Main Arguments - Crime
The Nature of Crime□ The categories of crime
● Crimes against the Person (murder) is the highest - refects
o Offences against the erson ssome form of harm inficted on an indiiidua’ and inc’uded within Crimes Act (1900)
o Murder
▪ Society s unacce tance of the un’awfu’ ki’’ing of a erson sees murder as the most serious offence � heaiy unishments and substanta’ ai’-tmem
▪ R v Milat (1996) - accused was sentenced to ena’ seriitude for ’ifem o Sexua’ Assau’t and sex offences
▪ Regarded by society as crimes that can infict hysica’ and sycho’ogica’ harm to a erson in an un’awfu’ waym
▪ R v Scaf (2002) - where one of the accused, Bi’a’ Scaf, was sentenced to 31 years im risonmentm o In this way, the categories of crime eiident’y refect mora’ and ethica’ standards to rotect both the
indiiidua’ and the communitym
● Drug offences do not refect
o 2013 NDSHS
▪ 42% of eo ’e in Austra’ia aged 14 years or o’der had i’’icit’y used drugs
▪ Suggest that use and consum ton of i’’icit drugs are a common occurrence within the broader societym o 2012 artcle from ‘The Conversatonn
▪ A’ison Riter, Professor & S ecia’ist in Drug Po’icy at UNSW Austra’ia
▪ Natona’ suriey � 80% of Austra’ians su ort the decrimina’isaton of cannabis
▪ Des ite the harm caused by drug � does not cause as much socia’, economic, emotona’ and hysica’ harm as great as tobacco and a’coho’
o Oierwhe’ming number su orted the crimina’isaton of some i’’icit drugs
o In this way, it can be argued that the category of drug offences, rimari’y in re’aton to cannabis, is not a refecton of a number of Austra’ians mora’s and ethics
□ Factors efectng criminal behaviour ● Im actng com ’iance
▪ S ecifc grou s of eo ’e haie a substanta’’y ’arger chance of commitng a crime com ared to others due to the socia’ and menta’ factors that determine their ersona’ity characteristcs and tendency to not com ’y with the ’awm
o Theory of diferental associaton
▪ Pro oses that interactons with others ex oses indiiidua’s to ia’ues, attudes and moties for crime, the factors that affect crimina’ behaiior are determined by interactons on socia’ ’eie’s and ▪ the ingrained mis erce tons communicated throughout societa’ connectonsm
o A 2011 study by AIS
▪ If both arents had crimina’ records the robabi’ity � chi’d wou’d commit a serious crime was 67%, this com ared with an 18m7% chance of offending if neither arent had a reiious recordm
o Jason Arthur West in 2013 – armed robbery
▪ Were dea’t with in consideraton of his “tough u bringing” and the ’ack of necessites that “motiated Mr West from a iery young age to stea’ in order to get food”m
▪ Low SES � subsequent reoffending was a direct resu’t of his need to maintain a drug addicton ▪ Resu’t of growing u with “no father, and a’coho’ic mother and a iio’ent ste father
o Sydney University child abuse expert Judith Cashmore
▪ “if you re ex osed to iio’ence at a young age, you can ’earn that that s the on’y way to engage with eo ’e”
o The issue of unem ’oyment, which affects 5m2% of the NSW o u’aton, is a ma or contributng factor of the abi’ity to achieie com ’iance in regard to crimina’ ’awm
o In corre’aton with the heightened unem ’oyment rates rom ted by the 2008 recession
▪ crime rates were redicted to rise as a resu’t of youth em ’oyment ’ummetng in ’ower socioeconomic areasm
o ABC 2009: Experts warn crime will rise as jobs go,
▪ A 15-year-o’d boy, affected by the high unem ’oyment rates of the 2008 recession, said a ’ack of com ’iance with the ’aw stemmed from the attudes surrounding em ’oyment and the “easy money” gained in resortng to “doing something e’se; something wrong”
o 2015 research report into youth unemployment in Australia
▪ “unem ’oyment may ’ead to drug abuse, domestc iio’ence and crime inio’iement”m o BOSCAR’s NSW crime statstcs quarterly update
▪ recent strength in the Austra’ian economy has contributed signifcant’y to the dro in crime rates with the “twe’ie ma or crime categories fa’’ing to their ’owest ’eie’s in 20 years
o The sycho’ogica’ we’’being of an indiiidua’ a’so has an im act on their com ’iance with the crimina’ ’aw as the diagnosis of menta’ i’’ness effects an indiiidua’s udgment ca abi’ites and hence the ’ike’ihood of them commitng a crime
o A study into the mental health of prison entrants in Australia by the Australian Insttute of Health and Welfare
▪ 49% of inmates re orted haiing a menta’ hea’th disorder
▪ 34% suffered from sycho’ogica’ stress due to fami’y or re’atonshi issues within their community o Killing of Margaret Tannous at the hands of her husband George Tannou (2016)
▪ His behaiior was driien by de’usiona’ fears and an obsessiie nature indicatie of what the court resented as a “ma or sychotc disorder”m
▪ His contro’’ing + menta’’y unstab’e nature, “directed his actons in ki’’ing his wife and substanta’’y im aired his udgment
□ Situatonal and Social crime preventon strategies and compliance ● Com ’iance – essay from task
Situati nal Effectv
e
o high’y effectie � creatng su ortie eniironments that decrease the risk of crime
o Enhance com ’iance - deterring indiiidua’s through mani u’aton of eniironments emgm CCTV and a’arm systems
o The ABC News artclee “Sydney crime falling as preventon strategies yield results” ▪ Drm Garner C’ancey s: “Midels if Crime Preventin” - out’ines iariety of situatona’
strategies that are accredited to increase security o December 2016 BOSCAR report
▪ Decrease of 16/17 ma or offences 75% dec’ine in NSW oier 15 years
▪ Corre’aton between decreasing crime rates and im ’ementaton of situatona’ strategies o “NSW Community Safety Fund”
▪ A’’ows ’oca’ communites to a ’y for a $250,000 grant for ro ects designed to reient crime in their iicinitym
▪ Equitab’e, resource efcient, funding corre’atng with needs of communitym
Situati nal Ineffec
tve
o CCTV critcized in its ro’e of deterring crime - concerns oier resource efciencym o SMH 2014 “The real cost of CCTV might stop you smiling”e
▪ Research = CCTV is ’east effectie at deterring serious offences ▪ 2012 � Sydney s annua’ ex enditure was $1m7 mi’’ionm
o The AIC publicaton, “Efectveness of public space CCTV systems” ▪ CCTV does not ’ay a ro’e in reientng serious offences
▪ Offenders react by dis ’acing their crimina’ actiity to b’ind s otsm
o 2016 report by BOSCARe “Did the ‘lockout lawn reforms increase assaults at The Star casino, Pyrmont”
Star Casino and surrounding ubs in Pyrmontm
▪ Liquor Amendment Act (2014) � caused a’coho’-fue’’ed iio’ence to rise 46% in Pyrmont
Sicial Effectv
e
o According to former crime reienton consu’tant and senior ’ecture at the Uniiersity of Sydney, Drm Garner;
▪ Most effectie way of reientng ’oca’ crime and increasing com ’iance � socia’ crime reienton and ear’y interienton schemes
▪ This inc’udes youth mentoring and educaton ’ans that su ort iu’nerab’e indiiidua’s, rimari’y the youth, who haie an increased chance of fa’’ing into crime in ’ater ’ife ▪ Aim to target the iarious factors that affect crimina’ behaiiour by su ortng youth in
regards to socia’ and sycho’ogica’ determinants
o ABC News artclee “Backing Bourke: How a radical new approach is saving young people from a life of crimen
▪ 2013 � Bourkeranked the highest in NSW for breaching and non-com ’ying with the ’aw for offences such as bai’, assau’t, and domestc iio’encem
▪ “Justce Reinvestment” scheme � estab’ished with the aim to reorientate seriices to address under’ying factors
▪ emgm educaton rograms, free driiing rograms, and crackdowns on domestc iio’encem o The ABC “Four Corners Program: Backing Bourke
▪ Effectieness of uustce Reiniestment � ’owering crime rates
▪ Number of driiing offences in Bourke has been the ’owest in 10 years ▪ Preia’ence of drug offences has dec’ined signifcant’ym
Sicial Ineffec
tve
o Needs of re’eased inmates not met � non-com ’iance + recidiiism rates high o According to the Australian Insttute of Criminology
▪ 60% of those in custody in Austra’ia haie been im risoned beforem
o The Sydney Morning Herald artclee “Aboriginal jail rates increase by 50%, but rehab fails to reduce re-ofending”
▪ Im risonment rates amongst ATSI increased by 52% oier 10 years
▪ ATSI youth exc’uded from rehab rograms as they fai’ to qua’ify for seriices OR can t access cu’tura’’y a ro riate seriicesm
o Additonallye ABC’s “Four Corners Program: Australians Shame”
▪ Footage of abuse uieni’e ustce faci’ites im ose against young ATSI ▪ Re resents the beginning of a cyc’e of incarceraton and re-offendingm
The Crimina’ Iniestgaton Process □ Police powers
o Po’ice main ’aw enforcement ofcia’s within society
o Law Enforcement Powers and Responsibilites Act (2002) (LEPRA)
▪ Po’ice giien discretonary owers in their abi’ity to distnguish the use of “reasonab’e force” ▪ Can be ineffectie and discriminatory � tarnishing the ru’e of ’aw
o Tasers controiersia’ Issue o Death of Robert Curt
▪ Issues of misuse and dangers of unrestricted hand’ing
▪ Robert Curt, 21 y/o Brazi’ian ki’’ed in 2012 afer being tasered 14x by o’ice atem tng to arrest him ▪ Coronia’ inquest into death recommend seiera’ o’ice offences face acton fnding they had acted
“thuggish manner”
▪ Atorney genera’ - “Po’ice showed a a’’ing udgement and no understanding on ro er training o “ABC 7:30 ‘Teen tasering highlights weapon-use concerns”
▪ Footage of a 14-year-o’d boy being ta ered by o’ice ▪ Raised questons on use wea ons
▪ “Worst cases of o’ice bruta’ity I haie eier seen” – Keiin Henshaw
o Tasers ’ace grou s within society – young men + those who a ear “crimina’” – in danger □ Investgatng Crime
● Use of Techno’ogy – DNA, CSI effect
o A’’ eiidence must be obtained ’awfu’’y as out’ine Evidence Act 1995 (NSW) � otherwise inadmissib’e + reduces change of coniicton
o This rotects rights of the offender o DNA Eiidence
▪ Im ortant and he’ fu’ in co’d cases ▪ Not so’e’y re’iab’e
▪ Ru’es of co’’ecton are under the; Crimes (Forensic Procedures) Act 2000 o Ineffectie DNA:
▪ ABC 2012 Late line ‘CSI Efect questons forensic evidence”
⇒ High rof’e a ea’s - concerns + doubts about use of untested eiidence that can ut innocent eo ’e behind bars
⇒ CSI affect; seductie noton that forensic science on TV neier fai’s ⇒ Can be mis’eading for uries
▪ Farah Jama (2008)
⇒ Man was coniicted for (6 years) because of a DNA mix u ⇒ Doubts about re’iabi’ity of the DNA sam ’e; a ea’ succeeded
⇒ Vincent Inquiry ’ooked at how rosecuton case was mounted – recommendaton to reduce CSI effect + increase integrity of system
□ Arrest and Charge/Detenton + Interrogaton ● Terrorism Exce ton – Drm Haneef Case
o LEPRA out’ines the conditons in which o’ice can make an arrest – on’y detain for 6 hours then chose to re’ease or charge
▪ Protects offenders - not he’d u in remand o Ant-Terrorism Act (No222) 2005 (Cth)
▪ Exce ton to genera’ 6 hour detenton ru’e erson sus ected of engaging terrorist actiity can be detained for 48 hours w/o being charged
▪ Kee s community safe ▪ Case: Dr Haneef
⇒ Doctor detained for 2 weeks
⇒ Federal Government inquiry (Clarke Inquiry) in 2008 to iniestgate the circumstances of the arrest and detenton of him
⇒ Found that Haneef was wrong’y charged and critcised the iarious bodies inio’ied with the case,
□ Bail
● 1975 Act, 2007 amendments, 2013 amendment, 2013 amendment round 2
o Bail Act 1978 reforms most’y ineffectie � rising number of indiiidua’s in remand, with no indicaton of crime rates decreasingm
o 2007 Reforms � changing socia’ ia’ues + fai’ure of existng ’aws ▪ “Presum ton in faiour of bai’” � shif to “one shot at bai’ m ▪ Adierse im ’icatons on young offenders
▪ BOCSAR (2008-09)�32% increase of uieni’e offenders on remandm
▪ Under Austra’ia internatona’ ob’igatons with the Conventons on the Rights of the Child � im eded the rights of young offenders as iso’ated from society, their fami’ies and schoo’ing for ’ong eriods of tme on remandm
o 2013 Reforms � fai’ure of this amendment and increased media ressures
▪ Case-by-case “risk assessment” gaie o’ice and courts the discreton to determine whether an offender oses “unacce tab’e risk to the community”m
▪ Whi’e grantng young eo ’e with “2 shots at bai’”, the amendments caused wide-sca’e ub’ic distress as a’’eged offenders were granted bai’m
▪ Case of Sydney air ort ki’’er, Mahmoud Hawi, the magistrate oierseeing the case was ob’igated to grant bai’ due to the “mitgatng conditons” out’ined in the new ’egis’atonm
▪ Under the reiious ’egis’aton Hawi wou’d haie been ke t in remand, as, due to his offence, he wou’d be osed as an unacce tab’e risk to the communitym
o 2013 Round 2 � knee erk reacton
▪ The Bai’ Act was amended afer a month due to critcisms by the media and Ray Hadley on 2GB radiom
▪ According to Don Weatherburn in a 2014 SMH artcle, the reforms were “unnecessary” as there was “no eiidence that bai’ was easier to get under the new ’aws or the threat of reoffending on bai’ had
risen”
o Reforms to the Bai’ Act � tensions between the rights of offenders and the rotecton of the greater society, but oiera’’, haie demonstrated an instance where ’aw reform has been considerab’y ineffectiem
□ Rights of Suspects
● Right to Si’ence reforms
o Evidence Amendment (Evidence of Silence) Act 2013 - new secton into the Evidence Act 1995
▪ Sus ects cautoned � sit may harm your defence if you fai’ to menton something now that you ’ater re’y on at tria’
▪ Reforms tack’ing right to si’ence - frustrates o’ice iniestgatons of driie by shootngs and organised crime iio’encem
▪ Aim: increase the efciency of ’aw enforcement by ensuring consistency between the crimina’ iniestgaton and tria’ rocessm
o 2013 SMH artcle “Should the right to silence be removed” ▪ amendments “a’’ows o’ice to do their ob”m
▪ DPP Nicho’as Cowdery - “amendment re resents a signifcant deiiaton from the go’d standard of crimina’ ustce” which is “the right to be resumed innocent unt’ roien gui’ty”
o 2014 SMH “lawyers not turning up”
▪ Lack resource efciency � ’awyers sim ’y “don t turn u ”m
o Whi’e reforms aim to rotect the community + increase the efciency � im eded the rights of offendersm
The Crimina’ Tria’ Process □ Court Jurisdicton
● MERIT system discussion, Robert Curt coronia’ Inquest ● Cost Issues
o In summary maters � the courtroom intmidatng due to its forma’ receding and ’engthy rocess adierse effect ustcem
o ABC 2015e ‘'Debt vultures' preying on fnancially vulnerable as lawyers prepare to launch $30m class actonn
● Senior barristers fee of $8000 er day
● Case go oier many weeks/months before resu’t resource inefciency excessiie burden on money and tmem
o R v Dietrich 1992
● No im ’ied right to ’ega’ re resentaton, thus affectng the outcome of the tria’ ● Lega’ Aid strict basis, on’y for extreme oierty adierse im acts
o SMH 2016 “Tough means test locks low-income earners out of legal aidn
● Free ’ega’ re resentaton is on’y aiai’ab’e to eo ’e who earn ’ess than $318 a week ● # of eo ’e re resentng themse’ies in the ’oca’ court � increase (in 2008 it was 41%)m
o In this way, the court system has demonstrated strains on tme, money and ’ega’ re resentaton, demonstratng its ineffectieness in roiiding ustce for both the offender and the iictms
▪ Doub’e eo ardy amendments
o Doub’e eo ardy is a rocedura’ defence that reients an accused erson from being tried again on the same (or simi’ar) charges and on the same facts, fo’’owing a ia’id acquita’ or coniictonm
o SMH 2017 “Double Jeopardy: What is it?”
● sThere's a good reason the ’aws exist — to sto authorites re eated’y harassing eo ’e that haie been roien innocent
o Case Study – R v Caroll (2002) HCA
● 1985 – found gui’ty of murdering a baby gir’ ● A ea’ed to CCA and was acquited
● New forensic denta’ eiidence ’inked him to murder � was tried for er ury (’ying under oath) as court cou’d not use murder again as a reason � WAS found gui’ty
● A ea’ to High Court where coniicton was quashed statng he had been tried twice for the same crime
o Community Concerns ’eading to ’aw reform;
● Pressured goiernment to reform the ’aw The Crime (Appeal and Review) Amendment (Double Jeopardy) Act 2006 (NSW) � enab’es erson who is acquited of a SERIOUS crime to be retried in certain circumstances
o Queensland’s Atorney Generale Jarrod Bleijie states in 2014
● “If we can change a iece of ’egis’aton that uts a erson before the court that st’’ has the due rocess and is ab’e to fnd that erson gui’ty of a horrifc offence, then I think that s ustce seried”
o Controiersia’ ciii’ ’ibertarians argued it reduced common ’aw rotectons of the rights of the accused whi’st increasing rights of iictms
□ The Adversary System
● Issues; uries, ’ega’ re resentaton (’ega’ aid), DPP
o Procedures + ru’es of eiidence designed for equa’ o ortunity to resent case (each side) o Accurate ierdict + em hasis on rocedura’ fairness ru’e of ’aw
o Common Law rights - Right to Fair Tria’
▪ Common ’aw “right to fair trial” (Dietrich v Queen)� ensuring that there is a’ways an unbiased outcome
▪ Prosecuton burden of roof �“innocent untl proven guilty” - greater ustce to the accusedm ▪ ABC 2017: “Can jury trials be fair in the age of social media”
⇒ “uurors running their own crimina’ iniestgatons using the internet and socia’ media is increasing’y risking Austra’ians' right to a fair tria’”
▪ Eiidence must be co’’ected ’awfu’’y in accordance to the Evidence Act 1995. ▪ Breaches act udges dec’araton of the eiidence as inadmissib’e – cannot be used ▪ R v Scaf
⇒ Eiidence reiea’ed 2 urors conducted un recedented iniestgaton of crime scene ⇒ Court of Crimina’ A ea’ quashed coniictons + ordered retria’
o Effectie for accused – right to fair tria’, un’awfu’ eiidence is inadmissib’e
□ Pleas and Charge Negotaton
● Issues with receiiing ’esser unishment – R i Loieridge (community outcry), Musta ha Dib (integrity of ’aw), Andrew Ma’’ard ( eer ressured into gui’t)
o P’ea-bargaining – 2 eo ’e who haie commited the same crime � receiie different treatment and outcomesm o Effectie: reduce the cost + de’ay in the court system
o The Australian Parliament of Australia
● In oier 80% of crimina’ cases, the accused ersons ’ead gui’ty to the chargem
● Charge negotaton is faster and increases the rate of crimina’ coniictons bringing greater ustce to iictms of crime
o Issues of retributon
▪ Reductons in sentences for the offender - in ustce to iictms of crimem
▪ Those who ’ead gui’ty - giien a ’esser sentence than those found gui’ty by courtm
▪ R v Loveridge (2013): the DPP reduced his sentence from murder to mans’aughter community outcry o Need to P’ead
▪ In additon, ’ea bargaining ’aces accused iictms in situatons where they fee’ the need to ’ead gui’tym This may ’ead to a series of bu’’ying and mani u’aton of the accused that forfeits their right to tria’m
▪ Andrew Mallard
⇒ Mnta’’y i’’ and ’eaded gui’ty to murder he didn t commit - coniicted for ’ife for murder of woman in 1995 – wa’ked free in 2006
o Lacking consistency
□ Legal representaton – legal aid
● $$ Inequity – thresho’d is be’ow oierty ’ine
o Success de ends on both sides being re resented equa’’ym o Inequa’ity due to qua’ity of ’ega’ team
▪ Ex erience + abi’ity of the ’ega’ team may be more im ortant in determining the ierdict than the qua’ity of the eiidence � artcu’ar’y in ury tria’sm
▪ In summary crimina’ maters � rosecuton wi’’ haie more ex ertse than the defendant's so’icitor inequa’ity and in ustcem
o Cuts to ’ega’ aid
▪ ABC 2017: “160e000 people turned away: How the justce system is failing vulnerable Australians” ⇒ stens of thousands s’i ing through cracks
⇒ Community ’ega’ centres turning away 160,000/year due to ’ack of ca acity + additona’ 10,000/year facing courts a’one due to cutbacks
⇒ s13% of o u’aton ’iie under oierty ’ine but ’ega’ aid on’y for 8% ▪ Reduce the chance for equa’ity in re resentaton
o Testmony
▪ Re’ies on witness statementsm
▪ Cases where witness fee’ uncomfortab’e in disc’osing a testmony in ustce ▪ R v Scaf,
⇒ Retria’ – one of rimary witnesses refused to testfy in court (detai’s eient too traumatsing to reiisit)
⇒ Law reform to a’’ow iideo eiidence in sexua’ assau’t cases
□ Defences to criminal charge
● Proiocaton – Good for Dom Vio’ence, Bad for men as iictm b’aming issue
o Im ’ies that the iictm has a ’eie’ of res onsibi’ity in the crime; Defence � roie that their actons were as a resu’t of another ersons actons
o SMH “Out-of-stop excuse is no defence”
● Other states (a art from NSW) � abandoned roiocaton defence, or restricted its use
● “because it has seried to excuse ma’e iio’ence against women and romote a cu’ture of iictm b’aming”
● Out-dated noton hai’ing from a tme when “men's honour and assumed inabi’ity to exercise se’f-contro’ were more im ortant than women's rights or equa’ity
o R v Singh
● Accused receiied 6 years for murdering his wife afer she to’d him that she wanted a diiorcem ● uury acquited the accused of murder and agreed he ’ost his contro’ � causing community outrages ● Case where “men ki’’ their wiies and get away with it”m
o R v Won
● Husband ki’’ed his wife s ’oier afer found in bed � 7m5 years ai’ fo’’owing due to roiocaton o A Victorian study of cases between 1998 and 2007
● Most common macm sentence for roiocaton mans’aughter was 9 years com ared with 18 years for murder � HUGE dis arity
o In cases where roiocaton is successfu’, someone who might rightu’’y haie been coniicted of murder wi’’ receiie the ’esser charge of mans’aughter, resu’tng in in ustce for both the iictms and the communitym
o Effectie; ustce for domestc iio’ence iictms suffering sbatered wife syndrome m o BOSCAR (1990-93);
o R v Singh and R v Won� ar’iamentary inquiry to roiocaton defence o 2012 SMH artcle “Losing provocaton defence could harm abused women”
▪ Lawyers warned ar’iamentary inquiry into abo’ishment � “batered women who ki’’ their abusiie husbands wi’’ be disadim + more ’ike’y to go to ai’ for murder
▪ It defends women of domestc iio’ence to haie charge downgraded to mans’aughter ▪ “Such women, if that defence was remoied, wou’d be coniicted of murder''
o ABC 2013 artcle “Inquiry says provocaton defence should stay“
▪ “the defence of roiocaton series an essenta’ art in the crimina’ ustce system” ▪ “essenta’ for rotectng women who haie been sub ect to ongoing domestc iio’ence”
● Menta’ I’’ness – Water’ow case, issue with sgetng away with menta’ i’’ness
o M'Naghten's case (1843)
● Precedent estab’ished � menta’ i’’ness as a com ’ete defence during tria’
● Defence they must roie that their state of mind reiented them from knowing that what they were doing was wrongm
o Found not gui’ty by reason of menta’ i’’ness ● Accused go to sychiatric insttuton
● Menta’ hea’th monitored by the Menta’ Hea’th Reiiew Tribuna’ � a’’ows rehab o R V Waterlow
● Accused charged with murder of sister and father on the 9th Noiember 2009
● uustce Hidden ordered that Water’ow be he’d in Sydney's Long Bay Prison Hos ita’ unt’ he is deemed ft to be re’eased into the communitym
● Community rotected from harm + accused he’d unaccountab’e for something they did not understand
o Community concerns � what consttutes “menta’ i’’ness” as a defence during tria’m
● Noton of what is consttuted as menta’ i’’ness � recedent was estab’ished ’ong tme ago � argued to out date modern society
● Not su orted by current medica’ theory and know’edge
o The SMH 2014e “Criminals using mental illness as defence frustratng police and prosecute” ● Used too ofen “an easy way out”
● When offenders acquited in ustce to both the iictm and the greater society as they are ’aced at riskm
o NSW Law Reform Commission report on Mental Illness (2012) ● Insanity ’ea is not as easy way out
● Offenders can st’’ be insttutona’ised when found not gui’tym o Extreme’y hard to estab’ish
● Rigorous to roie � defence inaccessib’e, seriing as an in ustce to iu’nerab’e indiiidua’s who wish to use it
● Se’f-defence – R i Si’ia, Kas arian, Zeceiic
o When the accused carries out a crime in the act of defending themse’ies or someone e’se, whi’e atem tng to reient a crime or rotect from a threat
o Use “PROPORTIONAL AND REASONABLE FORCE” to defend themse’ies o Good for Domestc Vio’ence iictms
o R v Kasparian
● Ms Kas arian stabbed her artner as a means of se’f defence during an argument when he was extreme’y aggressiie and threatening
● Found not gui’ty of murder or mans’aughter
● She to’d o’ice “Yes, I stabbed him but he was atacking me so I had to” o R v Silva (2015)
● Abuse domestc iio’ence re’atonshi ; iictm unched accused when he threatened to ki’’ her; during scufe with Si’ia s father � she got a knife and stabbed him
● P’ead not gui’ty to murder
● uury found gui’ty of mans’aughter on grounds of excessiie se’f-defence ● Sentences to 2 years im rison � this was sus ended to a good behaiiour bond o The Age 2014: Se’f-defence a com ’icated issue, udge te’’s ury in Bracken murder tria’
● “The ’aw says that eo ’e may eien commit acts which wou’d otherwise be murder if they be’ieie those acts are necessary to defend themse’ies or another erson, from being ki’’ed or rea’’y serious’y in ured," uustce Maxwe’’ said
□ Role of juries – including majority verdicts
● R i Scaf – issue with 2 urors, Techno’ogy – b’inded by science, socia’ media remoies im arta’ity, Lacking ex erience and know’edge
o SMH 2013
● uuries erform a ia’uab’e ro’e in “connectng the community with crimina’ ustce” - Nicho’as Cowdery
● Ca’uab’e method of bringing ’aw abiding citzens into contact with the crimina’ tria’ rocessm o NSW Council of Civil Libertes ABC 2011
● Moreoier, uries can be used as a way of rotectng the rights of the accused
● " udged by the diierse eo ’e of the ury" as o osed to a otenta’’y biased sing’e indiiidua’ o uudge may haie outdated community or fami’y ia’ues, or a monochromatc u bringing which may adierse’y
infuence their iiewsm o Jury Amendment Act 2010
● As such, uries roiide a contradictng accurate cross secton of the community
● The Act � which im roies the e’igibi’ity and se’ecton of urors, a’’owing for a broader inio’iement, with the inc’usion of emergency seriices ersona’ and ’awyers
o News.com 2013
● Ian L’oyd QC, " uries are swayed by many different factors which are not a’ways ’ogica’ or reasonab’e"
● A ury common room can become a ’ace of heated discussion or bu’’ied iiewsm o The NSW Law Reform Commission
● "DNA eiidence has roien to be a com ’ex issue for uries" o R v Murdoch 2005
● Where a ury had to be shown a resentaton on the functon of DNA eiidence before they cou’d giie an accurate ierdictm
o Oiera’’, uries ’ay an im ortant ro’e in ensuring the mora’s and ethics of the community are used as the standard, but the ’ack of know’edge and otenta’ bias of the urors may ’imit their ca acity to determine accurate ustcem
o uurors ofen haie different inter retatons of the meaning of ’ega’ ’anguage, insofar that this may affect the ierdict of a casem
o NSW BOCSAR
● “54% urors be’ieied that the hrase 'beyond reasonab’e doubt' means 'sure [that] the erson is gui’ty ”m
o Pauline Wrighte Chair of NSW Law Society’s Criminal Law Commitee.
● uuries may roie to be a disadiantage if a case was “so technica’ [that it] wou’d be hard for a ury to understand”
● “There are concerns that cannot be oiercome regarding re-ta’ ub’icity” � a miscarriage of ustce, borne of misunderstanding
o R v Scaf
● Fo’’owing the inita’ sentence, eiidence reiea’ed that two urors had conducted an un recedented iniestgaton of the crime scene to their own ex erimentm
● As a resu’t, the Court of Crimina’ A ea’ quashed the accused s coniictons and ordered a retria’ on the basis of breaching the Evidence Act 19952
● Ma ority ierdicts – saiing court tmes, but remoies right to fair tria’
o A hung ury describes a situaton where the ury is unab’e to come to a conc’usion on the ierdict and as such, a retria’ is requiredm
o The Jury Amendment (Verdicts) Act NSW 2006
● A’’ows for a ma ority ierdict of 11-1, in the eient of de’ayed de’iberatonsm o SMH 2016: Atorney-General Bob Debus
● Ex ’ains the reform as to " reient ’one rouge urors forcing mistria’", due to "unsustainab’e iiews or re udices"
o R v Burnell 2005
● Resu’ted in a hung ury, yet a retria’ in 2006 resu’ted in a gui’ty ma ority ierdict, through the new ’egis’aton
● This case suggests that this rocess enab’ed a faster dis atch of ustcem o SMH 2006: NSW Law Reform Commission
● Proiides a confictng iiew that "it is referab’e in the interests of ustce that the tria’ conc’ude with a hung ury rather than an unsafe ierdict"
o SMH 2005: NSW Law Society President John McIntyre
● “Lead to innocent eo ’e being wrong’y coniicted" as suggested by the o NSW Bar Associaton Michael Slaterye QC SMH 2005
● Ma ority ierdicts, which are current’y used in NSW, are "inconsistent with the rinci ’e of roiing gui’t beyond reasonab’e doubt" and
● “Pose a risk to the right of the accused to a fair tria’”
o As a resu’t, ma ority ierdicts a’’ow for the reducton of mistria’s, increasing the efciency of the courts, but are theoretca’’y ’imited through the risk they ose to indiiidua’ rights of the accusedm
Sentencing and Punishment
□ Statutory and Judicial Guidelines
● Mandatory Sentencing – R i Loierige (one unch), Murder of a Po’ice ofcer � remoie udicia’ discreton
o Res onse to the community outrage fo’’owing the Kieran Loveridge case, NSW Premier Barry O Farre’’ in 2014 introduced the eight- year minimum sentence for convicted one-punch ofenders
o Sione Penisini case in 2002, the NSW goiernment amended the Crimes Act 1900 to introduce mandatory ’ife im risonment under the Crimes Amendment (Murder of Police Ofcers) Act 2011 (NSW)2
▪ uustce Buton ca’’ed the murder of a o’ice ofcer a “direct assau’t u on our system of ar’iamentary democracy and the ru’e of ’aw”
o 2011 Australian Insttute of Criminology reporte Dr. Lorana Bartels
▪ Mandatory sentences cou’d reduce coniicton rates + deter the offender from ’eading gui’ty o 2016 The Conversatone “Mandatory sentencing leads to unjuste unfair outcomes”
▪ Mandatory sentences “remoie the udge s discretonary ower to take into account case circumstances” and “creates a rob’ematc system” that im edes the “ru’e of ’aw” ▪ 2002 - 81% of uieni’e offenders under the WA mandatory sentencing ’egis’aton ATSI
□ Purposes of Punishment
● Under in a’’ essay questons □ Aggravatng and mitgatng circumstances
● Aggraiatng – R i Scaf, Ebony case, R i Cam be’’, R i Farmer, Mitgatng – R i Si’ia, R i Loieridge,
o Statutory and guide’ine udgements eierything is ’ayed out for the in an act but it u to them to
cases on how sentences are to be determined
● Sentencing is when a udge decided on a unishment � There are guide’ines that a udge must fo’’ow
● AIM to inform udicia’ discreton, and achieie consistency � BALANCES THE RIGHTS, giie ub’ic confdence in the integrity of the sentencing rocess
● In the The Crimes (Sentencing Procedure) Act 1999 (NSW) = rimary source and max is in the Crimes Act 1900
⇒ Identfes the ur ose and mitgatng and aggraiatng circumstances; ’ef to udicia’ discreton to determine
o Decide based on aggraiatng and mitgatng circumstances ● Aggravatng: R v Campbell (2010)
⇒ Des was found gui’ty of ushing his wife uanet off a c’iff to in 2005
⇒ Co’d b’ooded/ca’cu’ated manner of commitng offence � fact he went on ho’iday with gir’friend rather than atending wife s funera’
⇒ Sentences to 25 years im risonment ● Mitgatng: R v Loveridge (2013)
⇒ P’ead gui’ty of mans’aughter �got 4 years
⇒ Community outcry at erceiied ’enient sentences � increase to 8 years on a ea’ ⇒ DPP a ea’ and sentence increase
⇒ Factors: age 18, showed remorse, good ros ects for rehab
□ Victm Impact Statements
● A’’ow udges to fee’ im act – increase ro’e of iictm emgm Thomas Ke’’y, ui’’ Meaghar dad
o A io’untary statement writen by the iictm about the im act that the crime has had on them ⇒ Defned in s26 of the Crimes (Sentencing and Procedure) Act 1999 (NSW)
o It a’’ows the iictm an o ortunity to artci ate in the rocess by ’etng the court know how the crime has affected them
o Jill Meaghar Case o Loveridge Case
o SMH 2016: The problem with Victm Impact Statements
● NSW a ea’ udge, Michae’ Adams � it wou’d be "monstrous" to suggest "for some reason ki’’ing her shou’d atract a ’esser sentence than wou’d be the case if she had a ’oiing fami’y and grieiing re’aties"m
● uustce needs to be done for those who cannot artcu’ate the suffering they endure, as we’’ as those who can o Good; inc’ude iictms, court can infer im act, may assist in rehab of offender, ub’ic’y ex ress grief
o Against; sway im arta’ity of udge, iery sub ectie, fami’y members degree to which they are ’oied, haie to reiisit story again (distressing)
● Im risonment – ’ast resort, resource inefcient, kee society safe, offers retributon, does not rehabi’itate (huge recidiiism rate)
o Sm5 Crimes (Sentencing Procedure) Act 1999 (NSW)
▪ sa court must not sentence an offender to im risonment un’ess it is satsfed that no ena’ty other than im risonment is a ro riate m
o R v Dean (2013)
▪ Accused ’et fre to a nursing home, ki’’ing 11 eo ’e and in uring 8m o Bilal Scaf (2002)
▪ 25 years im risonment for his contributon to a series of gang ra es o BOSCAR report
▪ Im risonment does not actua’’y deter offenders from reoffending
▪ Offenders giien a sus ended sentence no more ’ike’y to re-offend than those giien a rison sentence of u to 12 months in duraton
o 2014 Productvity Commission report
▪ Costs $250 er day to kee a risoner in NSWm
● Fines – resource efcient, WDO s, Fines Act to reduce based on ca acity to ay, quick, deterrence
o Fines are usua’’y based on ena’ty units � defned in Crimes Sentencing and Procedure Act 1999 (NSW) ▪ Chea + effectie way of deterring eo ’e from ub’ic order offences
o 2007 BOSCAR study, ‘The deterrent efect of higher fnes on recidivism: driving ofencesn ▪ higher fnes do not reduce the risk of reoffendingm
o The Fines Act 1996 (NSW )
▪ Giies the court abi’ity to set a ’ower fne ’ess than the maximum in consideraton of the offenders ca acity to ay � rotect ’ow SES
o Reforms to the on-the- s ot fnes system in NSW, ca’’ed a Work and Development Order (WDO)
▪ Enab’ed offenders ay fnes in other ways emgm community seriice with io’unteer organizatons or rehab
o 2012 BOSCAR report;
▪ WDO s are a’so an exam ’e of the ’aws res onsiieness to address inequites in using fnes to atain ustce for ’ow SES iu’nerab’e eo ’em
● Community Seriice Order – get back into community, retributon, rehabi’itaton, high non-offending rates, but are bare’y used, Cronu’’a riots io’unteer at RSL
o A community seriice order is a ena’ty that can be im osed by the court instead of a eriod of detenton or im risonmentm
o It inio’ies com u’sory su eriised work in the community seriice orders are a means of unishing and shaming the offender, whi’e a’’owing for rehabi’itaton by requiring a eriod of tme s ent making amends in the community for their wrongdoingm
o Community seriice orders are deemed to be ’arge’y effectie as they are cost effectie, benefcia’ to the community and are a genera’ form of retributonm
o They a’so a’’ow offenders to maintain fami’y and community tes and encourages offender to rehabi’itate, whi’e st’’ ena’ising them
o 2013 BOCSAR report
▪ On’y 3m4% of offenders receiie a community seriice order, whereas more than 20% are ’aced on a bond
▪ Moreoier, adu’t offenders are a’so 19m8% more ’ike’y to reoffend on a good behaiiour bond in contrast to community seriice orders where there is rate of 17m3 %m
o Case: Cronu’’a Riots working in RSL
o These statstcs suggest that Community seriice orders are more effectie at roiiding ust outcomes for the offender as they roiide rehabi’itaton whi’st a’so seeking retributonm
● Diiersionary Program – MERIT rogram, effectie in reducing drug addicton, reorientatng ustce system
o Crimes (Sentencing and Punishment) Act 1999 (NSW)
o 2015 SMH artclee “Magistrate backs state-wide rollout of MERIT program”
▪ Magistrates fnd that the rogram is an effectie mechanism for he’ ing eo ’e with ear’y stages of addicton
o MERIT programs 2014 annual reporte
▪ 65% of MERIT artci ants who entered the rogram in 2014 met a’’ requirements and oier 65% did not reoffend in the 15 months afer ’eaiing the rogram
o Nick Cowdery 2015
▪ “Programs such MERIT and drug courts are far more a ro riate ways of deterring eo ’e from reoffendingm
□ Alternatve forms of sentencing
● Circ’e Sentencing – cu’tura’’y a ro riate, re’atonshi strengthened, reduced recidiiism
o Magistrate Doug Dick - member of the uudicia’ Commission of NSW
▪ CS is a “cu’tura’’y a ro riate measure aimed at [focusing] on the root cause of crime” o Don Weatherburns
▪ Comments on the rogram as “direct inio’iement encourages Aborigina’ offenders to critca’’y refect u on their behaiiours”
▪ Reduces the cyc’ica’ nature of recidiiism o BOSCAR NSW
▪ ATSI offenders were no ’ess to reoffend in the 15-month eriod afer their circ’e sentencing that those sentenced in traditona’ court setngs
o 2016 SBS artclee “Circle Sentencing ‘helping keep our mob out of jail’
▪ Res ected e’ders in ATSI communites are “iery assionate” about this method as “it has a ’ot of ositie outcomes”
▪ Aborigina’ Community ofcer in Nowra, Rebecca Phi’’is -“circ’e sentencing reduces the barriers between the Aborigina’ Community and the uustce System”
▪ Youth uustce Conferencing – ’ess adiersaria’, meets needs of chi’dren
o The Young Ofenders Act 1997
o BOSCAR 2013 report on “Partcipant Satsfacton with Youth Justce Conferencing” ▪ “The offender and iictm satsfacton is high immediate’y fo’’owing a YuC” ▪ Victm satsfacton rate of 88%m
o 2012 SMH “victm meetngs ‘donnt stop recidivismn
▪ Don Weatherburn - “it doesn't a ear that referring young eo ’e to a Youth uustce Conference reduces their risk of reoffending”
o 2012 BOSCAR “The efect of Youth Justce Conferencing on re-ofending”
▪ No difference between the YuC and court grou s in the seriousness of their re-offending o Former Children Courts Magistratee Barbara Holborow states that
▪ “it costs a ’ot more to kee a kid in a detenton centre than it does for rograms such as YuCm o Don Weatherburn in a SMH artcle
▪ effectie at “addressing under’ying causes of youth crimina’ behaiiour”
● MERIT System - effectie in reducing drug addicton, reorientatng ustce system
o Crimes (Sentencing and Punishment) Act 1999 (NSW)
o 2015 SMH artclee “Magistrate backs state-wide rollout of MERIT program”
▪ Magistrates � rogram is an effectie mechanism for he’ ing eo ’e with ear’y stages of addicton o MERIT programs 2014 annual reporte
▪ 65% of MERIT artci ants who entered t rogram 2014 met a’’ requirements and oier 65% did not reoffend in the 15 months afer ’eaiing the rogram
o Nick Cowdery 2015
▪ “Programs such MERIT and drug courts are far more a ro riate ways of deterring eo ’e from reoffendingm
o Post-sentencing consideratons
● Preientatie Detecton – good for community, Haneef case
o Unconsttutona’ in the High Court case of Kable v DPP (1996) � most Austra’ian urisdictons haie ’egis’atons enab’ing genera’ owers of reientie detenton in restricted circumstancesm
o Ant-Terrorism Act (No222) 2005 (Cth)
▪ Exce ton to genera’ 6 hour detenton ru’e erson sus ected of engaging terrorist actiity can be detained for 48 hours w/o being charged
▪ A’’ows o’ice to make an a ’icaton to detain a erson in custody for a maximum eriod of 14 days if they reasonab’y be’ieie the sus ect wi’’ otherwise engage in a terrorist act
▪ Kee s community safe ▪ Case: Dr Haneef
⇒ Doctor detained for 2 weeks
⇒ Federal Government inquiry (Clarke Inquiry) in 2008 to iniestgate the circumstances of the arrest and detenton of him
⇒ Found that Haneef was wrong’y charged and critcised the iarious bodies inio’ied with the case
▪ Protectie Custody – rotect offenders, Scaf and Eddie Obeid
o Crimes (Administraton of Sentences) Act 1999 (NSW)
o Protectie custody is roiided in NSW correctona’ centers to offenders who are iu’nerab’e to atack from other risonersm
o Bilal Scaf
▪ Ke t in rotectie custody at Longbay Correctona’ care because of numerous threats from his inmatesm
o Eddie Obeid (politcian)
▪ Coniicted for misconduct in ub’ic ofce and sentenced to fie years in risonm
▪ Paro’e – good integraton, endangers community, Adrian Bay’ey out on aro’e when he ki’’ed ui’’ Meagher
o
Paro’e refers to the conditona’ re’ease of a risoner from custody afer the com ’eton of the
minimum term of the sentencem
o
The fundamenta’ ur ose of aro’e is to roiide the offender with an incentie for rehabi’itaton
▪Possibi’ity of ear’y re’ease wi’’ increase the ’ike’ihood of the oiera’’ reform of offenders and
encourage beter risoner disci ’ine within the rison setngm
▪
Encourages indiiidua’s to behaie, c’ose su eriision he’ s to assimi’ate into society, and the
gradua’ integraton into the community reduces recidiiism
▪ Adrian Bayley, who murdered ui’’ Meagher whi’e he was out on aro’em
o According to 2016 ABC artclee “Jill Meagher case: Prisone parole authorites could have prevented her murder”
▪ Meagher s death was atributed to the fau’t in the Correctons Seriices of Victoria as the offender was on aro’e for reiious ra e when he ra ed and murdered the iictmm
▪ Sex Offenders Registry – ANCOR, good for community, bad b/c it ro’ongs treatment, harassed by court (teenager artc’e)
o The Australian Natonal Child Ofenders Register (ANCOR) and the New South Wales Child Protecton Register
▪ Both web-based systems designed to assist o’ice with the registering and case management of those who haie commited sexua’ offences against chi’drenm
o Estab’ished under the Child Protecton (Ofenders Registraton) Act 2000 (NSW)
▪ a erson coniicted of s ecifed iio’ent or sexua’ offences against a chi’d must register at the ’oca’ o’icem
o 2016 SMH artclee “Teenager wrongly branded a dangerous sex ofender – how can this be justce” ▪ sex offender registries ofen make offenders “fee’ harassed by the o’ice and iictmised by the
court”
▪ sometmes contentous, as they target certain offenders ’ong beyond the eriod of the sentence they haie been required to serie, denying the chance for the offender to moie on in the rehabi’itaton rocessm
o In this way, sex offender s registries are ’arge’y effectie at rotectng and kee ing the community from harm, howeier they are most’y ineffectie at a’’owing offenders to oiercome their crimesm
Young Offenders
□ Children’s Court
● A’ternate way of dea’ing with kids, not o en to ub’ic, ob’igatons under CROC
o The Chi’dren's Court � maintain the distncton adu’t and young offenders
▪ S ecia’ised court ensures that a’’ ossibi’ites for rehabi’itaton rioritsedm o During the crimina’ iniestgaton rocess
▪ Law enforcement agencies must adhere to strict conditons to ensure that eiidence is not
misconstrued or that the naiiety of a young offender does not obstruct the ursuit of ustce, ’imits that are out’ined in the Law Enforcement (Powers and Responsibilites) Act 2002 NSW (LEPRA)2 o R v CKT 1999 (NSW)
▪ The o’ice fai’ed to roiide an adu’t guardian � eiidence gained during an interiiew with CKT was deemed inadmissib’e to the court
distncton between the treatment of adu’t and young offendersm
o Chi’dren's Court roceedings are c’osed sessions, and the name of the offender is re ’aced with a three ’eter seudonym in ub’icatonse R v SLD 2002 NSW
o UNSW 2014:
● Re’ies on the "s ecia’ised know’edge of magistrates and udicia’ ofcers" in determining an "im arta’ decision" that wi’’ best he’ the uieni’e crimina’
o (NSW BOCSAR 2012 - SMH).
▪ 65% of young offenders during 2012 were reconiicted of another offence with 24 months of a earing in the Chi’dren's Court
▪ Estmated $2200 cost of the tria’ and $2800 cost on im ’ementng unishment
▪ ATSI are disadiantaged within the crimina’ ustce system � fee’"stgmatzed" by the Chi’dren's Court and thus are ’ess ’ike’y to engage with rehabi’itatie rocesses
o (SMH 2012)
▪ This is com ounded by community dismay at the inabi’ity of the court exem ’ifed through media cam aigns that em hasised that "Chi’dren reoffend as system goes sof"
o Thus, whi’st the Chi’dren's Court is a s ecia’ised tria’ rocess design to rotect young offenders in manners not aiai’ab’e to adu’ts, it of strugg’es to effectie’y incor orate chi’dren and fami’ies into the court
roceedingsm
□ Alternatve to Court – YJC
● Youth uustce Conferencing – ’ess adiersaria’, meets needs of chi’dren
Internatona’ Crime
□ Dealing with domestc and internatonal crime measures ● Sign internatona’ Treates – ass ’aws to refect
● Human Trafcking transnatona’ crime (a’’ Human Rights stuff) ● ICC and ICu
o Internatona’ courts and tribuna’s are a’so moderate’y effectie at reso’iing confict and romotng eacem ● Effectieness � iaries from court to court + re’ies wi’’ingness to com ’ym
● ICC is (UN) “principal judicial irgan if the United Natins” ● Proiides;
1m Adiisory o inions
2m Contentous dis utes between statesm o Adiisory o inions
● In theory are effectie � roiide a non-biased third- arty decision in the best interest of the internatona’ community + reientng countries from using force
● BUT re’y on the wi’’ingness to com ’y ● Emgm Israeli West Bank Case (2004)2
⇒ ICu says � wa’’ “cintrary ti internatinal law”
the ICu s urisdicton by contnuing to construct what is today accused of being an “apartheid wall” between Pa’estne and Israe’m
⇒ Non-binding nature of ICu decisions
⇒ Artcle: (JPost 2017) ‘ICJ should rule on Israeli, Palestnian compliance failure: 'Conficts cannot be reso’ied if naton states are not wi’’ing to com ’y with the reso’utonsm
⇒ Long-standing and intractab’e tensions between Israe’ and Pa’estne dee ’y entrenched socio-o’itca’ issuesm
o Contentous inter-state dis utes
● ICu is ’arge’y effectie at reso’iing conficts and romotng eace when countries agree to “abide by its decisiin” ● Emgm Benin v Niger (2005)
⇒ ICu ended a 4 border dis ute between the two countries oier 25 is’ands by awarding each naton a s ecifc number of dis uted is’ands
⇒ Artc’e: (IRIN 2005) sInternatinal Ciurt rules that main disputed island belings ti Niger nit Benin’”: The West African natons roc’aimed their state soiereignty and atended the ICu in 2002, romising to “cimply by its decisiin”
⇒ Ro’e of the ICu in seriing as a forum for discussion and negotaton between host’e states who are wi’’ing to com ’y
□ Limitatons
