates the scope of the report. The titles and subheadings in the written text should be shown, as well as the appropriate page numbers. Indentations can be used to indicate the relationships of the various subheadings. A list of tables, figures, and graphs should be presented separately at the end of the table of contents.
3.2.1.3. Summary
The summary is probably the most important part of a report, since it is referred to most frequently and is often the only part of the report that is read. Its purpose is to give the reader the entire contents of the report in one or two pages. It covers all phases of the design project, but it does not go into detail on any particular phase. All statements must be concise and give a minimum of general qualitative information. The aim of the summary is to present precise quantitative information and final conclusions with no unnecessary details. The following outline shows what should be included in a summary:
1. A statement introducing the reader to the subject matter 2. What was done and what the report covers
3. How the final results were obtained
4. The important results including quantitative information, major conclusions, and recommendations
An ideal summary can be completed on one typewritten page. If the summary must be longer than two pages, it may be advisable to precede the summary by an abstract, which merely indicates the subject matter, what was done, and a brief statement of the major results.
3.2.1.4. Body of the Report
The first section in the body of the report is the introduction. It states the purpose and scope of the report and indicates why the design project originally appeared to be feasible or necessary. The relationship of the information presented in the report to other phases of the company‟s operations can be covered, and the effects of future developments may be worthy of mention.
References to previous work can be discussed in the introduction, or a separate section can be presented dealing with literature-survey results and other previous work.
A description of the methods used for developing the proposed design is presented in the next section under the heading of disczmion. Here the writer shows the reader the methods used in reaching the final conclusions. The validity of the methods must be made apparent, but the writer should not present an annoying or distracting amount of detail. Any assumptions or limitations on the results should be discussed in this section.
The next section presents the recommended design, complete with figures and tables giving all necessary qualitative and quantitative data. An analysis of the cost and profit potential of the
The body of a design report often includes a section giving a detailed discussion of all conclusions and recommendations. When applicable, sections covering acknowledgment, table of nomenclature, and literature references may be added.
3.2.1.5. Appendix
In order to make the written part of a report more readable, the details of calculation methods, experimental data, reference data, certain types of derivations, and similar items are often included as separate appendixes to the report.
This information is thus available to anyone who wishes to make a complete check on the work, yet the descriptive part of the report is not made ineffective because of excess information.
3.3. Preparing the report
The physical process of preparing a report can be divided into the following steps: 1. Define the subject matter, scope, and intended audience
2. Prepare a skeleton outline and then a detailed outline 3. Write the first draft
4. Polish and improve the first draft and prepare the final form
5. Check the written draft carefully, have the report typed, and proofread the final report
In order to accomplish each of these steps successfully, the writer must make certain the initial work on the report is started soon enough to allow a thorough job and still meet any predetermined deadline date. Many of the figures, graphs, and tables, as well as some sections of the report, can be prepared while the design work is in progress.
3.4. Presenting the results
Accuracy and logic must be maintained throughout any report. The writer has a moral responsibility to present the facts accurately and not mislead the reader with incorrect or dubious statements. If approximations or assumptions are made, their effect on the accuracy of the results should, be indicated. For example, a preliminary plant design might show that the total investment for a proposed plant is $5,500,000. This is not necessarily misleading as to the accuracy of the result, since only two significant figures are indicated. On the other hand, a proposed investment of $5554,328 is ridiculous, and the reader knows at once that the writer did not use any type of logical reasoning in determining the accuracy of the results.
The style of writing in technical reports should be simple and straightforward. Although short sentences are preferred, variation in the sentence length is necessary in order to avoid a disjointed staccato effect. The presentation must be convincing, but it must also be devoid of distracting and unnecessary details. Flowery expressions and technical jargon are often misused by technical writers in an attempt to make their writing more interesting. Certainly, an elegant or forceful style is sometimes desirable, but the technical writer must never forget that the major purpose is to present information clearly and understandably.
