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a st
eto
b
e vi
t
ri fi
ed
.A m
o ng
t
h
em
a ny
t
y p
e s of
i
o ni
c r ad
i
o a ct
i
v e sp
e ci
e sf
o u nd i
nl i q
ui
d
r ad i
o a ct
i
v ew
a ste s
, a ct
i
ni
de s a r e
im p
o rta n
t
ow i
ng
t
ot
h
ei
rh ig h
r ad i
ot
o xic
i
t
y
a nd l
o ng h
al f
-l i
v e s(
A
l
i
a nd
A
ch
e1 9 8 4
)
.T
h
e ob
j
e ct
iv
e of
t
h
er e s e a r c
h d
e s c ri b
ed h
e r ei
sto
e v al
u ate a
p
ot
e nt
i
al
a ct
i
ni d
e s ep
arat
i
o np
r o c e s sf
o r aq
u e o u s r ad
i
o a ct
i
v ew
a st
es
t
re am
st
h
at
c o ul d b
e ap p l i
ed
to
H
a nf
o rd,
ot
h
e rD O E
si
te s
, a nd
c om m
e r ci
al
n u cl
e a rf
a ci l i
t
i
e sT h
e sp
e cifi
ca c
t
i
ni d
e of i
nt
e r e st
w
as ani 6ri
ci
um
-2 4 1
(
^'' 'A
ni)
b
e cau sei
ti
sp
r e s e nt
i
nt h
e s up
em
at
e of m
a ny
of t h
eH
a nf
o rd w
a st
et
a nk
s a nd
, c o n s eq
u ent
ly
,t
he s u
p
em
at
ei
s c o n si d
ered
ah i g h
-
l
ev el w
a st
e.S
el
e ct
i
ves e
p
a r at
i
o n of
^ " 'A
m
fr
om
t
h
eb
ulk
sup
em
at
em
ay
red
u c et
h
e v ol
um
e of h i g h
-l
e v el
sup
em
at
e req
ui
ri
ng
v
i
t
i
rfi
c at
i
o n.M
et
al i
on s ep
a r at
i
ont
e ch
ni q
u e s u si
ng i
n org
a ni
ci
o n e x ch
a ng
e r s o rw
at
e r- s ol
ub l
e c om p l
e xi
ng
p
oly m
e r si
n c o nj
u n ct
i
o nw
it
h
ul
t
r afi l
t
r at
i
o nha v e
b
e e n e xp l
o r ed
T h
el
ow
-e n e rg y
r eq
ui
r em
e nt
s a nd
p
ot
e nt
ia
l
c o st
s a vin
g
s a s s o ci
at
ed w i
t
h
ul
t
r afi l
t
rat
io
n a nd
t
h
e s el
ect
i
v eb i
ndi
ng
c ap
a ci
t y
of
t
h
e ab
s o rb i
ng
a nd
p
oly m
e ri
cm
at
e ri
al
sm
ak
et
h i
s ap
r om is
in
g
s ep
a r at
io n
p
r o c e s st
om
e et
D O E
n e ed
sP
a ci fi
cN
ort
h w
e st
L
ab
o r at
o ry
(
P N L
)
h
a s sy
nth
e si
z ed
a c op
oly m
e rw i
t
h f
u n ct
i
o n al i
t
i
e sk
n ow
nt
oh
a v e ab i
nd i
ng
af fi
ni
t
y f
o rl
a nt
ha n
i d
e s.T h
e sp
e ci fi
c ob
j
e ct
i
v e s of
t
h i
s r e s e arch w
e r et
o ch
a r a ct
e riz
et
h
e c op
ol y
m
e r and d
evel
op
ap
r ot
o c ol
t
o e v al
u at
ei
t
sb i
nd i
ng
c ap
a ci
t y
a nd
s el
e ct
i
vi
t
y f
o rt
ri
v al
ent
eur op i
um
, a n o n r ad i
o a ct
i
v el
a nt
h
a ni d
es e
le c
t
ed
a s a s u r r og
at
ef
o r ^'"
A m
^'"A
c om p
a ri
s o nw
a sm
ade
w
it
h
c om m
e r cia
l p
oly
a c ry l
i
c a ci d
.U l
t
rafi l
t
rat
i
o nw
a s u s ed f
o rm
a c r om
ole c u
la r s e
p
a r at
i
o n of
t
h
e e u r op i
um
-p
ol y m
e r c om p l
e x e sfr
om
si m p l
ea
q
u e o u s s ol
ut
i
o n s.T h
e e xp
e ri m
e nt
al m
et
h
od
s and
t
e st
re sul
t
s areg i
ve nhe
re al
ong w i
t
h
al i
t
erat
u r e re vi
ew
2
.0
B
a c
k
g
r o u n
d
T h i
s s e ct
i
o np
r o vi d
e s a n o v e r vi
ew
of
t
e ch
ni q
u e sf
o u nd i
nt
h
eh
t
e r at
u r ef
o r a cti
ni d
e s ep
a r at
i
o n sa
p p l i
c ab l
et
ol i q
ui d
rad i
o a cti
vew
a st
e s.B
oth
adv
a nt
ag
e s a nd d i
s ad
va nt
ag
e s of
th
e s et
e ch
ni q
ue s arec o
m p
a r ed
t
op
rovi d
et h
eb
a si
s of m
ot
i
v at
i
o nf
orp
u rsui
ng t
h
e sp
eci fi
c ob
j
ect
i
ve s of
t
h i
s re s e ar ch
.T h
e are asre v
i
ew
ed
are c onv e nt
i
o n al
t
r e at m
ent
,t
re at
m
e nt
i
n v ol
vi
ng
s ep
arat
i
o nb y
ul
t
r afi l
t
rat
i
o n, a nd p
ot
e nti
al b i
nd i
ng
a
g
e nt
sf
o r a ct
in
i
d
e s ep
a r at
io n
.2
.1 O
v e r vi
e
w
of L i q
ui d R
ad i
o a ct
iv
e
W
a st
eT
r e at
m
e nt
M
e
t
h
o
d
sC h
em i
c al
a nd p h y
si
c al
s ep
a r at
i
o nt
e ch
ni q
u e s ut
i
l iz
ed
i
nw
at
e r a nd w
a st
ew
at
e rt
re at
m
e nt
h
a v eb
e e nim p l
em
ent
ed b y
t
h
e c om m
e r ci
al
n u cl
e ari
nd
u st
ry
t
ot
re at
l i q
ui d
rad i
o a ct
i
v ew
a st
e st
r e am
s(
C
a rl
ey
-M
a c a ul y
19 8 4
)
.T h
e s ep
r o c e s s e si
n clu
de c
h
em
i
c al p
r e ci
p
i
t
at
io
n
, e v ap
o r at
i
o n,i
o n e x cha n
g
e, s ol
v e nt
e xt
r a cti
o n, a nd
fi l
t
rat
i
onT h
e s et
e ch
ni q
u e s are of t
e n c om b i
n ed b
a s ed
o nth
e sp
e ci fi
cw
a st
e st
re am ch
ara ct
e ri
st
i
c s a nd
d i
s ch
a rg
e/ d i
sp
o s al
r eq
ui
r em
e nt
s.T h
ep
r o c e s sp
e rf
o rm
a n c ei
st y
p i
c all y
evalu
at
ed b y
t
h
ed
e c o nt
am
i
n ati
o nf
a ct
o r(
D F
)
a ch i
e v ed
.T h
ed
e c o nt
am
i
n at
i
onf
a ct
o ri
sd
efi
n ed
a s(
H
o op
er1 9 9 1
)
:D F
= rad i
o a cti
vi
t
y i
nf
e ed
st
r e am /
rad i
o a ct
i
vi
t
y i
ntr
e at
ed
ef fl
uent
2.
1
,1 P
r e ci p i
t
at
i
o nC h
em i
c al p
r e ci p i
t
at
i
o ni
s ap
r o v e n, e a sy
t
oim p l
em
e nt,
l
ow
c o st
p
r o c e s st
e ch
n ol
og y
t
h
at
h
a sb
e e nu s e
d
s u c c e s sf
ul l y f
o r s ep
a r at
i
o n of
r ad i
on u cl id
e sfi
-o
m
aq
u e o u s st
r e am
s.I f
ef f
e cti
v e s et t
l i
ng
o c c urs(
i
e. ,g
o od
s oh d / l i q
ui
d
s ep
a r at
i
o n of
th
e r ad i
o a ct
i
v ep
r e ci p i
t
at
e sfr
om
t
h
eb
ul k
s ol
ut
i
o n)
,g
o od D F
s c a nb
ea c
h
i
e v ed
(
C
e ci l l
e et
al
.1 9 8 5
)
C
e ci l l
e(
19 8 5
)
i
nd i
c at
ed
th
at
aD F
of
ab
out
2 0 f
o r al p h
a em i
t t
ersi
s req
ui
r ed
f
o r ef f
e ct
i
v ep
a rt
it
i
o ni
ng
of
l
ow
- a nd m
ed i
um
-l
e v e
l l i q
ui
d
r ad i
o a ct
i
v ew
a st
eA
t
y p i
c al
alp h
aD F
u si
ng
c
h
em i
c al p
r e ci p i
t
ati
o nw
a s ab
o ut
3 0
.I f h i g h
e rD F
s a r e r eq
ui
r ed,
t
h
et
r e at
ed
b
ulk
s ol
ut
i
o n(
i
e. ,su
p
ern at
ant
)
c a nb
efi l
t
e r ed
t
o r em
o v e c ol l
oid
al
, rad i
o a cti
v ep
r e cip i
t
at
e s.D i
r e ct
ul
t
r afi l
t
r ati
o n(
p H
~
9
-10
)
a ch
ie v e
d
a n alp h
aD F
r a ng
e of 3 3 0
t
o3 3 0 0
.C
r o s s -fl
ow
u