Architecture

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Volume III PHILIPPINE ARCHITECTURE

ISBN 971-8546-23-5 Volume III - ISBN 971-8546-37-5

Logo: The logo of this encyclopedia is the sun, ancient symbol of sovereignty and enlightenment, which in giving light gives warmth and life. This solar representation is based on the mythological sun used by the first Philippine republic of 1899, which had Filipino features and eight principal rays. It is hoped that this encyclopedia will shed light on the most vital affirmations of being Filipino through the centuries and thus help to define and harden the core of the nation's identity.

Set in Palatino and Avant-Garde Color separation by Scanatronic, Inc. Printed by Vera-Reyes, Inc.

First Printing, 1994

Area Editor Rodrigo D. Perez III ARCHITECTURE

Editor-in-Chief Nicanor G. Tiongson General Managing Editor Joi Barrios

Managing Editor Monica Felicia P. Consing Assistant Managing Editor Analiza B. Villar Writers Corazon Hila • Rene B. Javellana Critic Honrado Fernandez

Regalado Trota Jose • Resil B. Mojares • Rodrigo D. Perez III Ramon Villegas • Fernando N. Zialcita

Biographers Ana Biglang-awa eAlice G. Guillermo Paul Labrado eNagasura Madale Santiago A. Pilar eF. Varona

Art Director Cesar A. Hernando

Deputy Art Director Carlita de Leon Sefieres Graphic/Lay-out Artist Carlita L. Sefieres Illustrator Carlita L. Sefieres

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Photo Researchers Alice M. Esteves Gilda Cordero-Fernanda ACKNOWLEDGMENT

American Historical Collection • Asian Institute of Management Ayala Museum • Cebuano Studies Center • CCP Library Freyssinet Philippines Inc • GCF Books • Intramuros Administration Lopez Memorial Museum and Library • Manila Bulletin Library Mapua Institute of Technology .National Archives National Commission on Culture and Arts National Geographic Society .National Historical Institute The National Library Filipiniana and Asia Division Philippine Women's University Felicing Tirona Memorial Library and Arts Center San Miguel Corporation • Summer Institute of Linguistics United Architects of the Philippines University of the Philippines

Filipiniana Library

Vicky Alba • Primo Alcantara • Elena Alfonso • Belen Angeles • Raidis Bassig Concepcion Baylon • Francisco Bernardo Jr • Adoracion M. Bolos • Ernesto R. Caballero Zenaida Cipriano • Monica Felicia P. Consing • Gilda Cordero-Fernanda • Rolly Dinero Wili Fernandez • Edda Henson • Cesar A. Hernando • Elvira Irremedio • Rene B. Javellana Arnold Jumpay • Roselyn Lim • Architect & Mrs Leandro V. Locsin • Alberto Mabiog Scott MacGregor • Oscar Mapua • Resil B. Mojares • Ambeth R. Ocampo • Rey Ortiz • Malou Padua Eduardo Pailanan eMr & Mrs Ambrocio Palma eNilo J. Parilla eRenato S. Rastrollo Ben F. Rodriguez • Agnes Samson • William Henry Scott • Carli to L. Sefi.eres • Johnny Tenegra Jr Nicanor G. Tiongson • Avelino Valleser • John Walton

TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION I 2

FOLIO OF PHOTOGRAPHS I 9 I. HISTORICAL ESSAYS I 17

Philippine Architecture I 18 The Ethnic Tradition I 18 The Spanish Colonial Tradition I 22 The American Colonial and Contemporary Traditions I 25 Prospects for Filipino Architecture I 29

The Ethnic Tradition I 30 General Characteristics I 30 Types of Structure in History I 32 The Ethnic Houses I 35

The Spanish Colonial Tradition I 42 The Beginnings I 42 Military Architecture I 45 Religious Architecture I 46 Domestic Architecture I 50 Civil Architecture I 52 Epilogue I 55

The American Colonial and Contemporary Traditions I 56 History I 56 Forms I 66 Interior Design I 86 The Ethnic Tradition I 86 The Spanish Colonial Tradition I 89 The American Colonial and Contemporary Traditions I 94

Landscape Architecture I 96

The Evolution of Communities I 100 The Ethnic Tradition I 100 The Spanish Colonial Tradition I 101 The American Colonial Tradition I 104 The Contemporary Period I 104

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Sources and Influences I 106 The Southeast Asian Tradition I 106 The Islamic Influence I 107 The Chinese Influence I 108 The Spanish Influence I 108 The American Influence I 119

II. FORMS AND TYPES I 123

Apartment I 124 Bahay Kubo I 126 Bahay na Bato I 129 Barong-Barong I 134

Bungalow I 135 Casa Real I 136 Commercial Buildings I 137 Eskwelahan I 138 Ethnic House I 142 Houseboat I 144 Kamalig I 144 Kapitolyo I 145 Kuta I 146 Kweba I 148 Masjid I 150 Munisipyo 1152 One-and-a-Half Story House I 153 Palengke I 153 Parola I 155 Retablo I 156 Rice Terraces I 158 Sabungan I 160 Sementeryo I 161 Simbahan I 164 Sinehan I 178 Split-Level House I 179 Teatro I 180 Tree House I 182 Tribunal I 183 Tsalet I 184 Tulay I 185

TABLE OF CONTENTS

III. ASPECTS OF PRODUCTION I 187

Awards I 188 Construction Methods and Materials I 189 Design I 197 Organizations I 201 Research I 202 Schools I 207

IV. MAJOR WORKS I 209 viii

Aduana I 210 Antipolo Church I 210 Argao Church and Convento I 212 Ayuntamiento I 213 Baclayon Church I 215 Betis Church I 215 Boac Church I 216 Boljoon Church and Convento I 217 Calasiao Church I 218 Calumpit Church I 219 Carcar Church I 220 Casa Gorordo I 221 Cebu Metropolitan Cathedral I 221 Crystal Arcade I 223 Cultural Center of the Philippines (CCP) Main Building I 224 Cuyo Church and Fort I 224 Dalaguete Church I 226 Daraga Church I 227 Fort Pilar I 228 Fort San Antonio Abad I 229 Fort San Pedro I 229 Fort Santiago I 230 Goldenberg Mansion I 231 Guadalupe Monastery I 232 El Hagar Building I 232 Holy Rosary Seminary I 233 Insular Life Building I 234 Intramuros Walls 1234 faro Cathedral I 236

Kawit Church I 237 Lalla Church I 238 Laoag Church I 239 Legislative Building I 240 Loboc Church I 241 Loon Church I 242 Lucban Church I 243 Majayjay Church I 244 Malabon Church I 245 Malacanang I 246 Malate Church I 247 Manila Cathedral I 248 Manila Hotel I 250 Manila Post Office Building I 251 Manaoag Church I 251

Maragondon Church I 252 Metropolitan Theater I 254 Miag-ao Church I 254 Minalin Church I 255 Malo Church I 256 Morang Church I 257 Naga Church I 257 Nagcarlan Church and Cemetery I 258 Pacific Commercial Company Building I 259 Paco Cemetery I 260 Paete Church I 260 Pakil Church I 262 Pan-ay Church I 263 Paoay Church I 263 Pardo Church I 264 Perez-Samanillo Building I 265 Philippine-American Life Insurance Building I 266 Philtrust Bank Building I 266 Puente Colgante I 267 Puente de Espana 1268 St. Catherine's Academy School Building I 269 Samboan Church and Jacob's Ladder I 269 San Agustin Church and Monastery I 270 San Ignacio Church I 272 San Luis Church I 274 San Miguel Corporation Head Office Complex I 274

San Sebastian Church I 275 San Vicente Church I 277 Santa Ana Church I 278 Santa Maria Church I 279 Santo Domingo Church I 280 Santo Nino Basilica and Convento I

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281 Sariaya Church I 282 Sarrat Church I 283 Silang Church I 284 Taal Basilica I 285 Tanay Church I 286 Tayabas Church I 287 Tayum Church I 288 Tigbauan Church I 289 Tondo Church I 289 Tuguegarao Church I 290 Tumauini Church I 290 University of the Philippines (Catholic) Chapel I 292 University of Santo Tomas Main Building I 293 Victorias Chapel I 294 Vigan Cathedral I 295

V. ARTISTS I 297

Alvero, Emilio I 298 Antonio, Pablo I 298 Araneta, Luis I 298 Arellano, Arcadia I 299 Arellano, Juan I 299 Arellano, Otilio I 300 Arguelles, Tomas I 300 Arguelles, Carlos I 301 Belloc, Vicente I 301 Berenguer-Topacio, Ched I 301 Burnham, Daniel I 302 Calma, Lor I 302 Canchela, Cesar I 303 Caudal, Alejandro I 303 Cancio, Cesar I 303 Coscolluela, Willam I 303 De Castro, Cresenciano I 304 De Santos, Arturo I 304 De Uguccioni, Juan I 305 Espina, Cristobal I 305

Fernandez, Wili I 305 Formoso, Gabriel I 306 Hervas, Juan I 306 Hubilla, Johnny I 307 Lobato, Antonio I 307 Locsin, Leandro I 307 Luna de San Pedro, Andres I 308 Luz, Alfredo J. I 309 Mafiosa Brothers I 310 Mafiosa, Francisco I 310 Mafiosa, Jose I 310 Mafiosa, Manuel Jr I 311 Mapua, Tomas I 311 Mariano, Engracio L. I 311 Mendoza, Felipe I 312 Nakpil, Angel E. I 312 Nakpil, Juan Felipe I 313

Ocampo, Fernando I 314 Oliver, Luciano I 314 Oliveros, Edith L. I 315 Palatino, Bartolome I 315 Parsons, William E. I 315 Pefiasales, Sergio I 316 Perez, Dolly Quimbo I 316 Ramirez, Edgar I 316 Roxas, Felix I 317 Ruano, Roque I 317 Santos, Ildefonso I 317 Santos-Viola, Carlos I 318 Sedefio, Antonio S. I 318 Sindiong, Antonio I 318 Toledo, Antonio I 319 Villarosa, Rogelio I 319 Zaragosa, Jose Maria I 320

PHILIPPINE ARCHITECTURE VI. REFERENCES I 321

Books I 322 Articles I 326 Theses I 329 Programs/Brochures/Yearbooks/ Albums I 329 Archival Documents I 330 Interview I 330

INTRODUCTION

Philippine architecture is the sum total of the domestic and public buildings that have been built by natives of the Philippines on Philippine soil and over the centuries, in response to various climatic, geographical, and cultural conditions prevailing in a given place and time.

The term "Philippine architecture" has been the subject of discussion and debate. One extreme view denies that there is such a thing. Buildings of the ethnic or precolonial tradition are not considered architecture because, according to this view, they lack magnitude, durabil- ity, and aesthetic value. The architecture of the Spanish colonial period is regarded as entirely European in the case of forts and the Intramuros churches, or, in the case of provincial churches and houses, poor

imitations of Spanish architecture. The architecture of the American colonial and contemporary periods are viewed as unabashed copies of Western buildings. While colonial and contemporary buildings are accepted as architecture, they are not acknowledged as authentically Filipino.

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The extreme opposite view contends that any architecture produced in the

Philippines is Filipino, not only because of its geographical setting, but also because it is, for better or for worse, a part and expression of the culture. The essays in this volume are founded on the premise that there is such a thing as Filipino

architecture, and that this encompasses ethnic, Spanish, and American colonial and contemporary architecture.

Objectives

This volume aims to enable the reader: first, to be familiar with and to appreciate and be concerned with Filipino architecture; second, to appreciate architecture as such; and third, to be aware of what is Filipino in architecture.

First, this volume presents a comprehensive though compartmentalized picture of Philip- pine architecture: comprehensive, because a vast amount of available information on the subject has been put together in summary and, in some

instances, detailed form; compartmentalized, because the wide range of material had to be organized for easy reference. It seeks to answer the basic questions about Philippine architecture--what is it, how did it develop, what are its forms, how is it built, what are its major examples, who are its builders, and what is its significance. The volume presents buildings in the ethnic, Spanish colonial, American colonial and contemporary traditions. Ethnic architecture includes houses, granaries, and

mosques. Structures of the Spanish colonial tradition include houses, churches, forts, lighthouses, government buildings, schools, theaters, commercial buildings, and factories. The buildings of the American colonial and contemporary traditions include houses, apartment buildings, condominiums, mass housing projects, churches, schools, hospitals, government office buildings,

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PHILIPPINE ARCHITECTURE

clubhouses, hotels, commercial office buildings, department stores, markets, shopping malls, theaters, movie houses, industrial buildings, and bridges.

Each tradition is considered as a distinct body of works with its particular building types, concepts of space and structure, architectural style or styles, and methods of construction, as well as its own evolution of forms and styles. Furthermore, each tradition is described in the light of its historical setting, the political and social structures, the type of economy and the level of economic development, and the various cultural influences.

While each tradition, like each historical period, is in fact distinct, and while the shift from one period to the next involved the termination of the status quo and the introduction of a new system as well as new concerns, the history of Philippine architecture should not be seen in terms of discontinuities, but rather as a

continuum. Elements of the ethnic tradition are discernible in the Spanish colonial tradition, and in turn, the influence of the Spanish colonial tradition is recognizable in the American colonial tradition.

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As knowledge of Philippine architecture leads to appreciation, so must appreciation lead to concern for the preservation of masterworks and monuments. Architecture is not the kind of art that one enjoys only at particular moments, like music while it is listened to, or a painting while it is viewed. Architecture, being shelter, is an art form that one lives in or lives with. It is part of the environment, and in life lived in shelter, it is the immediate and more significant environment. Yet, while buildings are so close to human life and are supposed to be permanent structures, they can be the victims of poor maintenance, neglect, vandalism, and outright destruction. The state of many public buildings attests to the low level of appreciation for architecture on the part of the public and of public officials. And the woeful

condition of many old buildings betrays the lack of historical consciousness as well as of aesthetic sense. It is hoped that increased knowledge and appreciation of architecture will result in the conscientious maintenance and diligent preservation of the country's architectural heritage.

Second, while this volume is on Philippine architectl}re, it also aims to lead the reader to an understanding and appreciation of architecture as such. Architecture is generally understood as the art and science of building, and building is commonly identified with structure--walls, roof, beams, columns, and foundations. But the structure is only the shell, so to speak, of a building. The primary element of architecture is space, that is, sheltered space. Space in a building is generally regarded as something enclosed in order to serve a function. More than that, space as an architectural element is something to be formed or designed. As a sculptor gives shape to a mass of material, the architect gives shape to space. Space that is intelligently and inventively shaped is not only useful, but is also meaningful and expressive. For example, the space in a place of worship must elicit reverence and foster the spirit of celebration. The space in a family dwelling must convey a sense of security and familial intimacy. While in sculpture, the shaped material becomes the structure, in architecture the structure encloses the formed or sculptured space. But the structure itself--walls, columns, beams, and roof--can have the character of sculpture.

Architecture as the art of creating sheltered space is primarily a response to human needs, the need for protection from the elements, the need for habitable space, the need for a sense of security and well-being, and the need for the experience of beauty. While works of architecture

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INTRODUCTION

are designed to be functional and beautiful, they are also expected to express meaning, or to convey a message. A building can be a symbol of authority and power, or a symbol of celebration and hospitality.

Architecture, being the alteration of the environment, is the most conspicuous of the arts, and a country's architectural heritage is its most visible and sometimes most awesome record of history. Buildings--and the villages, towns and cities that they constitute--show the development of a people and their culture. Buildings and how they are used express the values and character of a people--their observance

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of order or their lack of it, thoughtless individualism or a sense of community, materialism or religiosity, love for nature or indifference to it.

A final aim of this volume is to enable the reader to become aware of what is

Filipino, particularly what the Filipino element in Philippine architecture is, or what it is that distinguishes Filipino architecture. It is not easy to find the common

denominator in the wide range of building types and architectural styles that

constitute Filipino architecture. The Ifugao fale, the Maranao torogan, the bahay na bato, the churches of Paoay, Daraga, Miag-ao, and Morong, the Tutuban Station, the Post Office Building, the Metropolitan Theater, the Cultural Center of the Philippines, the San Miguel Corporation Head Office Building, and the skyscrapers of Makati and Pasig are Filipino architecture. Because they were designed for the Philippine

environment and for use by Filipinos, and because they are the work of Filipinos or of people who lived in the Philippines, they express something of Filipino culture and somehow embody the Filipino spirit. But even that spirit while experienced is yet to be defined.

Division

This volume is divided into the following sections: Historical Essays, Forms and Types, Aspects of Production, Major Works, Artists, and References. The historical essays include first, an overview, then the essays on the ethnic, Spanish colonial, and American colonial and contemporary traditions. The focus is on "tradition" rather than "period" since architectural styles introduced in one period could extend their influence into the next periods. Thus, the persistence of "tradition" is

especially clear in Philippine ethnic architecture. Ethnic building traditions that began to develop in the precolonial period survived into the 20th century,

undergoing modifications before and during the colonial periods. These are followed by essays on allied arts, namely, interior design, and landscape architecture, and an essay on the evolution of communities. The historical section also includes a study of sources and influences, namely the Southeast Asian, the Islamic, the Chinese, and the Spanish; the various styles that influenced Philippine architecture during the Spanish colonial period, namely, the classical, gothic, renaissance, baroque, rococo, and revivalist styles, and the 20th-century movements, like art nouveau, art deco, and modern architecture.

The section Forms and Types describes in alphabetical order various kinds of shelter and structure, again belonging to the traditions: ethnic, hispanic, American colonial and contemporary. The ethnic buildings include caves, lean-tos, treehouses, boathouses, and the houses on stilts; the Spanish colonial covers the bahay na bato, churches, government buildings, forts, bridges, cemeteries, and lighthouses; the American colonial and contemporary include government edifices, private commercial buildings and theaters, schools, apartments, tsalet, one- and-a-half story houses, and bungalows.

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The section entitled Aspects of Production deals in alphabetical order with various aspects of the art and profession of architecture as well as the professional

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planning and design, an activity that involves both art and science. The outcome of this process is the set of drawings which the builder follows in the construction of the building, providing the materials that are specified and employing particular methods that are prescribed. Through the process of construction, the architect's ideas are translated into a functioning reality. Organizations serve to promote the development of the profession and determine standards for professional practice. Out- standing achievements are recognized through the awards granted by

professional organizations or by government or civic entities. Research is

undertaken by scholars for the purpose of documenting the country's architectural heritage and fostering historical consciousness to en- rich creative endeavor.

The section Major Works describes notable buildings in alphabetical order. A building is considered a major work if it is characterized by magnitude and serves an

important public function, or it is regarded as an excellent example of its type, or it represents a breakthrough in architectural design during its time. In short, a major work is one that is generally acknowledged as being historically and architecturally significant. It is recognized as a contribution to the development of architecture or may have certain features that make it unique.

The section Artists gives brief accounts of the life and works of major architects who are listed in alphabetical order. A major architect is one who has produced works of magnitude, particularly public buildings, and works notable for their originality or for their significant application of a current style. A large number of works, a

consistently high level of perform- ance, recognition by professional organizations, leadership in the architectural profession, and at least 20 years of professional practice were among the criteria in the selection of architects to be included in this volume.

The section References lists down all the works used as sources in the essays and includes titles of other books deemed important as sources for the study of

Philippine architecture. Methodology

Most of the information contained in this volume was drawn from books, periodicals, and journals which are listed in the general references at the end of the volume. In addition to library research, the authors of the essays and articles on architecture went on field trips to various parts of the country. Some trips had been undertaken in past years in connection with other publications, and the information unearthed then proved to be still useful. For the biographies, published sources were consulted for data on the early architects. Living architects were requested to furnish their curriculum vitae or in some cases were interviewed. Relatives of recently deceased architects were requested to provide information.

This volume, however, had to work within certain limitations. Although this volume contains an essay on the ethnic tradition in architecture and an article on the ethnic house in the section on forms, it does not contain detailed descriptions of the various types of ethnic house, such as the Ifugao, the Mangyan, and the Maranao. These will be found in the volumes on the ethnolinguistic groups under the entry for each group.

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INTRODUCTION

A number of outstanding houses of the Spanish colonial period are not featured among the major works because no historical data are available. On the other hand, a large number of churches of the Spanish colonial period are included, first,

because many of them are unique, and second, because historical data are available and generally reliable.

A number of buildings of the Spanish and American colonial periods that could qualify as major works are not included in this volume either because historical data are not available or the buildings are no longer in their original state, having been modified inside or outside, or having been allowed to deteriorate. However, some buildings that no longer exist are mentioned because of their acknowledged historical importance and because information on them could be gathered. One example is the Crystal Arcade.

The volume on architecture does not have as large a number of biographical entries as the other volumes, since professional Filipino architects emerged in significant numbers only in the 20th century. Sources from the Spanish colonial period mention architects and builders, most of them Spaniards, whose works are of historical and architectural value. The biographies include persons who are not major architects under the criteria, but whose buildings are of special significance in Philippine architectural history. Landscape architects and interior designers are included in this section.

The names of architects or builders of important buildings are not always known. Neither are the dates of construction. Some buildings have been rebuilt or

reconstructed more than once. In such cases, the date of construction that is supplied is of the present structure. Many new buildings are not mentioned in the section on contemporary architecture; neither are they listed among major works. Similarly, some biographies lack such information as date or year of birth and

death, or names of parents, because no records are available or the sources did not provide them.

For all the time and effort that have gone into it, this volume on Philippine architecture does not pretend to be the last word on the subject. It is humbly presented as another beginning in the continuing task of searching, researching, and national-soul-searching. Today's dogma could be tomorrow's error, and what is hopelessly buried today in oblivion could be serendipitously recovered tomorrow. Knowledge grows endlessly and renews itself. One lesson we learn from history is that encyclopedias are published in order to be revised.

Style and Use

The form of presentation is designed for the student. The language is simple and the style straightforward. Technical terms are explained either in synonyms or equivalents or in the context in which they appear. Subheadings help to clarify the organization of ideas and ease the search for particular data. Pictures and captions illustrate the principal points being made by the essay. Sources of data or

quotations are placed in parentheses right after the sentence which uses them and provide the family name of the author, the year of publication of the work, and the page numbers, which can be checked against the general references at the end of

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the volume. The shorter references at the end of some essays not only serve as an acknowledgment but also lead the student to more sources of information in the general references.

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Architecture-related terms, such as panolong, sabungan, simbahan are set in boldface the first time they appear in an essay; Filipino and foreign terms not related to architecture, such as babaylan, gobernadorcillo, and salakot are set in italics the first time they are mentioned. Translations or equivalents of terms, whether architectural or not, are usually enclosed in parentheses: thus, bahay na bato (stone house). Titles of books and periodicals are set in boldface italics each time they are mentioned; if the titles are non-English, they are followed by English translations, enclosed in parentheses, of the title and the year of publication, separated by commas. All diacritical marks on native terms are removed until such time as they are consistently and systematically recorded by scholars, especially among the smaller ethnic groups.

For the researcher, the Index in Volume X is the most helpful first stop. It lists all the major architectural terms, buildings, names, concepts, books in the architecture volume as well as the other volumes of the encyclopedia. Variant spellings (e.g. tsalet, chalet) are listed to facilitate search.

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ETHNIC HOUSES. Two architectural forms among indigenous communities in the islands, ore the Bontoc fay-u of the Cordillera, top, and the torogan of lonoo in Mindanao, bottom. (National Geographic Magazine 1913, American Historical Collection; Ernesto R. Caballero 1990, Cultural Center of the Philippines Library Collection) 9

NATIVE HUT. Basically a house of bamboo and nipa, this bahay kubo in Bataan, above, is the typical dwelling of the lowland Christian Tagalog; a bigger version of the bahay kubo but using stronger materials like wood and stone is the bahay na bato, the house of the landed elite, like the 19th-century Palma house in lmus, Cavite, right. (Mirror Saturday Magazine 1961, Nicanor G. Tiongson Collection; Carlito L. Seneres 1993, Cultural Center of the Philippines Library Collection) 10

STONE HOUSE. The ancestral houses of Vigan, llocos Sur are characterized by two-story walls which are made completely of stone or bricks. ( Carlito L. Seneres 1991, Cultural Center of the Philippines Library Collection)

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CHURCH. Examples of Spanish colonial architecture are the Pasig Church, token ca1900,above,andthe Tumauini Church, taken co 1970, right. (Tennyson 1901, Ambeth Ocampo Collection; Philippine National Bank Calendar 1975, Nicanor G. Tiongson Collection)

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TROPICAL BAROQUE AND ROCOCO. Decorated with solomonic columns and

medallions in baroque fashion is the Daraga Church, left, built in 1772. Considered one of the glories of rococo architecture in the Philippines is the facade of the Miag-ao Church in Iloilo, bottom, built co 1790. (Renato S. Rastrol/o 1990, Cultural Center of the Philippines Library Collection)

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STATE PALACE. The Malacafiang Palace, the country's seat of government, built co 1 790, underwent many renovations and repairs through the last centuries. (Zaragoza 1990, Nicanor G. Tiongson Collection)

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. COMMERCIAL BUILDING. Mudejar or Muslim motifs distinguished the Insular Cigar and Cigarette Factory in Binondo at the tum .of the century. (NicanorG. Tiongsan Collection)

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GOVERNMENT BUILDING. The first Legislative Building was erected in the 1920s, destroyed during WWII and rebuilt on its present location. (Nicanor G. Tiongson Collection)

UPPER CLASS HOUSE. Typical of the tsalet, an early 20th-century form of domestic architecture, is this house-turned- restaurant in San Juan, Manila. (Luis Dindo Martinez 1991, Cultural Center of the Philippines Library Collection) ·

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MODERN BUILDINGS. Marked by modem trends In architecture are high-rise buildings along Ayala avenue in Makoti. (The Sunday Times Magazine 1966, NicanorG. Tiongson Collection)

ONE-AND-A-HALF STORY HOUSE. A modern dwelling which emerged after WWII is the one- and-a-half story house like the Agustin del Rosario residence in Paraiiaque photographed in 1958. (The Sunday Times Magazine 1958, Arsenio R. Tiongson Collection)

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HISTORICAL ESSAYS

The history and culture of the Philippines are re- flected in its architectural heritage, in the dwellings of its various peoples, in mosques and churches, and in buildings that have risen in response to the demands of progress and the aspirations of a people. Houses and monuments from Batanes to Tawi-tawi do not only represent different cultures and periods in Philip- pine history; they also constitute the

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Filipino's creative response to the problems posed by the geography and climate of the archipelago. The 7,100 islands of the Philippines appear to be a mountain range that is half submerged. More than half of the land is mountainous and hilly. With their headwaters in the mountains, rivers flow down to the plains and out to the sea. For its relatively small area of 300,000 sq km, the country has an extensive coastline of 17,500 km. On this fragmented territory and rugged terrain, on

mountain, plain, riverbank, and seacoast, the people have made their home. With its southernmost islands about four degrees from the equator, and its northern and central islands in the path of typhoons, the Philippines is subject to the worst of tropical heat, humidity, and rain. A long dry season can bring drought, rains can cause floods, and high winds can ruin houses. Several times a year the land is rocked by earthquakes. As the climate dictates the need for shelter, the land provides the materials for it: wood from the forests, bamboo from groves, leaves from the fields, stone from rivers and quarries, and clay from the earth itself.

Setting, climate, and available materials are among the factors that give shelter its form and character.

The Ethnic Tradition

The earliest shelters of human beings were probably not built by them. They simply found these shelters or found themselves in them. It was nature which fashioned hollows on cliffs and mountainsides that offered protection from heat, rain, and wind. In Ango- no, Rizal evidence of ancient cave dwellers exists in carved figures on cave walls, the earliest known Philip- pine mural. The Tabon Cave in Palawan yielded the

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earliest-known remains of human beings in the Philip- pines. Meanwhile, the food gatherers, the fishers, or the hunters, who moved from one place to another in their search for food and game, needed a portable shelter. Thus they fashioned the lean-to from a frame made of tree branches and twigs, using leaves and fronds for sidings. A screen resting on the ground and held up at an angle by one or several poles, the lean-to is both rbof and wall, protecting dwellers from rain and the heat of the sun. The floor can be the ground itself or a bed of leaves or a platform slightly above the ground. The lean-to is light enough to be carried to another site.

However, the dweller can simply abandon it and build another. A pair of lean-tos can be joined together to form a tentlike shelter or a double-slope roof, which, in effect, is the beginning of a house. Kaingin or swidden farming led to a relatively settled life. After making a clearing in the forest, the swidden farmer could cultivate it for two years, let it lie fallow, then return to it a few years later. Although dwellings became larger and were better built, they were neither permanent nor durable because sometimes the swidden farmer had to move on. With the development of wet-rice culture, farmers became rooted to the land. Although i:races of the .

kaingin lifestyle persisted in the makeshift character of various dwellings, houses were built to last. The Mang- yan of Mindoro, who are swidden farmers, have two types of houses-the single-family dwelling and the communal house. Although the communal house is occupied by several families, its interior is not divided by partitions. The area for each family is defined by a mat on the floor. When a

Mangyan house is built on a slope, the entrance faces the rise. The steep roof is of cogon grass, the sidings, of tree bark, and the floor, of logs and saplings. The house

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appears to have no windows. However, it has a narrow strip of opening between roof and wall. For added protection from floods, wild animals, and enemies, houses were built on trees, anywhere from 2-20m above the ground. Such houses have been

HOUSE ON POSTS. The Ingenious llugao tale stands on tree trunks provided with disks to discourage rats from climbing up the house. (Boyce 19U, American Historical Collection)

found among the Ilongot, Tinguian, and Gaddang in northern Luzon, and among the Mandaya, Manobo, Tiruray, and Bukidnon in Mindanao. One type of tree house nestles on the branches of a tree. Another type rests partly on a tall tree stump and partly on a cluster of tall stilts. The people of the Cordilleras in northern Luzon are swidden farmers. But some, particularly the Ifu- gao, Bontoc, and Kalinga, are known for their rice terraces. With massive, towering walls and a skillfully devised irrigation system, the rice terraces are a won- der of primitive engineering. The terrace builders were able to construct sturdy dwellings remarkable for both

simplicity and ingenuity. The one-room Ifugao house, known as fale, is a little marvel of construction. Outside, the Ifugao house seems to be nothing more than a

pyramid resting on four posts. The interior space-enclosed by slanting walls, sloping roof, and ceiling formed by the

loft-PHILIPPINE ARCHITECTURE

appears nearly spherical. The dark, windowless cham- ber suggests a womb. Four wooden posts rest on a pavement and support two wooden girders which, in turn, support three wooden transverse joists. On the posts are wooden discs that prevent rats from entering the house. The ladder is drawn up at night or is hung across the front when the occupants are away. The floor joists, floor sills, vertical studs, and horizontal beams at about head level form a cage that rests on the posts and girders. Floor boards are fitted between the joists. Wooden sidings slant outward and rise to waist height to form the lower half of the wall. The upper half of the wall is formed by the inner side of the roof. Boards flanking the front and rear doors rise to the beams. The rafters of the roof rest on the beams and extend downward close to floor level. The roof frame is sheathed with reedlike runo, then covered with thatch. At an inner corner of the house is the fireplace. At the level of the beam is a storage loft with a floor of runo stalks. The wooden parts of this house are joined by rabbeting and by mortise and tenon. Other parts are fastened by lashing. Since nails are not used, the

19

HISTORICAL ESSAYS

house can easily be dismantled, carried to a new site, and reassembled. The solitary room is the sleeping room, kitchen, dining room, storeroom, and shrine for rituals. Only the husband and wife and youngest child or children in infancy live in this house. Upon reaching the age of reason, sons and daughters sleep in separate communal dormitories. Next to this house stands its twin, a granary with the same design as the house. In Mayaoyao the Ifugao house is distinguished by its classic simplicity. Its roof is high and steep. Low stone walls and a pavement form the setting of this house. With the smooth, fine-grained hardwood posts, rat guards are

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not necessary. The elevated living space in the fale becomes a granary in the

Bontoc house, as the living quarters move down to ground level. A low wall encloses the ground floor. The four- post-two-girder-three-joist structure of the Ifugao is also used in the Bontoc house. The Sa gada house re- sembles the Bontoc house but is fully covered. It is a wooden box with a steep thatch roof as a lid. With the granary within, the Sagada house is a "house within a house." The Kankanay house is still another variation of the Ifugao prototype. The roof is higher and wider, thereby providing a spacious loft above the living

20

NATIVE MANSION. The Maranao datu house has panolong or carved beams which make the splendid house appear to noat like a royal barge. (American Historical Col/ecffon)

space. On the ground level wooden planks are laid to provide additional livable space. The lbaloy house has a larger room, a flaring roof, and a small porch. Some of the Kalinga live in octagonal houses. The central portion of the octagonal house rests on a four-post- two-girder-and-three-joist structure. Beyond this frame eight posts are added to form the eight sides of the house. Wooden laths resting on joists support the runo floor, which can be rolled up like a mat and taken to the river for washing. Boat forms appear to have inspired the Isneg house. The bamboo roof suggests an inverted boat, and wooden floor joists have the profile of a boat. The Isneg house has two sets of posts: the inner set supporting the floor and the outer set supporting the roof. As in the Kalinga house, the floor can be rolled up. The walls are vertical boards set into grooves that are cut into beams at floor and roof-eaves level. A window is created by simply taking out a few bo~rds. All the wall boards can be removed to make the house a roofed

platform for village celebrations. The Isneg house is the largest among the

Cordillera houses, since the entire family, and even married offspring, could live in it. It is not known when and how Cordillera houses developed into their present forms. However, these house forms developed in isolation and were un- touched by Western influence, for the Spanish colonizers did not succeed in bringing the region and its people under their rule. On hilltops and rolling land the Tboli of southern Cotabato in Mindanao build large one-room houses on stilts. The roof is of dried grass, the walls of woven bamboo, and the posts of whole bamboo and, occasionally, tree stumps. The central portion of the floor is slightly lower than the areas around it. The side sections are for working or resting. At one end is the entrance and the fireplace, and at the other is the place of honor for the head of the house. The interior of the Tboli house is one example of a characteristic feature of

Philippine houses-space surrounded by space. Islam was established in Sulu in the 14th century and in Mindanao in the 15th century. The combination of a strong, organized religion and a high degree of political organization enabled the Muslim people of Mindanao to resist Spain's attempts to bring them under her dominion. The Tausug of Sulu, one of the Muslim peoples of the Philippines, are known as seafarers, but they build their houses on land, away from the shore. A site is considered lucky if it is flat and dry or if it gently slopes westward-towards Mecca. The traditional Tausug house rests on nine posts, each signifying a part of the body-the neck, navel, groin, left and right sides of body-the shoulders, ribs, and hips. Basically

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a one-room house, the Tausug dwelling includes a porch and a separate kitchen. A distinguishing feature of the house is an elaborately carved wooden finial, called tajuk pasung, placed at one or both ends of the roof ridge. The Samal and the Badjao are people of the sea. The sea is their source of livelihood, the link to other people, and the place for celebration. It is also home. The Samal build their houses on stilts over the water, along the shore or farther out, grouped together in villages and connected by bridges and catwalks. Un- like the Samal house, the Badjao landhouse stands alone on an expanse of water and is reached only by boat. It is not joined by bridges or catwalks to the shore or to other houses. It is an island made by humans. Among the Muslim Filipinos, there arose two in- stitutions which did not develop among the other ethnic peoples, namely, a specific place for worship

and the lordly residence of the ruler. The earliest mos- que in the Philippines is said to have been built in 1380 in Simunul Island, Tawi-tawi. Mosques in the Philip- pines follow the traditional Middle East design which includes an onion-shaped dome and minarets. However, some mosques are closer to indigenous architecture, with a multitiered roof resembling that of a pagoda. The Muslim chief resides in the torogan, a huge, stately, towering house, with a single large room. Although

"torogan" simply means a place for sleeping, the house is more than a residence. It is also used for official meetings, social gatherings, and religious rituals. Only the chief-the sultan or datu-is entitled to own and live in a torogan. The soaring, flaring roof, like a ceremonial umbrella, is a proclamation of ex- alted status. The massive posts serve as solid supports and signify established power. To protect the house from earthquakes, the oversized posts rest on stones. With this device, the house sways with the tremor, playfully surviving it. Posts may be plain and bulky or may be carved to look like clay pots or outsized chess pieces. The most arresting feature of the torogan is the set of protruding beam-ends, called panolong. Flaring out from the facade, intricately carved, and stunningly colored, the panolong resemble the boat prows and make the splendid torogan appear to float like a royal barge. For all the variety of design and construction, Cor- dillera, Mindanao, and Sulu houses are basically one- room dwellings covered by steep roofs and raised on stilts. They are all related to the bahay kubo (nipa hut) which in its simplicity is regarded as a prototype. Largely of bamboo and thatch, and with parts woven, fitted or tied together, the bahay kubo might be described as less of a building and more of a basket. While posts, beams, and joists are assembled, the roof is put together separately and later fitted on top like the lid of a basket. The bamboo floor, with its slats set slightly apart, is like the bottom of a basket and makes for incomparable ventilation. With air coming in through windows and floor and the crevices in thatch and bamboo walls, the bahay kubo is a house that breathes. Houses take an entirely different form in the Batanes, the northernmost islands of the archipelago. With the frequency of high winds and strong rain, the Batanes house is built to hug the ground. Thick stone walls and a thick grass roof withstand the severest storm. The roof is supported by posts encased in the stone walls. Stone and mortar

construction was introduced in the Batanes islands duri~g the Spanish regime. 21

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The Spanish Colonial Tradition

With cross and sword, Spain extended her empire to the Philippines in the 16th century. The Spanish colonizers settled in Cebu in 1565. Since Miguel Lopez de Legazpi had been instructed to establish more set- tlements and since sources of food in Cebu were in- adequate, the Spaniards moved northward to Luzon, which was more extensive in area and more fertile. In 1571 the Spaniards conquered Manila. Strategically located on the shore of a bay and at the mouth of a river, Manila was eminently suitable for defense, administration, and trade. The Spaniards occupied the fort that had been abandoned by Raja Soliman, ruler of Manila. In time, the wooden palisades gave way to fortifications of stone and a Spanish city took shape, following the prescriptions issued by King Philip II in 1573. The city was provided with a principal plaza and secondary plazas. Streets were laid out in a gridiron pattern. Around the main plaza rose the cathedral, government buildings, and the houses of ranking persons. Manila became the capital of the colony and the model for

22

town development. It was the geographic center of the colony, for the cross on the dome of the cathedral was the point from which distances were measured. With the influx of colonial officials, friars, missionaries, and traders, Manila became the center of political, religious, and economic power. In the early years of their

settlement in Manila, the Spaniards built churches and houses of wood and bamboo, but these were destroyed by fire. It became necessary to scout around for fireproof material. With the discovery of volcanic tuff quarries in San Pedro, Makati in the 1580s, the Spaniards began to construct dwellings, churches, and fortifications in stone. Antonio Sedeno, a Jesuit priest and engineer, trained local workmen in the art of building with stone. Prob- ably the oldest existing stone building in the Philip- pines is the San Agustin Church which has survived all earthquakes from the 17th century to the present. It

STONE CHURCH. Set on a hill, the Daraga Church In Blcol Is one of the finest examples of Philippine baroque. (Nancey 1906, American Hlstorfcal Collection) is said to rest on an inverted vault foundation that makes it float, so to speak, during earthquakes. In general, Spanish construction in the Philippines- fortresses, churches, and civic buildings-faithfully followed European models, especially when projects were closely supervised by Spaniards. To facilitate the work of Church and State, specifically the preaching of the gospel and the administration of the colony, towns were established and the scattered population was brought together in compact communities or reducciones. Missions and parishes were founded and churches were built. The church was built at the center of the town by the town plaza. It had its own plaza surrounded by a catenated or swayback wall. Shrines called capillas posas stood at each corner of the churchyard or around the church site. Adjacent to the church was the convento, the residence of the parish priest. The church of the colonial era is generally rectangular or cruciform in plan. Its walls are high and thick and are supported by buttresses. Windows are usually small. Its large size and massive construction made the church a suitable place of refuge for the townspeople during pirate raids or natural calamities. Bell towers served as watch- towers. Churches were made of adobe (volcanic tuff) stone, coral stone, or

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brick. In some churches brick and adobe were combined. A wall could consist of alter- nate courses of brick and adobe, or blocks of brick and adobe in a

checkerboard pattern. In the Tumauini Church, bricks were molded with ornaments on them and were numbered to guide the bricklayers in assembling them.

Cementing bricks and/or stone together was a mortar prepared from various recipes, and using different combinations of ingredients, like lime, crushed coral, crushed shells, molasses, sugar cane juice, goat's blood, carabao milk, egg shells, and egg white. The Philippine colonial church may be described as a plain stone box with a decorated front. The rear and side walls are plain. However, a side portal, which repeats decorative motifs of the facade, breaks the monotony. The facade often has a monopoly of exterior ornament. Columns and cornices traverse the front wall vertically and horizontally. Niches, blind arches, blind balustrades, and low relief carvings give depth, texture, and a certain cheerfulness to vast, solid

expanses of wall. The ornaments may be in the classic tradition-Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, baroque, or rococo. There are occasionally gothic, romanesque, or moorish trefoil arches. The native touch is also evident in the unorthodox use of classical ornaments or in the introduction of local motifs. Facades outstanding '

for their ornamentation are those of the Miag-ao Church in Iloilo, which depicts Saint Christopher car- rying the Infant Jesus amid lush tropical vegetation, and of the San Joaquin Church, which shows the sur- render of Tetuan in low relief. Early churches were of wood and bamboo, so they easily caught fire. Then stone churches were built, but with earthquakes, they caved in. Later, stone churches were provided with buttresses that came in various shapes: flat and thin, massive and rectangular, sloping, stepped, saw-toothed, barrel shaped or curved. Bell towers vary in design as well as in location. In plan, the bell tower may be square, octagonal, hex- agonal or, in rare instances, circular. In height, it may rise from three to five stories. It may be at some dis- tance from the church, adjacent to it, or integrated in the facade. Some churches have two towers, a few have three. When the bell tower is attached to the church, its ground floor houses the baptistry. In the past these churches were called Spanish, probably because they were designed by Spanish friars who were missionaries or parish priests, and the designs could have been based on pictures of European churches or on one's recollection of a European church. But more and more the Filipino character of these churches has become apparent; for local artisans- native or Chinese-did not always execute the classical ornaments or the baroque or neoclassic designs according to the rules but interpreted them according to their own skill, imagination, and taste. Thus whether instructed or so inspired, the artisans often incorporated local motifs-flowers and fruits or even a crocodile's head into church ornaments. In these designs, local artisans expressed something of their spirit-their simplicity and lightheartedness, and their love for abundance. The 19th-century townhouse, called bahay na bato (stone house), was a product of economic and social developments, as well as of architectural evolution. With the opening of Manila to international trade in 1834 and the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, trade and agricultural production rose to exhilarating heights and increased the fortunes of the native aris- tocracy, particularly in the provinces. Wealth became the passport to higher education not only in Manila but also in Europe. The elite or principalia included landowners and traders, as well as professionals- physicians

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and accountants-and the highly educated, cosmopolitan ilustrado. The lifestyle, aspirations, and even pretensions, of the upper class demanded a new type of dwelling that was spacious, durable, comfort- able, impressive, noble, and elegant-the bahay na bato.

23

HISTORICAL ESSAYS

Several house forms contributed to the emergence of the bahay na bato. One of its ancestors is the bahay kubo, which in itself might not have been a worthy dwelling for the ilustrado, but whose principles of design were too practical to be ignored. The steep hip roof, elevated quarters, post-and-lintel construction, and maximized ventilation are features of the bahay kubo that appear in grand style in the bahay na bato. A second ancestor may have been the native chieftain's house described by Antonio de Morga in the 17th century, which was elevated, sturdily built of timber, well-furnished; and spacious (having many rooms). A third influence may have been the houses of the Span- ish residents of Intramuros, who combined the native and the foreign styles of building in their two-story houses with wooden posts and beams, stone walls around the ground floor, and timber construction above. Finally, another model for the bahay na bato may have been the convento, rectory, or monastery built adjacent to the mission church, an authoritative presence in the center of the town which must have antedated the bahay na bato. Extravagantly spacious and solidly built, it could have become the local stan- dard for grandeur. In general, the bahay na bato may be described as a house with wooden legs and a stone skirt, a style of construction which makes the house a sure survivor of 24

19TH-CENTURY HOUSE. The bahay na bato, like the Banaag house In Taal, batangas, has wooden posts concealed by a stone skirt. (Rolly Dinero 1977, National Historical Collection)

earthquakes. The wooden frame gives it both flexibility and stability, while the one-story high stone wall is less likely to collapse. Large wooden posts are sunk into the ground but stand high enough to carry the roof. The posts are independent of both the stone wall below and the wooden walls above. Because they are of exceptionally precious hardwood, they are worth displaying. The living quarters are elevated and are reached through an interior stairway located in the zaguan on the ground floor. The zaguan, with its naked stonework, is a grim entrance hall but, with its abundant space, is the perfect storeroom for just about everything. The stairs are not only a means of access but also the setting for a stately arrival. A surrounding balustrade detached from the wall provides room all around for welcoming committees and prolonged farewells. The stairs lead up to the caida (upper entrance hall). Opening to the caida is the sala (living room). Bedrooms flank the sala and nearby is the dining room. At the rear of the house are the kitchen and next to it, the open-air

azotea. Running along the front and sides of the house and flanking the major rooms is the volada, a gallery which protects the rooms from

the heat of the sun. Along the volada is an elaborate system of windows. The broad, massive window sill is grooved and holds two sets of sliding shutters: a set of capiz

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or oyster shell shutters, or a set of glass-paned shutters, and a set of shutters with louvers or jalousies. Between the window sill and the floor runs the ventanilla, with sliding wooden shutters and iron grills or wooden balusters. Wide double doors are flung open to join each room to adjacent rooms. With all doors open, the house becomes one big hall. The interior of the bahay na bato is a striking example of space surrounded by space. Running above the partitions are panels of wooden fretwork, which allow the air within the house to circulate. The bahay na bato represents the apex in the development of indigenous Filipino architecture, because it expands the prototypal structure of the ethnic house from a one-room dwelling to a multiroomed house of grand scale while preserving the basic features, and because it adapts Western architectural influences to form a synthesis of native and immigrant art. The bahay na bato is a product of economic progress and

cultural adaptation, and as such is a symbol of the affluent westernized Filipino. It stands as a reminder of the social situation in which it evolved, a situation which has not significantly changed even with the introduction of democracy, public education, and free enterprise. The Spanish colonial era witnessed not only the construction of churches and civic buildings and the evolution of the bahay na bato, but also the rise of the first important architects in Philippine history. While most of the churches in the provinces were planned and designed by the friars, the bahay na bato were probably the result of architectural collaboration between the

homeowner, the master carpenter, and the chief mason. There were, however, professional architects who were active in the 19th century, particularly in Manila. Luciano Oliver, a Spaniard, designed the Taal Church, the Malabon Church, and the 1872 Manila Cathedral. Felix Roxas Sr, considered the first Filipino architect, trained abroad and was renowned for his revivalist designs. His works included the

neogothic Santo Domingo Church and the neoclassic San Ignacio Church, both in Intramuros, and a number of elegant houses for the upper class of Manila. Juan Hervas, a Spaniard, active from the late 1880s to the early 1890s, designed the Tutuban Railroad Station, the Monte de Piedad Building, the old Assumption Convent on Herran st and a number of houses. Arcadio Arellano, a trained maestro de obras (master builder), was appointed architectural adviser to Gov William Howard Taft in 1901 and is known for the

gothic-revival house of the Hidalgo family and the art nouveau Bautista-Nakpil house. Genaro Palacios designed the prefabricated all-steel San Sebastian Church in the 1880s. In the middle of the 19th century, Bartolome Palatino, a noted citizen of the wood carving town of Paete, designed and built the splendid facade of the church in Morong, Rizal, one of the finest examples of what can be called Filipino baroque.

The American Colonial and Contemporary Traditions

With the occupation of the Philipines by the United States in 1898, a new phase of Philippine architectural history began. In accordance with America's thrust towards establishing an American-style government, urban planning and architecture served the needs of secular education and public services. In 1904 American architect Daniel H. Burnham came to the Philippines to conduct a survey of Manila and Baguio to prepare development plans for both cities. Burnham was one of the architects of the 1893 Chicago Exposition which, under the influence of the Beaux

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Arts School of Paris, revived the neoclassic style of architecture. Burnham admired the bahay na bato and the colonial churches for their practicality and charm, and suggested that they be models for future development. Burnham's

recommendations for the development of Manila included the establishment of a government center with streets radiating from it; the retention, cleaning, and improvement of the esteros or canals; the construction of a bayshore boulevard from Manila to Cavite; the development of parks and water- fronts; and the

provision of sites for major public facilities, such as schools and hospitals. Among those assigned to implement the Burnham plan was American architect William E. Parsons. Parsons followed Burnham's recommendation that a style of architecture be developed to suit the tropical climate. Parson's major works include the Normal School (now Philippine Normal University), the Philippine General Hospital, the Manila Hotel, and the Army-Navy Club. These buildings and others of the early 20th century represented the thrust of American colonial policy in the Philippines -- health, public education, free enterprise, and training in self-government. In

contrast to the romantic air of colonial architecture, early 20th- century architecture in the Philippines was rational, functional, and seemingly plain. Young Filipinos who went or were sent to the United States for training in various fields included aspiring architects. They studied in American universities and institutes which were then under the influence of the Beaux Arts School of Paris. Among the US-trained Filipino architects of the early 20th century were Carlos Barreto, Antonio Toledo, Tomas Mapua, and Juan Arellano. They became exponents of the neoclassic style and designed buildings characterized by monumental scale and fidelity to tradition. Since they were employed in the government which was engaged in a nationwide building program, their influence on the architecture of the time was extensive. True to his classical training, Arellano designed the Manila Post Office Building and the Legislative Building following the canons of Graeco-Roman architecture. Although a disciplined classicist, Arellano experimented with romanticism and brilliantly

succeeded in producing the Metropolitan Theater in 1931. With art deco motifs, stylized interpretation of native plants, and a variety of color and texture, the Metropolitan, even decades after its design, is a refreshing piece of architecture. In the early 20th century, new house forms developed. But the basic design was still the house on stilts. Following the tone set by Parsons and turning away from the ornaments of the bahay na bato, the suburban house called tsalet (chalet) was comfortably functional and, in many cases, plain. A prominent feature of the house was the front porch or the surrounding porch. Some houses were entered through an exterior L-shaped or T -shaped concrete or wooden stairway. The chalet was a simple, respectable house for those moving up to the middle class. Architecture for the technological age was antici- pated by the prefabricated, all-steel structure of San Sebastian Church built in 1891, and by the University of Santo Tomas (UST) Main Building built in 1927, which is impressive not only for its monumental pro- portions but for its earthquake-proof construction. The latter consists of 24 separate sections with soft material, like tar, serving as cushions at the joints. During an earthquake, the walls do not crack, having been precracked, as it were. The all-steel church and the earthquake-proof building foreshadowed further technological developments in construction, specifically, more extensive use of steel, daring structural design, and more imaginative use of reinforced concrete. While the first generation of 20th-century Filipino architects firmly held on to tradition, the

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were a time for looking forward more confidently to national independence. The period marked

SCHOOL BUILDING. The girls' dormitory of the Philippine Normal School was

designed by William Parsons. (Commercial Handbook of ftle Philippine Islands 1924, American Hlstorfcal Collection)

..

the emergence of the Filipino business magnate, who rose from rags to riches in the heady atmosphere of free enterprise. The developing economy demanded new types of buildings like commercial office buildings, hotels, apartments, movie houses, and homes for the upper class. Into this environment of progress and experiment the young architects Andres Luna de San Pedro, Fer- nando Ocampo, Pablo Antonio, and Juan Nakpil made an auspicious entrance. Luna, son of painter and national hero Juan Luna, was an exponent of the art deco style. Among his existing works are the Perez- Samanillo Building on the Escolta. Ocampo likewise was notable for his art deco buildings, among them the Central Seminary of the UST. Nakpil's early works in the art deco style include the Avenue Theater and Hotel Building and the Quezon Institute Buildings. Antonio's works were marked by a certain boldness, the play of planes and volumes, and strong, dynamic movement. His works include the Far Eastern Uni- versity Main Building, the Bel-Air Apartments on Roxas Boulevard, and the Ramon Races Publications Building. Modernt

architecture in the Philippines was a departure from the neoclassic beaux arts tradition, but like the local neoclassic, it was still a product of foreign influence, a transplant from the west. While it was hailed as innovation, it was basically a new conform- ism to western trends. At the end of the WWII Manila was in ruins. The irreplaceable treasure that was Intramuros was re- duced to rubble. The once magnificent government buildings were bombed-out shells. Hasty reconstruction resulted in makeshift structures with false fronts. The atrocities of war were followed by the atrocities of reconstruction. While the established architects re- sumed their practice, new graduates emerged in time for the building boom that followed the war. The neoclassic government buildings that lay in ruins were rebuilt following their original plans. New government and commercial buildings departed from the neoclassic and art deco of the previous decades and sought fresh inspiration in the work of contemporary Western architects. The sunbreak, made popular by the Brazi-lian architect Oscar Niemeyer, became the object of extensive and even irrational imitation. With the increased volume of construction, real estate development grew in scale and began to be planned more rationally. Upper-class and middle-class villages and state housing projects signified recognition of the need for planned communities. While early 20th-century Filipino houses had developed from indigenous architecture, postwar houses

marked a departure from the native tradition. The break had been indicated earlier in the emergence of the two-story house in which living quarters occupied both first and second floors. In the bahay na bato, the living quarters were on the upper floor. The lower floor was a storage area. The tsalet of the early Amer- ican regime

followed the same scheme. The so-called Spanish-style house-with tile roofs, arches, and the indispensable three-story tower-began to appear in the 1930s and became

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the badge of the bourgeoisie for the next three decades. After the war came the one- story California bungalow, with picture windows, lanai (borrowed from Hawaii), and a two-to-three-car garage. This new status symbol represented the Amer- icanization of the Filipino house. With the appreciation of things Philippine ushered in by the folk dance revival, the interest in various folk arts and the rage for santos, antique furni- ture, and other colonial artifacts, many houses of contemporary style have looked back to native tradition, incorporating such features as steep-hip roofs, wooden lattices, capiz screens, and decorative woodwork, probably out of nostalgia or, hopefully, nationalism. In earlier years low-cost urban housing was pro-vided by the accesoria or wooden rowhouse, which survives in many old sections of Manila. Two-story units, each 3-4m wide, stood crowded together, with openings in front and at the back and, if fortunate, a small backyard. Government housing projects built after the war provided one-story, cement-block dwellings, either detached from or joined with others and set on small individual lots. With the Filipino penchant for remodelling, many of these pitifully plain units have

metamorphosed into charming examples of per- sonalized architecture. Multistory tenements, an alternative response to the need for mass housing, were nothing more than rowhouses extended horizontally and vertically. The Bagong Lipunan Sites and Services (BLISS) houses, a legacy of the Marcos regime, are multiple-unit, multistory buildings that take into account the decreasing availability of land. Even with the housing projects of the government, there are still not enough dwellings for the low- income group and the urban poor. The growth of the urban population, resulting from a high birth rate and uncontrolled migration from the rural areas, has ex- ceeded the government's capacity to provide adequate housing. Occupying whatever space is available- along railroad tracks, along or right over esteros, around garbage dumps, under bridges, along the sea- wall, inside abandoned buildings, on any unguarded vacant lot-the urban poor have built their rickety 27

HISTORICAL ESSAYS

one-room shanties using discarded materials, card- board boxes, rusty roofing sheets, and rotten wood. Philamlife Homes in Quezon City, a fine example of middle-class housing built in the 1950s, was note- worthy for its simple yet attractive houses, many of which have been remodelled beyond recognition. Its well-planned site is distinguished by an organic lay- out; i.e., its streets follow the contour of the land. Upper-class residential architecture is represented by both sprawling houses on spacious gardens in the plush villages and the deluxe air-conditioned apartments in high-rise condominiums. Lower in the scale of luxury, the townhouses of the rising bourgeoisie are sophisticated versions of the urban rowhouse. Grandeur, or just plain bigness, in architecture is a function of autocratic government or corporate omnipotence. The splendid architecture of Rome, for instance, was the work of the emperors, the popes, and Benito Mussolini. The

skyscrapers of New York are glittering monuments to big business and imperial- ism. Martial law and the rule of the Marcoses was the setting of massive and

monumental construction in Metro Manila never witnessed before in the country. The North Diversion Road, the South Superhighway, the Cultural Center of the Philippines (CCP) Main Building, the Manila Film Center, the Folk Arts Thea- ter, the Philippine International Convention Center (PICC), the five-star hotels, the Batasang Pambansa, the Philippine Heart Center, the Lung Center, the

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28

HOUSE OF WOOD. Introduced during the early American regime, the elevated tsalet or chalet features a prominent porch. (Ayala Museum Col/ecffon)

Central Bank Buildings, the Philippine National Bank and Government Service Insurance System Buildings at the reclamation area, and the restoration of the walls and gates of Intramuros were all possible only under a monopoly of power

maintained by 'extravagant spend- ing for the sake of political impact. The rivalry for supremacy in business is evident in the ubiquitous malls, superbuildings that accommo- date under one roof supermarkets, department stores, bookstores, boutiques, restaurants, movie houses, amusement centers, and drugstores. With land rising in value, the use of urban space is maximized through vertical

expansion-upwards, with taller buildings, and downwards, with deeper multilevel basements. Until the 1950s the height of buildings was restricted by ordinance to 30m or about 10 stories. But since the development of Makati, high-rise buildings have ex- ceeded that limit, going up to 20 floors and now going beyond 40. The coming of age in contemporary Philippine architecture is evident in such buildings as the Nation- al Press Club, Philamlife Home Office, Magsaysay Memorial, San Miguel Corporation Head Office, Twin Towers, Ritz Towers, Pacific Plaza, CCP Main

Build-ing, Philippine Plaza Hotel, PICC, Pacific Star, Meral- co, Tahanang Pilipino, and many others constructed in the last 30 years. All these testify to the genius and maturity of their architects. It is no longer enough for architects to design efficiently

organized and aesthetically satis- fying space. They also have to take into account the complex technology that will go into it: elevator and escalator systems, air-conditioning, fire-protection systems, and computers. While adapting architecture to the demands of technology, architects realized that architecture must also be a reflection of culture and an embodiment of art.

Prospects for Filipino Architecture

With Filipino architects becoming more at ease in the modem idiom and more aware of the Filipino's search for cultural identity, they became more concerned with questions like: Is there such a thing as Filipino architecture? Were the works of Filipino architects mere imitations of Western models? Would a modem Filipino architecture eventually develop? And the questions are valid. For the art and

science of architecture is not only a response to human needs-- the need for shelter, the need for order, the need for beauty, and the need for a sense of transcendence; it is also fundamentally a search for identity. In this continuing search for

architectural identity, the variety of houses and buildings that emerged through centuries of Philippine history, from one end of the archipelago to the other, yield common characteristics that should be considered by young architects concerned with a Philippine style of architecture. One feature of the Filipino house, and hence, of Filipino architecture, is the concept of space and the interrela- tion of different spaces like outdoor and indoor space, and the various areas of indoor space. An interior space is a space surrounded by space. Rooms open to adjacent rooms, or within a room, different spaces are created by means of levels or visual dividers. Space becomes a place for gathering or for solitude while remaining integrated. It is a function of personal rela- tions. Also, in a tropical climate, a house must breathe.