Women, education and the labour market in Saudi Arabia : an investigation of the work characteristics of female workers in Riyadh in relation to their education and work experience.

Women, Education _{and the Labour Market in Saudi Arabia:} An Investigation _{of the Work Characteristics of Female}

Workers _{in Riyadh in Relation to their Education and} Work Experience

By

FAWZIA _{BAKR AL-BAKR}

Thesis Submitted _{to the University of London} for _{the Degree of the Ph. D. 1990}

University _of London Institute _of Education

Department _of International _and Comparative Education

I

ABSTRACT This _{study focuses}

on the interrelationship between

education _{and employment for women in Saudi Arabia by} investigating _the

work _{characteristics of} female _workers in Riyadh _{in relation to their education}

and work experience. With _{this in mind, two}

questions _{are addressed:} (a) the role _of female _education in facilitating _{the needs of the} work _place by enhancing _{women's work characteristics;} (b)

the _{role of female experience in the labour market in} developing _{and maintaining the}

work characteristics most needed in job _settings.

Nine _{work characteristics are investigated: work} commitment _{working co-operatively and accepting other} colleaguesi differences, _{educational and technical skills}

valuation, _{educational and occupational aspiration, change} orientation, _{responsibility,} decision _{making, time valuation}

and planning.

The _{study is based on intensive interviews with four} groups of _women (20 in _{each) who work} in _educational

institutions _{in Riyadh and who differ in their educational} background _{and the length of their working experience.}

After _the first _{three chapters which outline the} concerns of the _{study and} the importance _of the _work characteristics in job _settings, the theoretical _chapter

presents and critically discusses the theories _{of the} labour

market. These include the Human Capital Theory, the Screening Hypotheses, _the Job _{Competition Model and the}

Segmentation Theory _{of the Labour Market. These theories}

are used as a framework to identify the main features of the Saudi female labour _{market and to emphasize} its differences

which are not explained by former theories.

This is followed by _{two chapters on women's education} and employment in Saudi Arabia which outline the educational

opportunities available to females in relation to the labour

market, and the disparities existing between males and

females _{of all educational. types and} levels. In discussing

female _{access to the} labour _{market, emphasis} is _{given to the} role of the General Presidency of Girls' Education (GPGE) in

shaping the educational. and employment opportunities and working conditions of Saudi Arabian females and the role of

educational. qualifications in the labour market and the ,, -en1,1 An, of immmn1 nvrPnt among educatec1 females.

The _{analysis of} data _which is _presented in Chapter Seven indicates that _{although education and work experience}

have _{significantly affected} some of the _{groups' work} characteristics, the strength of the value of this

significance is weakened due, as this thesis argues, to three _major factors: (1) the nature of the female labour

market which is characterized by limitation and segregation

II

their _{segments and demand for} their labour; (2) _{the type of} education offered to females _which is limited to _certain

specialities that lead to the _{conventional careers} in teaching, _{nursing and medicine. The problem} facing _educated

females _{is that they are caught in the middle of being} educated traditionally in _{a labour market} that has _{run out} of opportunities in the traditional _sector; (3) the _nature

of women's _working organizations _{which are characterized} by autocracy and male domination in the higher administrative

levels.

Policy implications include _{the need} for _reform in _the GPGE administrative structure and in the _philosophy and basis _of female _education. The _{study stresses that the}

opening of new working opportunities for females would not solve the problem of unemployment or over-employment unless fundamental ideological _{changes are} introduced _{to the role}

III

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Although _{the Ph. D.} degree _{is usually awarded to one} individual, _{namely the researcher, the development and the} conduct of the _{research reported} here involved _{so many other}

individuals _{without whose co-operation and continuing} support the work would _not have been completed.

I am greatly indebted to my Supervisor, Kevin Lillies,

whose interest in my work and whose contribution _{and support}

have _{guided me through the} different _{stages of a long and} tiring task. Other _{members of} the Institute _{of Education at} London University have _{also generously} helped _{to bring this} work about: Prof. Angela Little who enlightened me from the

start with her invaluable comments and support; Dr. Alwyn Thomas who introduced me to the computer work and patiently

provided time to guide me through the statistical analysis; John Mass who helped me in revising the theoretical chapter;

Dr. Paul. Hurst for his _{constructive comments; and Dr.} Martin

McLean for his intellectual _{and stimulating} discussions in the _{two seminars} I presented in relation to this _work during

the _{period of my study.}

My thanks _{also go} to Gillian Hinson _and to _{my friend}

IV

dedication _{and professionalism have produced this}

work in its _present form.

I would like _{to extend my thanks to my university in} Riyadh (King _{Saud University) for providing me with this}

invaluable _{opportunity to complete my study and to many} members of that university _{and especially} Mr. Suliman

Aldukaim, _the deputy _{of the scholarship department, for his} support _{and continuing} help. Last _{and not} least, _{my special}

profound thanks _go to _{my family,} to _{my husband} Dr. Fahad Aiyahya _{whose support,} love _{and eagerness gave me the} light

and encouragement throughout _{my long period of study,} to my son Luai _whose time I used to finish _{my work,} to my mother

whose prayers and love inspired me and to my father,

brothers _{and sisters} but _especially Fahad _whose

V

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract

... Acknowledgements

... List _{of Charts and Tables}

...

Chapter _{One: Purpose and Significance of the Study}

... - Introduction _...

1.1 _{Purpose of the Study}

... 1.2 Significance _{of the Study}

... 1.3 _{Organization of the Study}

... Chapter Two: _{The Methodological Design}

... - Introduction _...

2.1 _{The Methodological Approach}

... 2.2 _Hypothesis

...

2.3 _{Description of the Research Sample}

... 2.4 _{Selection of the Sample}

... 2.5 _{The Data Gathering Instruments}

... 2.6 _{The Preliminary Study}

...

2.7 _{The Construction of the Interview Schedule}

2.8 _The Statistical _Treatment

... 2.9 _{The Nine Working Characteristics}

... 2.10 _{Field Testing of the Interview Schedule}

... 2.11 _{The Interview Procedures}

... 2.12 Summary

...

PAGE I III

X

Chapter Three: Work Characteristics in Job Settings _.. - Introduction _...

3.1 The Importance _{of Work Characteristics} in the Job Setting

...

3.2 _Personal Work Characteristics Most Needed in

Work Settings

...

3.3 The Acquisition Process _{of Work Related} Characteristics

...

3.4 The Role _{of Cultural} Factors _...

3.5 The Role _of Islamic Beliefs in Determining Work Characteristics _...

3.6 The Right _{and Obligations of Workers} in Islam. 3.7 _{Summary and Conclusion ...}

Chapter Four: Education _{and Employment:} A Theoretical Framework

... - Introduction _...

A: Theories _of the Labour Market _...

4.1 The Orthodox/Neo-Classical Analysis _of the Labour Market _...

VI

4.1.1 _{The Concept of Human Capital Theory}

... 69 4.1.2 _{The Screening or Signalling Hypothesis}

... 75

4.1.3

_{The Job Competition}

_Model

...

78

4.2 _{The Dual Labour Market Analysis} ...

... 81 4.2.1 _{The Radical Theory of the Segmented Labour}

4.2.2

Market

...

Variants _{of the Segmented Labour Market Theory} 83 ₈₅ 4.2.3 _{Critics of the Radical Theory of the}

Segmented _{Labour Market}

... 89 B: _{Summary and Application}

... 92 4.3.1 _{Theories of the Labour Market}

... . 92

4.3.2 _{The Main Features of the Female Labour} . .... _{Maret k...} in _{Saudi Arabia}

... 96 4.3.3 _{How do the Existing Theories of the Labour}

Market _{explain these Features of the Female} Labour Market in Saudi _Arabia?

... 101 4.3.4 _{Summary and Conclusion}

... 107 Chapter _{Five: Access of Females to Education in Saudi}

Arabia

... 110

-

Introduction

...

110

5.1 _{Informal. Education for Females before 1960}

... 111 5.2 _{Formal State Education}

... 114 5.3 _{The Structure of the Educational System}

... 119 5.3.1 _{Financing of Education}

... 122 5.4 _{Female Education at the Elementary Level}

... 123 5.5 _{Female Education at the Intermediate Level}

... 126 5.6 _{Female Education at the Secondary Level}

... 130 5.6.1 _{Differences in Subject Choices between Males}

and Females at the Secondary School Level _.... 133 5.7 _{Female Education at the Higher Level}

... 138 5.7.1 _{The Evolution of Female Higher Education}

... 138 5.7.2 _{Access of Females to Higher} Education

... 141 5.7.3 _{Females' Fields of Study} in Higher Education

. 143 5.7.4 _{Females' Distribution} in _{the Different Fields}

of Study _... 146 5.7.5 _{Access of Females to Post-graduate} Studies.... 148 5.7.6 _{Access of Females to Education} Abroad

... 150 5.8 _{Summary and Conclusion}

... 153 Chapter Six: Saudi Women and the Labour Market _... 157

-

Introduction

... .00000090000008000000

157

6.1 Saudi Females in _the Labour Market _... 159 6.2 Female Employment in Government Establishments 161 6.3 The Role _{of Educational} Qualifications in

Female Employment

... 164 6.4 The Rate _{of Saudi} Females' Participation in the

Workforce

... 170 6.5 The Occupational. Distribution _{of Saudi} Female

Labour _... 174 6.6 The Unemployment Problem _{among Educated}

Females

VII

6.7 _{Social and Cultural Factors Affecting Females'} Participation _{in the Labour Market}

... 184 6.8 _{The Role of the General Presidency}

of Girls' Education (GPGE) in the Saudi Female Labour Market

... 187 6.9 _{Islam and the Question}

of Women's Work ... 191 6.10 _{Difficulties Facing Saudi Working Women}

... 196 6.11 _{Summary and Conclusion}

... 198 Chapter _{Seven: Empirical Analysis of the Work}

Characteristics _{of Female Employees in} Saudi _Arabia

... 201 - Introduction _... 201 7.1 _{Background Features of the Sample}

... 202 7.2 _{Analysis of the Data}

... _... 205 7.2.1 _{Work Commitment}

... _... 207 a: Preference for the present job _... 209 b: _{More time and effort by the respondents as}

a sign of commitment _... 211 c: How do respondents _{cope with} the work in

their first _{year? ...} 213 d: _{The concept and value of work}

... 219 e: Testing for the effect _{of education, work}

experience and their interaction in work

commitment _... 228 f: _{Means of the four groups on work}

commitment _... 230 7.2.2 _{Working Co-operatively and Acceptance of}

Colleagues' Differences

... ... 232 a: Team work ... 235 b: Acceptance _{of other colleagues at work ...} 236

c: Testing for the effect of education, work

experience and their interaction on working

co-operatively and acceptance of colleagues ' differences

... 240 d: _{Means of the four groups on co-operation .} 241 7.2.3 _{Change Orientation}

... 241 a: Change orientation at the workplace _... 244 b: _{Change orientation at the personal} level _. 245 c: Testing for the effect of education, work.

experience and their interaction on change

orientation _... 252 d: _{Means of the four groups on change}

orientation

_...

253

7.2.4 Educational _{and Technical} Skills Valuation _... 254 a: Employees' evaluation of their vocational

and working characteristics _... 256 b: Willingness for _{more in-service training}

. 258 c: The effect of experience at work on the

sample's vocational and working

VIII

d: _{Working characteristics}

most needed _{at work} as seen by the _sample

... 267 e: The four _most important _{qualities at work}

f _{: M} as seen by the _{eans of groups} groups _{1 and 2 on educational} ... 268 and

technical _{skills valuation}

... _. 270

7.2.5 _{Educational and Occupational Aspiration} . ...

... 271 a: The role _{of education} in _{the preparation}

for _work

... 273 b: _{Educational aspiration}

... 275 c: Occupational _{aspiration ...} 276 d: _{Testing for the effect of education, work}

experience _{and their} interaction _on

educational _{and occupational aspiration}

.. 282 e: Means of the four _{groups on educational}

and occupational _{aspiration ...} 283 7.2.6 _{Responsibility}

... 283

a: Responsibility towards _work ... _... 286 b: _{Readiness for more responsibilities at}

c:

work _...

Testing for _{the effect of education, work}

288 experience and their interaction _on

responsibility _... 291 d: _{Means of the four groups on responsibility 292} 7.2.7 _{Decision Making}

... 293 a: Autonomy _{at work ...} 294 b: _{Decision making at the private level}

... 296 c: Test for the effect of education, _work

experience _{and their} interaction _on decision _making

... 298 d: _{Means of the four groups on decision}

making _... 299 7.2.8 _{Time Valuation}

... 300 a: Participants' understanding of time at

work _... 302 b: _{Use of time} in _{the workplace}

... 303 c: Testing for the effects of education, work

experience and their interaction on time

valuation _... 305 d: _{Means of the four groups on time valuation} 306

7.2.9

_Planning

...

307

a: Planning at work _... 308 b: Planning _{at the private} level

... 309 c: Testing for the effects of education, work

experience and their interaction

on planning _... 311 d: _{Means of the four groups on planning}

... 312 7.3 _{An Overall} Analysis _{of the} Four Groups' Working

Characteristics _{in Relation to their} Education _{and Working} Experience

IX

Chapter Eight: _{Summary and Conclusions}

... 320 - Introduction _{... ...} 320 8.1 _{Factors Affecting the Nine Wor king}

Characteristics _{of the Four Gr oups ... 321} a: The Nature of the Saudi Female Labour Market.. 321 b: _{The Type of Education Offered to Women and}

its _{Hidden Curricula}

... _... 322 c: The Nature of Organizations in which Women Work

and their Domination by Higher Male Administration

... _... 323 d: _{Policy Implications}

... _... 324 Bibliography

... 327 Appendices

... 343 I Interview Schedule before _{Field Testing}

... 343

II Interview Schedule

... 352 III The Preliminary Questionnaire

... 360 IV _Evaluation Sheet for Employees

... 363 V The Labour Laws for Juveniles _{and Women in}

Saudi Arabia

... 364 VI Examples _of Internal Regulations _{of the} GPGE

X

LIST _{OF CHARTS AND TABLES}

List _{of Charts Page}

4.1 _{The Effect of Political, Cultural}

and

Religious _{Factors on the Economic Functions}

of the Female Labour Market in Saudi _{Arabia.... 105} 5.2 _{The Educational System for Males in Saudi}

Arabia

... 120 5.3 _{The Educational System for Females in Saudi}

Arabia

... 121 5.4 _{Organization of Higher Education in Saudi}

Arabia _{and the Number of Universities and} Colleges _{Admitting Females}

... 140 List _{of Tables}

Table 1 _{Female Private Schools Established in Saudi}

Arabia _{Prior to Female Education}

... 112

Table 2 _{Government Appropriation for Education by} Organization from 1978-79 _{to 1986-87}

... 122 Table 3 _{Girls' Level of Enrolment at the Elementary}

Level from 1969-70 _{to 1979-80}

... 124 Table 4 _{The Percentage of Female Students and their}

Schools _{Compared to Males at the Elementary Level}

over the 1969-70 to 1986-87 _... 126 Table 5 _{Female Level of Enrolment at the Intermediate}

Level. from 1967-70 _{to 1979-80}

... 127 Table 6 _{The % of Female Students and their Schools}

Compared _{to Males at the Intermediate Level} from 1969-70 _{to 1986-87}

... 128

Table 7 _{The % of Female Students and their Schools}

Compared _{to Males at the} Secondary Level from

1969-70 _{to 1986-87 ...} 131 Table 8 A Comparison _{of Male/Female} Results _{at the}

General Secondary _Education Certificate for 1982-83

... 134 Table 9 The Percentage _{of Females} Passing Secondary

Examinations Compared _{to Males} from 1981-82

to 1985-86 _... 136 Table 10 Percentage _{of Female} Students Compared _{to Males} in

Higher Education in _{the Ten Years} from 1969-

70 to 1986-87 _... 142 Table 11 Graduates _{of Higher} Education Institutions by

Field _{of Study} in the Ten Years 1973-74 to 1982-83

... 147 Table 12 Distribution _of the Workforce _according to

the Level _{and Type of Education,} Sex and

Nationality for 1987 in Saudi Arabia _... 168 Table 13 Total Saudi Working-age Population _and

Civilian Labour Force 1984-85 _{and the} Expectation for 1989-1990

xi

Table 14 _{The Labour Force in Government Agencies} in _{the years 1975-1987according to the}

Sex and Nationality in _{Saudi and % of Female} Labour _{and % of Foreign Labour to Saudi}

... 173 Table 15 _{The Occupational Distribution of Saudi and}

Non-Saudi Females in Government _{Establishments}

by the Type of Job up to 1988 _... 175 Table _{16A The Distribution of the Workforce According}

to Sex, Nationality _{and Economic} Activity in Saudi Arabia in 1974

... 178 Table 16B The Distribution _{of the Workforce According}

to the Economic Activity _{up to 1984-85 ...} 178 Table 17 The Background Features _{of the Sample}

... 203 Table 18 The Frequency Data _{and the Values of}

Education, Work Experience _{and their} Interaction for Work Commitment

... 208 Table 19 The Frequency Data _{and the Values of}

Education, Work Experience _{and their} Interaction for _the Four Groups _on

Working Co-operatively _{and Acceptance of} Colleagues Differences

... 234 Table 20 The Frequency Data _{and the Values of}

Education, Work Experience _{and their}

Interaction for _the Four Groups _on

Change Orientation

... 243 Table 21 The Frequency Data for Groups 1 and 2 in

Education _{and Technical} Skills Valuation _... 256

Table 22 The Four First Working Characteristics Most

Needed _{at Work as seen by the Four} Groups _... 270 Table 23 The Frequency Data _{and the Values} of

Education, Work Experience _{and their}

Interaction for Educational _{and Occupational}

Aspiration _... 272

Table 24 The Frequency Data _and the Values of Education, Work Experience _and their

Interaction _{on Responsibility ...} 285 Table 25 The Frequency Data _{and the Values} of

Education, Work Experience _{and their}

Interaction for the Four Groups in Decision Table 26

Making

...

294

The Frequency Data _{and the Values of} Education, Work Experience _{and their}

Interaction _{on Time Valuation ...} 301 Table 27 The Frequency Data and the Values of

Education, Work Experience _{and their}

Interaction _{on Planning ...} 308 Table 28 The Frequency Data and the Values of

Education, Work Experience _{and their}

Interaction for the Four Groups _{on the}

Chapter _One

Purpose _{and Significance of the Study}

This _{study arises from the growing awareness of the} role played by _women in the development _process through

their _{participation} in _work. It _{aims to} investigate _the role of female labour at _work in Saudi Arabia _and the _effect

of education and _work experience in determining their _work

characteristics. The Fourth Development Plan _considers

human _resources development including both _{men and women, as} one of its major objectives:

"Thus _{ensuring a constant supply of manpower and to} upgrade and improve its efficiency to serve all

sectors. " (1985-1990: 41)

Saudi Arabia has _enjoyed huge financial _resources

during _{the seventies and early eighties which enables} the country to process its major development programmes in defence, industry, _education, labour force _{and physical}

infrastructure. Manpower _shortages have been overcome _with millions of foreign workers. However, the eighties have

shown a constant decline of Saudi Arabian revenues because of a sharp fall in the world demand for oil (Ministry of Planning 1984: 2). This has _{raised serious questions about}

the _need for better utilization of the country's human resources, which, of necessity, raises the question of the position of women within the overall workforce.

The _{study comes as a response to the}

need to ensure better _{use of female labour at work by examining the}

role that _{education and work experience play in developing the} work characteristics _{which are essential. to job performance}

and to the _{achievement of organizational goals. Different}

studies _{of male government organizations and bureaucracy} in Saudi _{Arabia reveal some of the behavioural and structural}

shortcomings of the employees' _{work characteristics.}

Practices _of favouritism, lack _of "punctual. _{ity" and non-} conformity of employees to _{work schedules are common}

problems (Tawati 1976 in Assad 1981: 2; Assad 1981: 3; Al Awajy 1971-1978). Khalil-'s (1979) _{study of women working} in

administration in Jeddah found that the lack _of

'punctuality' _{and the limited desire of employees to improve} their _{work performance are major administrative problems.} Female _workers felt _{that their} jobs did _not fit _with their interests _{and that their personal. and social.} difficulties

were reflected in their performances.

Thus, _{an obvious need exists to understand} the factors determining _{the work characteristics of} the female labour

force. _{The problem encountered} here is that in _{spite of} the large _{number of studies of} Saudi Arabian bureaucracy,

manpower and educational settings, ' there has been little

systematic accumulation of knowledge regarding women's organizations and female employees.

Most _{studies of women within the context of education}

and work in Saudi Arabia have _{concentrated on} the difficulties _women face _{in acquiring education and work}

(Almana _{1981; Gadi 1979; Alhamad 1986; Al-Nemer 1989).} These, however, _{are only partial explanations of exceedingly}

complex phenomena. This study seeks to penetrate other important key issues. Education is _{one of these major}

issues because _of its _role in determining _{the share of women} in _the labour _market. The _{study questions} the internal

mechanism operating in female education by questioning the role of the General Presidency of Girls' Education (GPGE)

which controls women's education and employment

opportunities and plays a fundamental role in determining

the _{quantity and quality} of that education. Work is another major issue which this study seeks to examine by describing

the _{nature and the major} functions of female labour in Saudi Arabia _{and analysing} job _{opportunities} and the effect of

working outside the home on female work characteristics.

1.1 Purpose _of the Study:

The present study starts from the conviction that work involves _{three sets} of characteristics: (a) characteristics

of individuals, (b) characteristics of the job and what the employee does at work, and (c) characteristics of the working environment and the nature of the organization

(Steers _{and Porter 1979: 21-23).}

The study _concerns itself

with the characteristics _of individual _{employees who are} expected to _{perform certain} tasks, _{and are thus restricted}

by specific limiting _{conditions of time, venue, duration and} intensity (Corson _{1988: 14). Certain work characteristics}

and values are _{seen as essential} to both the job _performance

of these _{employees and} to _{meeting organizational goals. As} Chapter _{Two discusses in detail, this study identifies nine}

work characteristics to be tested in this _research. These are: (1) Work Commitment, (2) Working Co-operatively _and

Acceptance _{of Colleagues' Differences,} (3) _Change

Orientation, (4) _{Educational and Technical Skills Valuation,}

(5) _{Educational and Occupational Aspiration, (6)}

Responsibility, (7) Decision Making, (8) Time Valuation,

and (9) Planning. Chapter Seven presents the _empirical data arising from the field research undertaken in Saudi Arabia.

The broad _{aim of} this _study is to _{elaborate on these} nine characteristics among working women in Riyadh in order

to reveal the _{meaning and the place of work} in the lives _of these _women. The _study focuses on _women in _government

agencies for two main reasons: (a) Saudi Arabia is a segregated society in which men and women each study and work in separate organizations. Thus, different roles and

expectations govern each sector. (b) Almost 90% of working women are employed in government agencies and 86% of them

are employed by the General Presidency _{of Girls' Education} (GPGE).

The study _{aims to establish an explanation of how far}

the _variation in _{these nine work characteristics among women} working in _{government educational} institutions _{can be}

attributed to _{education and} how far _{to work experience.}

Given _{this, and within the educational and employment} conditions of Saudi Arabian _women, two _{specific questions}

are addressed: (1) What _role does _{education play} in determining _{these characteristics? Women in Saudi Arabia}

have _only limited _{access to specific educational}

opportunities _{as will} be _elaborated in Chapter Five. The prime objective of education for females is to _reproduce

amongst women their conventional roles _{as mothers and wives} segregated from public life as stated by the _educational

policy:

"objectives _{of a woman's education are to bring her up} in _{a sound} Islamic _{way so that she can fulfil} her _role

in life _{as a successful} housewife, ideal _{wife and good} mother, and to prepare her for other activities that

suit her nature such as teaching, nursing and

medicine" (The Educational Policy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 1978: 28)

Taking into _account the _{nature of} this _education, the question to be addressed is how and to what extent

education is able to overcome the inevitable contradictions

between, _{on the one hand,} the traditional _{role required of} women and, on the other, the needs of the working

outgoing and decisive _and to _{make advancement in a career}

beyond _{the expected role portrayed by society. Do women} with education differ in their _{work characteristics from}

those _{with no education?} (2) _{What role does}

work experience _play in determining these work _{characteristics?} As Chapter Six discusses in detail,

the law in Saudi Arabia limits females _{to the conventional}

line _{of employment. The ideology and practices of the} organization _controlling female _{employment emphasize a} restrictive _pattern of _working conditions that _reinforces

the _{segregation and} limitation _{on women's movement and} mobility. 2 Furthermore, females in Saudi Arabia are excluded

from _public life. _{Alabd Alhay} (1983), _Assad (1983), Morgan (1984) _{and Hijab} (1988) _{illustrate the strict interpretation}

of Islamic law in Saudi Arabia which requires women to wear the He ýab. 3 This implies _{and reinforces a segregation} from

the _{public sphere and from} interacting _{with men who are} not family _{members. A woman may not drive or} travel _{without a} male relative and requires male permission for education and

for _work. This forces _{women to rely upon men to produce} most necessities. Under such working and living conditions

how can a woman be active, reveal self- confidence and make independent judgements in the _workplace?

Are _{the work characteristics} of women who have been in work for a period of time different from other women who

are newly employed?

1.2 Significance _{of the Study:}

This _{study is significant for four}

reasons: (1) It provides a qualitative _{empirical and analytical analysis of}

the _{role of} Saudi _{women at work. Many other}

studies that are available _rely heavily _{on official statistics that tend}

to be _{contradictory.} (2) _{By investigating the}

role of female _{education and employment, the}

study hopes to provide

some indications _of the _shifts in _{the position of women in} present Saudi _{society and of their} integration in _the development _process. (3) _{As Chapters Three}

and Four indicate, _{the theoretical debate on the relationship between} education _{and employment} has _mainly focused _{on issues such} as the economic _{return of education and productivity.}

Little _{systematic work has been carried out regarding the} non-cognitive outcome of education in rel. ation to employment

and even less to the _{attitudes, values and work}

characteristics. (4) As Chapter Three ill. ustrates, the few studies which were concerned with the characteristics of workers in contemporary organizations (Inkeles and Smith

1972; Kahl. 1968; Kohn 1977) _{were carried out among male} workers only. Female workers in these studies were excluded

and the gender issue in relation to education, work experience or any other factors that were studied was overlooked. This emphasizes the importance of this study

which will fill a gap in the literature of work

1.3 Organisation _{of the Study:}

This _study is divided _{into eight chapters:} Chapter _{One: Introduces the main objectives}

of the study, its _{rationale, purpose and significance in}

relation to the two principal _{variables studied:} female _{education and work} experience.

Chapter _{Two: Presents the methodology employed in the study} that includes: hypotheses, _{description of the sample, the} data _{gathering instruments, field testing of the research}

instrument _{and the interview procedure.}

Chapter _{Three: As this study is directly concerned with the} work characteristics _of female _workers in Saudi Arabia, _a brief _{review of related literature on the importance of such}

characteristics is _{presented with special emphasis on} the role of Islamic beliefs _on the formation _{of values,}

attitudes and work related characteristics.

Chapter Four: Illustrates _{the major theoretical} debate _on the _relationship between _{education and employment} by reviewing related literature on the two main theories of the

labour _{market. Major studies examining these theories are} presented and the applicability of these theories to the

Saudi Arabian female labour _market is discussed.

Chapter Five: Discusses female _{access to the} different

levels _{and types of education compared} to those _provided for males and the role this education plays in the female labour market.

Chapter Six: _{Discusses the Saudi Arabian female labour}

market, the role of _{educational qualifications, the rate of} female _{participation, the occupational distribution,}

the employment _{problem and the role of the GPGE and other} religious _{and cultural} forces in _{determining the basic}

functions _{of this market.}

Chapter _{Seven: Presents the major findings}

of the field work on the _{nine work characteristics among the} four _groups

of the _study. A test _{of the three main hypotheses in} relation to education, _{work experience and their} interaction

is discussed.

Chapter _{Eight: Summarizes the overall findings of the study} in _{relation to the theoretical and empirical data and offers}

a number of recommendations _{with regard} to women's _education and the labour _market in Saudi Arabia.

Notes _{to Chapter} One

1. _{With regard to studies of bureaucracy in Saudi Arabia} see: Al Awajy 1971; Tawati 1976; Dhaher 1979. For

studies of manpower requirement and educational setting

see: Al-Obaid 1979; Al Abdalwahed 1981; Al Jiffry 1983; Akad 1983; Nabti 1980; Almoammar 1983; Hammad 1973;

Gadi 1979; Alhamad 1986. 2. See Appendix V.

3. _{Women are covered} from head _{to foot} in loose black

flowing _{robes called the abaya with} the face _usually entirely behind a black veil.

Chapter _Two

The Methodological _Design Introduction

This _{chapter outlines the methodology employed in the} present study. This includes: (2.1) the _{methodological}

approach; (2.2) the _major three hypotheses _{of the study;} (2.3) _{description of the research sample; (2.4)}

selection of the _sample; (2.5) _the data _gathering instruments; (2.6) _the preliminary study; (2.7) the interview _schedule; (2.8) the nine work characteristics investigated in the interview

schedule; (2.9) field testing of the interview _schedule; and finally, (2.10) the interview _procedure.

2.1: _{The Methodological} Ap`proach:

The _{main purpose of this study} is _to investigate _the effect of both education and work experience on several

work characteristics of women working in female educational

institutions in Riyadh. Thus, three _{main concepts are}

identified: (a) Education, (b) Work Experience, _and (c) Work Characteristics.

(a) _{Education: this means the number of years of schooling} for _{each participant} in the _{study sample.} The study limits

itself to those _{certificates which} are required for most jobs _available in the Saudi Arabian female labour market.

These include high school. certificates or college degrees for _{those with experience} and/or any further education or

colleöe degrees for those _{newly employed since the} qualifications _{which are required} for jobs _{at the present}

time have _{risen to this} level, _{as will be shown in Chapters} Five _{and Six.}

(b) _{Work Experience: years spent in the labour}

market as an employee _working in _{one of} the female _educational

institutions _{in Riyadh.}

(c) _{Work Characteristics: are those personal social}

attributes that are recognized by relevant literature as

important in _{performing job tasks and achieving}

organizational goals. Section 2.8 of this chapter

elaborates on the nine work characteristics studied in this research. Chapter Three outlines the importance of work characteristics and the different factors involved in the process of acquisition of such attributes. A special

reference is made to the effect of Islam as a dominant cultural. factor within the sample's domestic working

environment.

The methodological. approach adopted in this study aims to introduce _{a sociological} and educational. analysis that takes the _conceptual. and theoretical. framework of the present study into account when analysing the data gathered

from _the field _{work and presented} in Chapter Seven. This is by _using both the _qualitative and quantitative data which

allows for a more sensitive understanding of the cultural.

functions _of Saudi _Arabian female _{education and the labour} market, as will be illustrated in Chapters Five _{and Six.}

2.2: _Hypothesis:

Taking _{into account the basic thrust of the present}

study _{which aims} to examine the _{effect of both education and}

experience of the _{study sample on} their _work

characteristics, the _{research centres around} three _major hypotheses _{which are} divided into _{sub-components with the}

analysis in Chapter Seven. The purpose of these hypotheses is _{to examine whether education, work experience and their}

interaction have _{significant effects on the nine work} characteristics of the sample. The effects, if any, are

statistically tested by applying the analysis of variance to the _{responses of} the four _{groups of the study with} the level

of significance established at _. 05. These hypotheses are:

Hypothesis 1: Education has _{a significant effect on} the _{nine work characteristics} studied in this research which

are stated in Chapter One and elaborated in Chapters Three and Seven.

Hypothesis 2: Work experience has a significant _effect on the nine work characteristics.

Hypothesis 3: Interaction between _{education and work} experience has a significant effect on each of the nine work characteristics.

2.3: Description _of the Research Samp le:

Four _{groups of} female _{workers who} differ in _their educational backgrounds and in the number of _years spent working outside the home were chosen to compare the effect

of these differences on their work characteristics. These four _{groups are} drawn from females _working in _government

educational institutions for girls (schools and universities) in Riyadh.

The groups are characterized as follows:

Group 1: _{working women with education and three years} or more of working experience

Group 2: _{working women with education who are newly} employed

Group 3: _{working women with} three years or more of working experience and with no educational

background

Group 4: _{working women who are newly} employed and with no educational. background.

Because _of the _nature of the interview as a time consuming device, only a limited number of cases was

possible. Each group consisted of 20 participants with a total. of 80 in the whole sample.

Since the General. Presidency of Girls' Education (GPGE) is _{the main provider} of girls' education at the general

level (primary, intermediate, _{secondary) and King Saud} University is _{the main provider at the university level in} Riyadh, _{these two} important _{administrations were chosen as}

areas for the field _work.

To _{accomplish more significant results, the study} concentrated on _a limited _{number of occupations within}

female _{schools. For groups 1 and 2 (i. e. with education)} 'white _{collar' occupations were chosen, namely teaching,}

student attendants (at the general level), TV attendants (at the _university level) _{and secretaries.} ' Those doing supervisory _{work were} not included (i. e. principals, office

managers) since they represent the employers for the employees who are the subjects of this study. For groups 3 and 4 (i. e. with no education) "blue collar" workers were chosen in the GPGE and university settings. They do house- keeping, _{cleaning and} delivering internal _{mail. within} the

school. Their supervisors, although women with no

education, were not included. The rationale for the selection of this cluster of occupations is that, on the one hand, _{they represent} the _main occupations practised within

female _educational institutions, _{and on the} other, they are one of the only major occupations available to Saudi females

in _the labour _{market, as will} be illustrated in Chapter Six.

2.4: _{Selection of the Sample:}

To identify _{the different groups}

according to their distinctive _{educational. qualifications}

and _experience, I started _with the Girls' Centre for _{University Studies,}

administered by King Saud University. _{A list of all female} employees _stating their _{qualifications, years of experience}

and type _of job _{performed was obtained. Teaching}

professions _at this _{centre were not} included _{since they} require higher _{qualifications} than _studied in _{this research}

(i. e. post-graduate degrees).

According _{to the} list, _{there were no newly-employed}

workers in the occupations _chosen for this _{study within} the three _months before _the field _{work was conducted. Thus, I} concentrated on those _{with education and work experience} to

fit _{group 1, or with no education but with experience to} fit _group 3. _{For group 1, there were 91 employees working}

at the administration of King Saud Women's Centre (such _as secretaries, TV attendants, student attendants). Eighteen of

them had lower _{educational. qualifications} than _required for this _study (less than high _{school. ).} Twenty _{others were not} included because _they had less _{than three years of} experience. This left 51 names on the list from which every fifth _{name on the} list _{was chosen.} Nevertheless, _this

process of selecting the sample was sometimes disrupted by absenteeism, sickness, maternity leave or refusal to cooperate. In any of these cases, the next person on the

list _{was identified as a substitute.}

For _group 3 (Experience _{+ No Education) 21}

were identified. _{Four were not suitable since they had less than}

three _{years of experience. Again every fifth name on the} list _{was chosen at random.}

With _{the GPGE schools, a list of all employees in} general. education _{was not possible} because _{of their} large

number. Therefore, in order _{to choose} the _{subjects suitable}

for _{groups 1 and 3, a list of intermediate and high schools}

was obtained. Elementary _{schools were excluded} because _most employees have lower _{educational. qualifications} than _studied

here. _{Schools were then chosen to represent the different}

social and economic variations of Riyadh City from the north

to _south. Fourteen _{schools were chosen,} 8 high _{schools and} 6 intermediate. _{A list of their employees was obtained} from the GPGE female _{supervisory office with the employees'}

qualifications, years of experience and types of job performed. Those who are employed in occupations that are

studied in this research were listed separately and every

fifth _{name on the} list _{was chosen.} Some individuals _who were identified but were not avail. able because of sickness,

maternity leave or refusal to participate were replaced by the _{next person} on the list.

For _group 2 (Education _{+ No Experience) and group} 4 (No Education + No Experience) in GPGE schools, the task _was more complicated because of the limited number of females

employed in the last three _months before _{conducting the} field _{work. There were a considerable}

number of _newly appointed teachers, but there _{were very few in other job} categories _{such as secretaries or student attendants, of} which 44 _were identified _{as newly appointed within the}

different _{schools in Riyadh. Because of their limited}

number, the _{rest of} these _{new workers were} interviewed for group 2 according to their _{availability.} For _group 4,32

workers _were identified _{as newly employed} in _the different

schools _{and were also} interviewed _{according to} their availability.

2.5: _{The Data Gathering Instruments:}

Primary _{and secondary sources were used in studying the} research _problam. These include:

- Documentation covering a wide range of relevant

literature _{including books, periodicals and reports in} addition to a computer search that was conducted to identify

recent literature.

- Government publications including statistical books, reports and guides that are produced by the different

ministries in Saudi Arabia.

- My own preliminary study among twenty female employers administering some of the women's educational. institutions

in Riyadh.