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W ill ia m K im H S C P h ys ic s S umm ar y | p ag e 1 P h y si cs Su m m a ry C o nt en ts P ag e C o re T o p ic O ne : S p ace 1. G ra v it y 2 2. S p ace L au nc h an d R et u rn 3 3. F u tu re S p ace T ra ve l 13 4. S p ec ia l R el at iv it y 14 C o re T o p ic T w o : M o to rs a nd G en er at o rs 1. T he M o to r E ff ec t 19 2. E lec tr o m ag n et ic I ndu ct io n 24 3. E lec tr ic G en er at o rs 27 4. T ra ns fo rm er s 29 5. E lec tr ic M o to rs 31 C o re T o p ic T hr ee : F ro m I d ea s to I m p le m en ta ti o n 1. C at ho d e R ay s 32 2. Q u an tu m T he o ry 37 3. S o li d S ta te D ev ic es 43 4. S up er co ndu ct iv it y 48 O p ti o n T o p ic : Q u an ta t o Q u ar k s 1. M o d el s o f th e A to m 53 2. Q u an tu m P h ys ic s 57 3. T he E lec tr o n M ic ro sc o p e 59 4. A p p li ca ti o ns o f R ad io ac ti v it y 61 5. N u cl ea r A p p li ca ti o ns 66 6. T he S tr u ct ur e o f M att er 67

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W ill ia m K im H S C P h ys ic s S umm ar y | p ag e 2 C o re T o p ic O n e: Sp a ce 1 . T he E ar th h as a g ra v it at io n al f ie ld t ha t ex er ts a f o rce o n o b jec ts b o th o n it a nd a ro u nd i t D ef in e w ei g ht a s th e fo rce o n an o b jec t du e to a g ra v it at io na l fi el d D ef in e g ra v it at io na l p o te nt ia l en er g y as t he w o rk d o ne t o m o ve a n o b je ct f ro m a v er y la rg e d is ta nce a w ay t o a p o in t in a g ra v it at io na l fi el d . T he w ei g ht o f an o b jec t is t he f o rce o f g ra v it y ac ti ng o n it . W he re W i s th e w ei g ht i n ne w to ns ( N ), m i s th e m ass i n k il o g ra m s (kg ) an d g ca n be e it he r: 1. T he a cce le ra ti on du e to g ra vity ( = 9 .8 m /s /s a t th e E ar th ’s s u rf ace ); o r 2. T he g ra vit a ti ona l fi el d st re ng th ( = 9 .8 N /k g at t he E ar th ’s s u rf ace ). A s w e li ft a n o b je ct f ro m t he g ro u nd t o a h ei g ht a bo ve t he g ro u nd w e do w o rk o n it . T h is w o rk i s st o re d i n th e o b jec t as g ra vit a ti ona l po te n ti a l en er gy . F o r an o b jec t o f m as s m a t a he ig ht h a bo ve th e E ar th ’s s u rf ace t he g ra v it at io n al p o te nt ia l en er g y E i s g iv en b y: H o w ev er t hi s equ at io n is v al id o n ly w he n th e o b je ct i s n ea r th e E ar th ’s s u rf ac e. T he g rav it a ti o n a l p o te n ti a l en er gy i s a m ea su re o f th e w o rk d o ne i n m o v ing a n o b jec t fr o m in fi n it y to a p o in t in t he f ie ld . T he g en er al e xp re ss io n fo r th e g ra v it at io n al p o te nt ia l en er g y o f an o b jec t o f m as s m a t a d is ta nce r fr o m t h e ce n tr e of t h e E a rth ( o r o th er p la ne t) i s g iv en b y: W he re M i s th e m ass o f th e E ar th ( o r o th er p la ne t) . C h a n g e in G rav it a ti o n a l P o te n ti a l E n er gy T he c h an g e in p o te nt ia l en er g y o f a m ass m1 a s it m o ve s fr o m i n fi n it y to a d is ta nce r fr o m a s o u rce o f a g ra v it at io n al f ie ld ( du e to a m ass m2 ) is g iv en b y: r m m G Ep 2 1 = Δ Ch a n g e in G rav it a ti o n a l P o te n ti a l E n er gy N ea r th e E a rt h (w he n ra d iu s in cr ea se s fr o m A t o B) N ew to n ’s L a w o f U n ive rs a l G ra vit a ti o n w h er e G i s th e un ive rs a l g ra vit ati ona l con st an t. T h e G ra vit a ti o n a l F ie ld Su rr ound ing an y ob jec t w it h m a ss i s a g ra vit a ti ona l fi el d . 2 2 1 r m m G F = 2 r Gm g = g m W r r = m gh Ep = r mM G E E p − = ⎟⎟ ⎠ ⎞ ⎜⎜ ⎝ ⎛ − = Δ B A E p r r GmM E 1 1

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W ill ia m K im H S C P h ys ic s S umm ar y | p ag e 3 2 . M an y fac to rs h av e to b e ta k en i nt o ac co u nt t o a ch ie ve a s u cc es sf u l ro ck et l au nc h, m ai nt ai n a st ab le o rb it a nd r et u rn t o E ar th D es cr ib e th e tr aj ec to ry o f an o b jec t u nd er g o in g p ro jec til e m o ti o n w it h in t he E ar th ’s g ra v it at io na l fi el d i n te rm s o f ho ri zo nt al a nd v er ti ca l co m p o ne nt s A n y m o v ing o b jec t th at m o ve s o n ly u nd er t he f o rce o f g ra v it y is a p ro jec til e. T he h o ri zo nt al m o ti o n o f a p ro jec til e is i nd ep en d en t to t he v er ti ca l m o ti o n . T he r ea so n fo r th is r es u lt i s th at g ra v it y is t he o n ly f o rce ac ti ng o n th e o b je ct s an d t h is a lw ay s ac ts t o w ar d s th e ce nt re o f th e E ar th . P ro jec ti le m o ti on ca n be a na ly se d b y re al is ing t ha t: 1. T he h o ri zo nt al m o ti o n is co n st a n t v el o ci ty. 2. T he v er ti ca l m o ti o n o f co n st a n t a cce le ra ti on ( w it h acc el er at io n o f g ). E qu a ti o n s o f U n if o rm ly A cc el er a te d M o ti o n T h e P a th o f a P ro jec ti le T he v el o ci ty a t an y p o in t o f th e p at h o f a p ro jec til e is s im p ly t he vec to r sum o f th e ho ri zo nt al a nd ve rt ic al v el o ci ty c o m p o ne nt s at t ha t po in t. T he h o ri zo nt al c o m p o n en t is c o n st an t. T he v er ti ca l co m p o ne nt c ha ng es a t g , t he acc el er at io n du e to g ra v it y. T ra jec to ri es T he p at h fo ll o w ed b y a p ro jec til e – i ts tr a jec to ry – i s a p ar ab o la ( o r li n ea r) x u x Δ y Δ as u v t a t u s t a u v 2 2 1 2 2 2 + = + = + = r r r r r r (1 ) H o ri zo nt al m o ti o n: t u x x = Δ (2 ) V er ti ca l m o ti o n: 2 2 1 t a y g = Δ F ro m ( 1 ): x u x t Δ = C o m b in ing ( 2 ) & ( 3 ):

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2 2 2 2 1 2 1 x u a u x a y x g x g Δ = ⎟⎟ ⎠ ⎞ ⎜⎜ ⎝ ⎛Δ = Δ ⎟⎟ ⎠ ⎞ ⎜⎜ ⎝ ⎛ = Δ = Δ 2 2 2 ) ( g ux a k x k y

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W ill ia m K im H S C P h ys ic s S umm ar y | p ag e 4 0 2 1 2 = − E E e R m M G mv D es cr ib e G al il eo ’s a na ly si s o f p ro jec til e m o ti o n E xp la in t he c o nce p t o f es ca p e ve lo ci ty i n te rm s o f th e: o g ra v it at io na l co n st an t o m ass a nd r ad iu s o f th e p la ne t G al il eo w as r es p o ns ib le f o r d edu ci ng t he p ar ab o li c sh ap e o f th e tr aj ec to ry o f a p ro jec til e. G al il eo ’s an al ys is o f p ro je ct il e m o ti o n le d h im t o c o ns id er re fe re n ce f ra m es . T he se a re w ha t al l m ea su re m en ts ar e co m p ar ed t o . T he c o nce p t o f G al il ea n re la ti v it y re fe rs t ha t th e la w s o f m ec h an ic s ar e th e sa m e in a f ra m e o f re fe re nce t ha t is a t re st o r o ne t ha t m o ve s w it h co ns ta nt v el o ci ty . If a n o b jec t is p ro jec te d up w ar d w it h a la rg e en o ug h v el o ci ty i t ca n es ca p e th e g ra v it at io na l p u ll o f th e E ar th ( o r o th er p la n et ) an d g o i nt o s p ace . T he n ece ss ar y ve lo ci ty t o l ea ve t he E ar th ( o r o th er p la ne t) i s ca ll ed t he es ca p e v el o ci ty . E sca p e ve lo ci ty d ep en d s o n th e g ra v it at io na l co n st an t, t he m as s an d r ad iu s o f th e p la ne t. S upp o se a n o bj ec t o f m ass m i s p ro jec te d v er ti ca ll y u p w ar d f ro m t he E ar th ’s s u rf ace ( m ass o f M a nd ra d iu s R ) w it h an i n it ia l ve lo ci ty u . T he i n it ia l m ec han ic a l en er gy , th at i s, k in et ic a nd po te nt ia l en er g y is g iv en b y: L et u s ass u m e th at t he i n it ia l sp ee d i s ju st e no ug h s o t ha t th e o bj ec t reac he s in fi n it y w it h ze ro ve lo ci ty . T he v al u e o f th e in it ia l ve lo ci ty f o r w h ic h t h is o cc u rs i s th e es ca p e v el o ci ty e v . W he n th e o b jec t is a t in fi n it y th e m ec ha n ic al e ne rg y is ze ro ( th e k in et ic e ne rg y is ze ro s in ce t he ve lo ci ty i s ze ro a nd t he po te nt ia l en er g y is ze ro b eca u se t h is i s w he re w e se lec te d t he ze ro o f po te nt ia l en er g y) . H en ce w h ic h lea d s to : E E e R GM v 2 = E E p k R m M G mu E E i i − = + 2 2 1

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W ill ia m K im H S C P h ys ic s S umm ar y | p ag e 5 R v g 2 = r v ac 2 = D is cu ss N ew to n’ s an al ys is o f es ca p e ve lo ci ty C ir cu la r M o ti on T he m o ti o n o f an o b jec t in a c ir cu la r p at h w it h co ns ta nt s p ee d i s ca ll ed un if o rm c ir cu la r m o ti o n. A lt ho ug h th e sp ee d r em ai n s th e sa m e in u n if o rm c ir cu la r m o ti o n, i t fo ll o w s th at a n o bj ec t tr av el li ng in a c ir cu la r p at h m u st b e a cce le ra ti ng , s in ce t he v el o ci ty ( th at i s, th e sp ee d i n a g iv en d ir ec ti on ) is co nt in u all y ch an g ing . C en tr ip et al A cc el er at io n A s ca n be s ee n, w he n th e ch an g e in v el o ci ty i s p la ce d i n th e av er ag e p o si ti o n b et w ee n v 1 a nd v2 , it i s d ir ec te d t o w ar d s th e ce n tre o f th e ci rc le . W he n an o b je ct i s m o v ing w it h un if o rm c ir cu la r m o ti o n, th e acc el er at io n (t he ce n tr ip et a l a cc el er a ti on ) is d ir ec te d t o w ar d s th e ce nt re o f th e ci rc le . F o r an o b jec t m o v ing i n a ci rc le o f ra d iu s r w it h an o rb it a l ve lo city o f v, t he ce nt ri p et al acc el er at io n a i s g iv en b y: E a rt h O rb it s A s at el li te c an b e pu t in to E ar th o rb it b y li ft ing i t to a s u ff ic ie nt h ei g ht a nd t he n g iv ing i t th e re q u ir ed h o ri zo nt al v el o ci ty s o t ha t it d o es n o t fa ll b ac k t o E ar th . F o r th e sa te ll it e to c ir cl e th e E ar th , th e ce nt ri p et al f o rce r equ ir ed i s p ro v id ed b y th e g ra v it at io na l at tr ac ti o n be tw ee n th e sa te ll it e an d t he E ar th . H en ce t he ce nt ri p et al acc el er at io n is g iv en b y: Is aa c N ew ton p ropo se d t h e id ea o f a rtifi ci a l sa te llit es o f th e E a rt h . H e con si d er ed h o w a p ro jec til e cou ld b e laun ch ed ho ri zon ta ll y fr o m t h e to p of a h igh m oun ta in s o t h at i t w ou ld no t fa ll t o E a rt h . A s th e laun ch ve lo cit y w a s in cr ea se d , th e d is tan ce t ha t th e ob jec t w ou ld t ra ve l b ef o re h itti ng t h e E a rt h w ou ld i n cr ea se un til s u ch a ti m e tha t th e ve lo cit y w ou ld b e su ffi ci en t to pu t th e ob jec t in to o rb it a round th e E a rt h . (A h igh er ve lo cit y w ou ld l ead t o t h e ob jec t es cap ing f ro m t h e E a rt h .) 2 1 v v = 2 1 v v r r ≠ 2 v r 1 v r v r Δ 2 v r 1 v r v r Δ T he c h an g e in v el o ci ty i s g iv en b y: an d s in ce : it f o ll o w s th at t he o b jec t is acc el er at in g . 1 2 v v v r r r − = Δ t v a Δ Δ = r r

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W ill ia m K im H S C P h ys ic s S umm ar y | p ag e 6 gR v mg R mv mg mg N 2 2 1 + = + = = U se t he t er m ‘ g f o rce s’ t o ex p la in t he f o rce s ac ti ng o n an a st ro na u t du ri ng l au nc h C o m p ar e th e fo rce s ac ti ng o n an a st ro na u t du ri ng l au nc h w it h w h at h app en s du ri ng a ro ll er c o as te r ri d e T he h u m an b od y is r el at iv el y u n aff ec te d b y h ig h s p ee d s. C ha ng es i n sp ee d , ho w ev er , th at i s, acc el er at io n s, ca n an d d o a ff ec t th e hu m an b od y cr ea ti ng ‘a cce le ra ti on s tr es s’ . g -f o rce s A cce le ra ti o n fo rce s – g -f o rce s – a re m ea su re d i n u n it s o f g ra v it at io n al a cc el er at io n g . F o r ex am p le , a fo rce o f 5g i s eq u iv al en t to acc el er at io n fi v e tim es t he acc el er at io n du e to g ra v it y. If t he acc el er at io ns a re a lo ng t he b od y’ s lo ng a x is t he n tw o d is ti nc t eff ec ts a re p o ss ib le : 1. If t he acc el er at io n is i n th e d ir ec ti o n o f th e p er so n’ s hea d t he y m ay e xp er ie nce a ‘ b la ck o ut ’ as t he b loo d r u sh es t o t he ir f ee t; o r 2. If t he acc el er at io n is t o w ar d s th ei r fee t, t he y m ay e xp er ie nce a ‘ re d o ut ’ w he re t he b loo d ru sh es t o t he ir h ea d a nd r et in a. A s yo u ‘ fa ll ’ fr o m a h ei g ht , yo u e xp er ie nce n ega ti ve g -f o rces ( yo u f ee l li g ht er ). W he n yo u ‘ p u ll o u t’ o f a d ip a ft er a h il l o r fo ll o w a n ‘i n si d e loo p ’, yo u e xp er ie nce po siti ve g -f o rces ( yo u f ee l he av ie r) . T he p o si ti v e g -f o rce s ar e li k e th o se a st ro na u ts e xp er ie nce a t li ft -o ff . C o ns id er a r id er i n a ca r at t he b o tt o m o f an i n si d e loo p . T he r id er h as t w o f o rce s ac ti ng o n th em : 1. T he ir n o rm al w ei g ht ( m g ) ac ti ng d o w n ; an d 2. T he ‘ no rm al r eac ti o n fo rce ’ (N ) ac ti ng up . T h is i s th e pu sh o f th e sea t up w ar d s o n th ei r bo tt o m . A ss u m e th at t he l o o p i s p ar t o f a ci rc le o f ra d iu s R . A ce n tr ip et a l fo rce i s re q u ir ed f o r th e ri d er t o tr av el i n a ci rc le . T h is i s th e d iff er en ce b et w ee n th e no rm al f o rce a nd t he w ei g ht f o rce , th at i s: R mv mg N R mv mg N 2 2 : + = = − T he g -f o rces a re f o u nd f ro m t he 'n o rm al f o rce ’ d iv id ed b y th e w ei g ht . T ha t is : g ’s f el t b y ri d er N mg g -f o rce s o n A st ro n a u ts H u m an s can w it h st and 4g w it hou t undu e con ce rn . A cce le ra ti on s up t o ~10g a re to le rab le f o r sho rt ti m es w h en th e a cce le ra ti on i s d ir ec te d pa ra ll el t o a l in e d ra w n b et w ee n th e p ers on ’s f ron t an d ba ck .

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W ill ia m K im H S C P h ys ic s S umm ar y | p ag e 7 D is cu ss t he i m p ac t o f th e E ar th ’s o rb it al m o ti o n an d i ts ro ta ti o na l m o ti o n o n th e la u nc h o f a ro ck et A na ly se t he c ha ng ing acc el er at io n o f a ro ck et du ri ng l au nc h in t er m s o f th e: L aw o f C o ns er va ti o n o f M o m en tu m F o rce s ex p er ie nce d b y as tr o na u ts A m o v ing p la tf o rm o ff er s a boo st t o t he v el o ci ty o f a p ro jec til e la u nc he d f ro m i t, if l au nc he d i n th e d ir ec ti o n o f m o ti o n o f th e p la tf o rm . T h is p ri nc ip le i s u se d i n th e la u nc h o f a ro ck et b y co ns id er ing th at t he E ar th r ev o lv es a ro u nd t he S u n at 107 ,000 km /h r el at iv e to t he S u n an d r o ta te s o nce o n it s ax is p er d ay s o t ha t a po in t o n th e E qu at o r ha s a ro ta ti o na l v el o ci ty o f app ro x im at el y 1 ,700 k m /h re la ti ve t o t he S u n. H en ce , th e E ar th i s it se lf a m o v ing p la tf o rm w it h tw o d iff er en t m o ti o n s w h ic h ca n be e xp lo it ed i n a ro ck et l au nc h to g ai n a boo st i n v el o ci ty . E a rt h O rb it A r o ck et h ea d in g i nt o o rb it i s la u nc he d t o t he ea st t o r ec ei ve a v el o ci ty b oo st f ro m t he E ar th ’s ro ta ti o na l m o ti o n. A n I n te rp la n et a ry T ri p T he f li g ht o f a ro ck et h ea d ing i nt o s p ace i s tim ed s o t ha t it ca n hea d o u t in t he d ir ec ti o n o f th e E ar th ’s m o ti o n an d t he re b y rec ei v e an e xt ra b o o st . L a w o f C o n se rva ti o n o f M o m en tu m R o ck et e ng in es g en er at e th ru st b y bu rn in g f u el a nd e xp ell ing t he r es u lt in g g as es . C o ns er va ti o n o f m o m en tu m m ea n s th at a s th e g as es m o ve o ne w ay , th e ro ck et m o v es t he o th er . (M o m en tu m b ef o re th e bu rn ing i s ze ro ; he nce t he m o m en tu m a ft er i s al so ze ro . T he g as es ca rr y m o m en tu m i n o ne d ir ec ti o n d o w n, an d s o t he r o ck et ca rr ie s an e qu al m o m en tu m i n th e o p po si te d ir ec ti o n up .) A s fu el i s co n su m ed a nd t he g as es e xp el le d , th e m ass o f th e s ys te m d ec re as es . S in ce acc el er at io n is p ro po rt io na l to t he t hr u st a nd i n ve rs el y p ro po rt io na l to t he m ass , as t he m as s d ec rea se s, th e acc el er at io n in cr ea se s. H en ce t he f o rce s o n th e as tr o na u ts i nc re as e. F o rc es E xp er ie n ce d b y A st ro n a u ts g f o rce s va ri ed du ri ng t he l au nc h o f Sa tu rn V , a la rg e th ree -s ta g e ro ck et u se d t o l au n ch t he A po llo sp acec ra ft . T h is i s at tr ib u te d t o t he s equ en ti al s hu td o w n o f th e m u lt ip le r o ck et e ng in es o f ea ch s ta g e – a t ec hn iq u e d es ig ne d s p ec if ica ll y to a vo id e xt re m e g f o rce s.

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W ill ia m K im H S C P h ys ic s S umm ar y | p ag e 8 A na ly se t he f o rce s in vo lv ed in u ni fo rm c ir cu la r m o ti o n fo r a ra ng e o f o b jec ts , in cl ud ing s at el li te s o rb it in g th e E ar th C o m p ar e qu al it at iv el y an d qu an ti ta ti ve ly l o w E ar th a nd g eo st at io na ry o rb it s L o w E a rt h O rb it A l o w E ar th o rb it i s g en er all y an o rb it h ig he r th an a pp ro x im at el y 250 k m , in o rd er t o a vo id at m o sph er ic d ra g , an d l o w er t ha n app ro x im at el y 1 000 k m , w h ic h is t he a lt it ud e at w h ic h th e V an A ll en r ad ia ti o n be lt s st ar t to a pp ea r. T he s p ace s hu tt le u ti li se s a lo w E ar th o rb it s o m ew he re b et w ee n 250 k m a nd 400 k m d ep en d ing up o n th e mi ss io n. A t 250 k m , an o rb it in g s p ac ec ra ft h as a v el o ci ty o f 27 ,900 k m /h a nd t ak es j u st 90 mi nu te s to c o m p le te a n o rb it o f th e E ar th . G eo st a ti o n a ry O rb it A g eo st at io na ry o rb it i s at a n al ti tud e at w h ic h th e p er io d o f th e o rb it p re ci se ly m at ch es t ha t o f th e E ar th . If o ve r th e E qu at o r, s u ch a n o rb it w o u ld a ll o w a s at el li te t o r em ai n ‘p ar k ed ’ o ve r a fi x ed p o in t o n th e su rf ac e o f th e E ar th t hr o ug ho ut t he d ay a nd n ig ht . F ro m t he E ar th s u ch a s at ell it e app ea rs t o b e st at io na ry i n th e sk y, al w ay s lo ca te d i n th e s am e d ir ec ti o n re g ar d le ss o f th e tim e o f d ay . T h is i s p ar ti cu la rl y u se fu l fo r co mm u n ica ti o ns sa te ll it es b eca u se a r ec ei v ing d is h nee d o n ly p o in t to a f ix ed s p o t In t he s k y in o rd er t o r em ai n in c o nt ac t w it h th e sa te ll it e. T he a lt it ud e o f su ch a n o rb it i s app ro x im at el y 38 ,800 k m . If a s at el li te a t th is h ei g ht i s no t p o si ti o ne d o ve r th e E qu at o r bu t at s o m e o th er l at it ud e, it w il l no t re m ai n fi x ed a t o ne p o in t in t he sk y. In st ea d , fr o m t he E ar th t he s at el li te w il l app ea r to t race o ut a ‘f igu re o f ei g ht ’ p at h eac h 24 ho u rs . It s ti ll h as a p er io d e qu al t o t he E ar th ’s , ho w ev er , an d s o t hi s o rb it i s re fe rr ed t o a s g eo syn ch ro no u s. M o ti o n F c P rov id ed B y… W h ir li ng r o ck o n a st ri ng T he s tr in g E lec tr o n o rb it in g a to mi c nu cl eu s E lec tr o n-nu cl eu s el ec tr ic al a tt rac ti o n C ar c o rn er in g F ri ct io n be tw ee n ty re s an d r o ad M o o n re vo lv ing a ro u nd E ar th M o o n-E ar th g ra v it at io n al a tt ra ct io n S at el li te r ev o lv ing a ro u nd E ar th S at el li te -E ar th g ra v it at io na l at tr ac ti o n

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W ill ia m K im H S C P h ys ic s S umm ar y | p ag e 9 D is cu ss t he i m p o rt an t o f N ew to n’ s L aw o f U n iv er sa l G ra v it at io n in u nd er st an d ing an d c al cu la ti ng t he m o ti o n o f sa te ll it es O nce a l au nc he d r o ck et h as a ch ie ve d a s u ff ic ie nt a lt it ud e ab o v e th e su rf ace o f th e E ar th , it ca n be acc el er at ed i nt o a n o rb it . It m u st a tt ai n a sp ec if ic s p ee d t ha t is d ep en d en t o n ly up o n th e m as s an d ra d iu s o f th e E ar th a nd t he a lt it ud e ab o ve i t. If t ha t s p ee d i s no t reac he d , th e sp acec ra ft w ill s p ir al bac k i n u nt il i t re -e nt er s th e at m o sp he re ; if t h e sp ee d i s ex cee d ed , it w il l sp ir al o ut . T h is c an b e co ns id er ed b y app re ci at in g t ha t th e sim p le st o rb it al m o ti o n is a un if o rm s p ee d a lo ng a c ir cu la r p at h ar o u nd t he E ar th . U n if o rm c ir cu la r m o ti on , as a lr ea d y m en ti o ne d , is a c ir cu la r m o ti o n w it h a un if o rm o rb it al ve lo ci ty . A cc o rd in g t o N ew to n’ s F ir st L aw o f M o ti o n, a sp acec ra ft i n o rb it a ro u nd t he E ar th , o r an y o b jec t in c ir cu la r m o ti o n, re q u ir es s o m e fo rce t o k ee p i t th er e, o th er w is e it w o u ld f ly o ff a t a ta ng en t to t he c ir cl e. T h is f o rce i s d ir ec te d b ac k t o w ar ds t he ce nt re o f th e ci rc le . In t he ca se o f sp ac ec ra ft , it is t he g ra v it at io na l at tr ac ti o n be tw ee n th e E ar th a nd t he s p acec ra ft t ha t ac ts to m ai nt ai n t he c ir cu la r m o ti o n th at i s th e o rb it . T he f o rce r eq u ir ed t o m ai n ta in c ir cu la r m o ti o n, k no w n as ce n tr ip et a l fo rce , ca n be d et er mi n ed u si ng t he f o ll o w ing e qu at io n: T he a p p li ca ti o n o f N ew to n’ s L a w o f U n iv er sa l G rav it a ti on t o t he o rb it al m o ti o n o f a sa te ll it e w il l p ro du ce a n ex p re ss io n fo r th e cr it ic al o rb it al v el o ci ty m en ti o n ed ea rli er . R ec all t ha t th is la w s ta te s th at t he g ra v it at io na l at tr ac ti o n be tw ee n a sa te ll it e an d t he E ar th w o u ld b e g iv en b y th e fo ll o w in g e xp re ss io n: T h is g ra v it at io na l fo rce o f att rac ti o n al so s er ve s as t he ce nt ri p et al f o rce f o r th e ci rc u la r o rb it al m o ti o n, he nce : T he re fo re , w e ca n equ at e th e fo rm u la f o r F G w it h th at f o r F C : 2 r m m G F S E G = C G F F = r mv FC 2 = r v m r m m G S S E 2 2 = w he re v = o rb it al v el o ci ty ( ms -1 ) r Gm v E = ∴ w he re r = rE + a lt it ud e (m) U si ng N ew ton ’s L a w o f U n ive rs a l G ra vit a ti on c o m b in ed w it h t h e ex p re ss ion f o r ce n tr ip et a l fo rce , w e can s ee tha t th e o rb it a l ve lo cit y re qu ir ed f o r a pa rti cu la r o rb it d ep end s on ly on t h e m a ss o f th e E a rt h , th e rad iu s o f th e E a rt h and t h e a ltit ud e of t h e o rb it (d is tan ce f ro m t h e su rf a ce o f th e E a rt h ). G ive n tha t th e m a ss and rad iu s o f th e E a rt h ha ve f ixe d va lu es , th is m ean s tha t a lt it ud e is t h e on ly v a ri ab le t ha t d et er m in es t h e sp ec if ic ve lo cit y re qu ir ed . In add iti o n, th e g re a te r th e rad iu s o f th e o rb it , th e lo w er t h e o rb it a l ve lo cit y re qu ir ed .

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W ill ia m K im H S C P h ys ic s S u mm ar y | p ag e 10 F u rt he r, w e ca n u se t he e xp re ss io n fo r o rb it al v el o ci ty t o p ro ve K ep le r’ s T h ir d L a w t h e L a w o f P er io d s. T he p er io d o r th e tim e ta k en t o c o m p le te o ne f u ll o rb it ca n b e fo u nd b y d iv id ing t he l en g th o f th e o rb it ( th e ci rc u m fe re n ce o f th e ci rc le ) b y th e o rb it al v el o ci ty , v. C h an g in g t he s u b jec t o f th is e xp re ss io n to v an d t he n su b st it u ti ng i nt o t he f o rm u la f o r v g iv en ab o ve : T h is m ea ns t ha t fo r an y sa te ll it e o f th e E ar th a t an y al ti tud e, t he r at io r 3 :T 2 a lw ay s eq u al s th e sa m e fi x ed v al u e. 2 2 3 4 2 π π E E Gm T r r Gm T r = ∴ = v r T π2 = K ep le r’ s T h ir d L a w: T h e L a w o f P er iod s

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W ill ia m K im H S C P h ys ic s S u mm ar y | p ag e 11 D es cr ib e ho w a s li ng sh o t eff ec t is p ro v id ed b y p la ne ts fo r sp ace p ro be s A cc o u nt f o r th e o rb it al d ec ay o f sa te ll it es i n lo w E ar th o rb it M an y o f to d ay ’s s p ace p ro be s to d is ta nt p la n et s su ch a s Ju p it er u se a g ra vit a ti ona l ‘s li ng sho t’ e ff ect (a ls o k no w n as a g ra vit y-a ss is t tr a jec to ry ) th at b ri ng s th e p ro be c lo se t o o th er p la ne ts t o i nc re as e th e p ro be ’s v el o ci ty . In 1974 , M a ri n er 10 w as d ir ec te d p as t V en u s o n it s w ay t o M er cu ry . T he P ion eer an d V o ya g er p ro be s al so u se d t h is m et ho d . C o ns id er a t ri p t o J up it er s u ch a s th e G a lil eo p ro be t ha t in vo lv ed a s in g le f ly -b y o f V en u s an d t w o o f th e E ar th . A s th e p ro be a pp ro ac he s V enu s, it i s acc el er at ed b y V en u s’ g ra v it at io na l at tr ac ti o n, ca u si ng i t to s p ee d u p re la ti ve t o V enus . (B y N ew to n’ s T h ir d L aw , V en u s w il l al so ex p er ie nce a f o rce s lo w in g i t d o w n. It ’s m ass , ho w ev er , is s o m u ch g rea te r th an t ha t o f th e p ro be th at t he v el o ci ty d ec rea se i s im p er ce p ti b le .) A s th e p ro be p ass es V en u s, i ts s p ee d i s re du ce d (r el at iv e to V en u s) . R el at iv e to t he S u n, ho w ev er , it s sp ee d h as i nc re as ed . T he p ro be p ic k s up angu la r m o m en tum f ro m t he p la ne t (w h ic h lo se s an e qu al a m ou nt o f an a ng u la r m o m en tu m ). G ra v it y al lo w s th e ‘c o u p li ng ’ be tw ee n th e p ro be an d p la ne t to f ac il it at e th e tr an sf er . F o r th is r ea so n, g ra v it y-ass is t tr aj ec to ri es s ho u ld m o re c o rr ec tl y be c al le d angu la r m o m en tu m -a ss is t tr a jec to ri es . A ll s at el li te s in l o w E ar th o rb it a re s ub je ct t o s o m e d eg ree o f at m o sp he ri c d ra g t ha t w il l ev en tu all y d ec ay t he ir o rb it a nd li m it t he ir l if et im es . A s a sa te ll it e s lo w s, i t lo se s al ti tud e an d b eg in s a s lo w sp ir al d o w nw ar d s. A s it d es ce nd s, i t en co u nt er s h ig he r d en si ty a ir a nd h ig he r d ra g , sp ee d in g up t he p ro ce ss . B y th e tim e th e sa te ll it e is b el o w a n al ti tud e o f 200 k m i t ha s o n ly a f ew h o u rs l ef t be fo re co ll id ing w it h th e E ar th . T he r e-en tr y p ro ce ss g en er at es m u ch h ea t an d m o st s at el li te s bu rn up (v ap o ri se ) be fo re im p ac ti ng . vi S p acec ra ft Vi P la net Vf vf = vi + 2V i

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W ill ia m K im H S C P h ys ic s S u mm ar y | p ag e 12 D is cu ss i ss u es a ss o ci at ed w it h sa fe r e-en tr y in to t he E ar th ’s a tm o sp he re a nd la nd ing o n th e E ar th ’s s u rf ac e Id en ti fy t ha t th er e is a n o pt im u m a ng le f o r re -e nt ry in to t he E ar th ’s a tm o sp he re an d t he c o ns equ en ce s o f fa il in g t o ac h ie ve t h is a ng le . T he re a re s ig n if ica nt t ec hn ica l d if fi cu lt ie s in vo lv ed i n s af e re -e nt ry , th e m o st im p o rt an t be in g : 1. T he h ea t g en er at ed a s th e sp acec ra ft c o nt ac ts th e E ar th ’s a tm o sp he re ; an d 2. K ee p ing t he r et ar d in g -f o rce s ( g -f o rces ) w it h in s af e lim it s fo r hu m an s. H ea ti n g E ff ec ts T he E ar th ’s a tm o sph er e p ro v id es a er od yn a m ic d rag o n th e sp acec ra ft a nd a s a re su lt h ig h te m p er at u re s ar e g en er at ed b y fr ic ti o n w it h ai r m o lec u le s. g -F o rce s T he a ng le o f re -e nt ry i s cr it ica l: t oo s ha ll o w a nd t h e sp acec ra ft w il l bo u nce o ff t he a tm o sp he re b ac k in to s p ace ; too s tee p a nd t he g -f o rce s w il l be t oo g rea t fo r th e cr ew t o s u rv iv e (a nd t he t em p er at u re s g en er at ed w it h th e at m o sp he re w ill b e to o h ig h ev en f o r th e re fr ac ti ng m at er ia ls u se d ). T he ‘ al lo w ed ’ an g le o f re -e nt ry i s –6 .2 ° ± 1 ° re la ti ve t o t he E ar th ’s h o ri zo n.

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W ill ia m K im H S C P h ys ic s S u mm ar y | p ag e 13 3 . F u tu re s p ace t ra ve l an d e xp lo ra ti o n w ill e nt ai l a co m b in at io n o f ne w t ec h no log ie s ba se d o n cu rr en t an d e m er g in g k no w le dg e D is cu ss t he li m it at io n o f cu rr en t m ax im u m v el o ci ti es be ing t o o s lo w f o r ex te nd ed sp ace t ra ve l to b e v ia b le D es cr ib e d if fi cu lt ie s ass o ci at ed w it h eff ec ti ve a nd re li ab le c o mm u n ic at io n s be tw ee n sa te ll it es a nd ea rt h ca u se d b y: - d is ta nce - va n A ll en r ad ia ti o n be lt s - su ns p o t ac ti v it y S ci en ti st s ha v e no t ye t bee n ab le t o p ro du ce s p ee d s o f sp ac ec ra ft m o re t ha n a fe w t en s o f th o u sa nd s o f k il o m et re s p er h o u r. W he n tr av el li ng t o d is ta nt p la ne ta ry o b jec ts , th e en g in es o f sp acec ra ft a re no t o n as s p acec ra ft r el y o n in er ti a to m o ve a lo ng . T o i nc re as e th e sp ee d s ig n if ic an tl y w ou ld r eq u ir e th e en g in es t o b e o p er at in g , w h ic h w o u ld r eq u ir e m o re f u el . M o re f u el w ou ld r eq u ir e m o re t hr u st pu tt in g t he s p acec ra ft i nt o o rb it , w h ic h w o u ld r equ ir e m o re f u el a nd s o o n. T o i nc re as e th e sp ee d o f sp ac ec ra ft t o v al u es t ha t w o u ld m ak e in te rp la ne ta ry t ra ve l fe as ib le re q u ir es a w ho le n ew t ec h no log y (o ne n o t ba se d o n th e emi ss io n o f g as es p ro du ce d b y co m bu st io n) . C le ar ly , w h il e cu rr en t m ax im u m v el o ci ti es a re ju st a d equ at e fo r in te rp la ne ta ry t ra ve l, th ey a re en ti re ly i n ad eq u at e fo r in te rs te ll ar t ra ve l. D is ta n ce M ic ro w av es a nd r ad io w av es , li k e al l E M w av es , tr av el t hr o ug h sp ace a t th e sp ee d o f li g ht . T h is i s th e fa st es t sp ee d p o ss ib le i n o u r un iv er se a nd t he re fo re p lac es a l im it o n th e sp ee d a nd r es p o ns e tim e o f sp ace c o mm u n ica ti o ns . T he i m m en se d is ta nce i n vo lv ed i n sp ace c o m m u n ic at io n s cr ea te s a d is ta n ce -r el at ed t im e la g . A ls o , as E M r ad ia ti o n o b ey s an in ve rs e squ a re l aw , th er e is a l o ss o f si g n al s tr en g th a s d is ta nce i n cr ea se s. T h is i s re fe rr ed t o a s spa ce l o ss . V a n A ll en r a d ia ti o n b el ts T he re a re t w o b el ts o f en er g et ic c ha rg ed p ar ti cl es , m ai n ly e lec tr o ns a nd p ro to ns , ly ing a t ri g ht an g le s to t he e qu at o r o f th e E ar th . S o m e o f th e so la r w in d p ar ti cl es b ec o m e tr app ed i n th e V an A ll en ra d ia ti o n be lt s. In te ns e so la r ac ti v it y ca n d is rup t th e V an A ll en B el ts . T h is i n tu rn i s as so ci at ed w it h au ro ras a nd m agn eti c st o rms . T he c ha rg ed p ar ti cl es d ri ft ing a ro u nd t he E ar th i n th e o ut er b el t co rr es p o nd s to a n el ec tr ic c u rr en t an d h en ce h as a n a ss o ci at ed m agn et ic f ie ld . O nce o r tw ice a m o nt h th is c u rr en t in cr ea se s an d a s a re su lt i ts m ag ne ti c fi el d i n cr ea se s. T h is c an l ea d t o i nt er fe re nce o f s ho rt w av e ra d io c o mm u n ica ti o n, er ro rs i n co mm u n ica ti o n sa te ll it es a nd e ve n fa il u re o f el ec tr ic al tr an smi ss io n li n es . Sun sp o t a ct iv it y S u ns p o ts a re a ss o ci at ed w it h th e so la r w in d ( co ns is ti ng o f a st rea m o f ch ar g ed p ar ti cl es ). T he s o la r w in d a ff ec ts t he E ar th ’s m ag ne ti c fi el d a nd t h is i n tu rn a ff ec ts r ad io c o mm u n ica ti o n.

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W ill ia m K im H S C P h ys ic s S u mm ar y | p ag e 14 4 . C u rr en t an d e m er g ing u nd er st an d in g ab o u t tim e an d s p ace h as b ee n d ep en d en t u po n ea rli er m o d el s o f th e tr an sm iss io n o f li g ht O u tli n e th e fea tu re s o f th e et he r m o d el f o r th e tr an smi ss io n o f li g ht D es cr ib e an d e va lu at e th e M ic he ls o n-M o rl ey a tt em p t to m ea su re t he r el at iv e ve lo ci ty o f th e E ar th t hr o ug h th e et he r D is cu ss t he r o le o f cr it ic al ex p er im en ts i n sc ie nce , su ch as M ic he ls o n-M o rl ey ’s , in m ak ing d et er mi n at io n s ab o u t co m p et in g t he o ri es It w as b eli ev ed t ha t li g ht w av es r eq u ir e a m ed iu m t o p ro p ag at e. A lt ho ug h no bod y co u ld f ind s u ch a m ed iu m , be li ef i n i ts e x is te nce w as s o s tr o ng t ha t it w as g iv en a n am e – th e et h er . T he e th er : - F ill ed a ll o f sp ace , ha d l o w d en si ty a nd w as p er fec tl y tr an sp ar en t - P er m ea te d a ll m att er a nd y et w as c o m p le te ly p er m ea b le t o m at er ia l o b jec ts - H ad g rea t el as ti ci ty t o s up po rt a nd p ro p ag at e th e li g ht w av es T h e E th er W ind B eca u se t he E ar th w as m o v in g a ro u nd t he S u n, it w as r ea so ne d t ha t an et h er w ind s hou ld b e b lo w ing p as t th e E ar th . H o w ev er , if a w in d b lo w s, th e sp ee d o f so u nd r el at iv e to t he s ta ti o na ry o bs er ve r w ou ld v ar y. T hu s it w as b el ie ve d t ha t th e sp ee d o f li g ht s hou ld v ar y du e to t he p re se nce o f th e “e th er w in d ”. It w as i n an a tt em p t to d et ec t th is d if fe re nce t ha t M ic he ls o n an d M o rl ey d id t he ir fa m o u s ex p er im en t. T h e M ic h el so n -M o rl ey E xp er im ent L ig ht s en t fr o m S i s sp li t in to t w o p er p en d ic u la r b ea m s b y th e ha lf -s il v er ed mi rr o r at A . T he se t w o be am s ar e th en r ef lec te d b ac k b y th e mi rr o rs M 1 a nd M 2 a nd a re r ec o m b in ed i n th e o bs er ve r’ s ey e. A n in te rf er en ce p att er n re su lt s fr o m t he se t w o b ea m s. T he b ea m AM 1 t ra ve ll ed ac ro ss th e et he r, w h il st AM 2 t ra ve ll ed w it h an d a g ai n st t he e th er . T he t im es t o d o t h is c an b e s ho w n to b e d iff er en t an d s o i nt ro du ce a p ha se d if fe re nce b et w ee n th e be am s. W he n th e en ti re a pp ar at u s w as r o ta te d t hr oug h 90 °, a c hang e in t h e in te rf er en ce pa tt er n w a s ex p ec ted . N o ne w as o bs er ve d . T he r es u lt o f th e M ic h el so n -M o rl ey e xp er im ent w as t ha t no m o ti o n o f th e E ar th r el at iv e to th e et he r w as d et ec ta b le . F ro m a h ypo th es is , p re d ic ti o n s ar e m ad e o f w ha t sh ou ld h app en i f a p ar ti cu la r ex p er im en t is p er fo rm ed . If t he r es u lt s ar e no t in a g re em en t w it h th e p re d ic ti o n, th e h yp o th es is i s in co rr ec t. A s w e ha ve s ee n, th e fac t th at a n u ll r es u lt w as f ou nd f ro m t h is e xp er im en t sh o w ed t he e th er h yp o th es is t o be i nv al id . T h is o p en ed up a c o m p le te ly r ev o lu ti o n ar y v ie w o f sp ace a nd t im e w it h th e w o rk o f E in st ei n. E th er W ind M2 M1 S A

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W ill ia m K im H S C P h ys ic s S u mm ar y | p ag e 15 O u tli n e th e na tu re o f in er ti al fr am es o f re fe re nc e D is cu ss t he p ri nc ip le o f re la ti v it y F ra m es o f R ef er en ce F ra m es o f re fe re n ce a re o b jec ts o r co o rd in at e s ys te m s w it h re sp ec t to w h ic h w e ta k e m ea su re m en ts . P o si ti o n In m at h s, t he C ar te si an c o o rd in at e s ys te m i s u se d a nd p o si ti o n is r ef err ed t o t he a xe s x, y an d z. In ex p er im en ts i n cl ass , th e la bo ra to ry i s th e fr am e o f re fe re nce . V el o ci ty A n o b jec t P t ra ve ls w it h ve lo cit y v w it h re sp ec t to a r ef er en ce f ra m e S . A no th er f ra m e S’ m o ve s w it h v el o ci ty u r el at iv e to S . T he v el o ci ty o f P r el at iv e to S’ i s v’ = v u . V el o cit y thu s d ep end s upon t h e re fe re n ce f ra m e. In er ti a l F ra m es o f R ef ere n ce A n in er ti a l fr a m e o f re fe re n ce i s o ne t ha t is m o v in g w it h co n st an t ve lo ci ty o r is a t re st ( th e tw o co nd it io ns b ei ng i nd is ti ng u is h ab le ). In s u ch r ef er en ce f ra m es , N ew to n’ s L aw o f In er ti a ho ld s. A n o n -i n er ti a l fr a m e o f re fe re n ce i s o ne t ha t is acc el er at in g . T hr ee h u nd re d y ea rs b ef o re E in st ei n, G al il eo p o se d a s im p le i d ea , no w c all ed t he p ri n ci p le o f re la ti v ity , w h ic h st at es th at a ll s tea d y m o ti o n is r el at iv e an d c an no t be d et ec te d w it ho u t re fe re nce t o an o u ts id e p o in t. T h is i d ea c an b e fo u nd b u il t in to N ew to n’ s F ir st L aw o f M o ti o n as w ell . T w o p o in ts t o b e re in fo rce d : T he p ri nc ip le o f re la ti v it y ap p li es o n ly f o r no n-ac ce le ra te d s tea d y m o ti o n T h is p ri nc ip le s ta te s th at w it h in a n in er ti al f ra m e o f re fe re nce y o u ca n no t p er fo rm a n y m ec ha n ica l ex p er im en t o r o bs er va ti o n th at w o u ld r ev ea l to y o u w he th er y o u w er e m o v ing w it h un if o rm v el o ci ty o r st an d in g s ti ll . S ' S u r v r P

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W ill ia m K im H S C P h ys ic s S u mm ar y | p ag e 16 Id en ti fy t he s ig n if ic an ce o f E in st ei n’ s as su m p ti o n o f th e co ns ta nc y o f th e sp ee d o f li g ht R ec o gn is e th at i f c is c o ns ta nt th en s p ac e an d t im e bec o m e re la ti ve D is cu ss t he c o nce p t th at le ng th s ta nd ar d s ar e d ef in ed in t er m s o f tim e w it h re fe re nce t o t he o ri g in al m et er Id en ti fy t he u se fu ln es s o f d is cu ss ing s p ace /t im e, ra th er th an s im p le s p ace A cc o u nt f o r th e nee d , w he n co ns id er in g s p ace /t im e, to d ef in e ev en ts u si ng f o u r d im en si o n s In 1905 , A lb er t E in st ei n p ro po se d t ha t th e sp ee d o f li g h t is c o n st a nt a nd i s in d ep en d en t o f th e sp ee d o f th e so u rce o r th e o bs er ve r. T h is p re mi se e xp la in ed t he ‘ ne g at iv e’ r es u lt o f th e M ic he ls o n-M o rl ey e xp er im en t an d s ho w ed t ha t th e et h er c on ce p t w a s no t n ee d ed . A s a co ns equ en ce o f th is ‘l a w o f li gh t’ it ca n be s h o w n th at t he re i s no s u ch t h ing a s an ab so lu te f ra m e o f re fe re nce . A ll i n er ti al r ef er en ce f ra m es a re e q u iv al en t. T ha t is , a ll m o ti on i s re la ti ve . T he l aw s o f ph ys ic s ar e th e sa m e in a ll f ra m es o f re fe re nc e; t ha t is , th e p ri n ci p le o f re la ti v it y al w ay s ho ld s. In N ew to n ia n p h ys ic s, d is ta n ce a nd v el o ci ty c an b e re la ti v e te rm s, bu t tim e is a n ab so lu te a nd fu nd am en ta l qu an ti ty . E in st ei n ra d ica ll y al te re d t he a ss u m p ti o n s o f N ew to n ia n ph ys ic s so t ha t no w th e sp ee d o f li g ht i s ab so lu te , an d s p ace a nd t im e ar e bo th r el at iv e qu an ti ti es t ha t d ep en d up o n th e m o ti o n o f th e o bs er ve r. (O u r re a lit y is w ha t w e m ea su re it t o b e. R ea lit y a nd ob se rv a ti on c anno t b e se pa ra ted . R em em b er t h is a s w e p ro cee d ). … In o th er w o rd s, t he m ea su re d l en g th o f an o bj ec t an d t he t im e ta k en b y an e ve nt d ep en d e nt ir el y up o n th e ve lo ci ty o f th e o bs er ve r. (T h is i s w h y ou r cu rr en t st anda rd o f le ng th i s d ef in ed i n t er m s of ti m e t h e m et re i s th e d is tan ce t ra ve ll ed b y li gh t in a v a cuu m i n th e fr a cti on 1 /29979245 8 of a sec ond ). … F u rt he r to t h is , s in ce n ei th er s p ace n o r tim e is a b so lu te , th e th eo ry o f re la ti v it y ha s re p la ce d t he m w it h th e co nce p t o f a sp ace -t im e co nt in u u m . (Spa ce and ti m e, no t ju st s pa ce , a re r el a ti ve quan titi es ). … A n y ev en t th en h as f o u r d im en si o n s (t hr ee s pace c oo rd in at es p lu s a tim e co o rd in at e) t ha t fu ll y d ef in e it s p o si ti o n w it h in i ts f ra m e o f re fe re n ce .

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W ill ia m K im H S C P h ys ic s S u mm ar y | p ag e 17 E xp la in qu al it at iv el y an d qu an ti ta ti ve ly t he co ns equ en ce o f sp ec ia l re la ti v it y in r el at io n to : T he r el at iv it y o f sim u lt an ei ty T he e q u iv al en ce b et w ee n m ass a nd e n er g y L en g th c o nt ra ct io n T im e d il at io n T h e R el a ti v it y o f S im u lt a n ei ty ( sim u lt an ei ty a nd t he v el o ci ty o f li g ht ) O b se rv er s in r el at iv e m o ti o n w il l d is ag ree o n th e si m u lt a n ei ty o f ev en ts s ep ar at ed i n sp ace . T h e E qu iva le n ce B et w ee n M a ss a n d E n er gy T h e m a ss o f a m o vi n g’ ob jec t is g re a te r than w h en it i s ‘s ta ti ona ry i t ex p er ie n ce s m a ss d il a ti on (c o ve re d l a te r) . S in ce c is t he m ax im u m s p ee d i n th e un iv er se i t fo ll o w s th at a s tea d y fo rce a p p li ed t o a n o b jec t ca n no t co nt in u e to acc el er at e. It f o ll o w s th at t he i ne rt ia , th at i s th e re si st an ce t o acce le ra ti o n, m u st i nc rea se . B u t in er ti a is a m ea su re o f m ass a nd s o t he m ass h as i n cr ea se d . It i s th is i n cr ea se i n m ass t ha t p re ve nt s an y o b jec t fr o m e xc ee d ing t he s p ee d o f li g ht , beca u se as i t acc el er at es t o h ig h er v el o ci ti es i ts m as s in cr ea se s, w h ic h m ea ns t ha t fu rt he r acc el er at io n s w il l re q u ir e ev en g rea te r fo rce . T h is i s fu rt he r co m p li ca te d b y tim e d il at io n beca u se , as s p ee d s in cr ea se to n ea r li g ht s p ee d , an y ap p li ed f o rce h as l ess a nd l ess t im e in w h ic h to ac t. T he c o m b in ed e ff ec t is th at a s m as s bec o m es i n fi n it e an d t im e d il at es , an i n fi n it e fo rce w o u ld b e re q u ir ed t o ac h ie ve a n y acc el er at io n at a ll . Su ff ic ie n t fo rce c an n eve r b e su pp li ed t o a cce le ra te b ey ond t h e sp ee d o f li gh t. If f o rce i s ap p li ed t o a n o bj ec t, t he n w o rk i s d o ne o n it – e ne rg y is g iv en t o t he o b jec t. T h is en er g y w o u ld t ak e th e fo rm o f in cr ea se d k in et ic e n er g y as t he o b jec t sp ee d s up . B u t at n ea r li g ht sp ee d t he o b jec t d o es n o t sp ee d up . T he a p p li ed f o rce i s g iv ing e ne rg y to t he o b jec t an d t he o b jec t d o es n o t ac qu ir e th e k in et ic e n er g y w e w ou ld e xp ec t. I ns tea d , it ac q u ir es e xt ra m ass . E in st ei n m ad e an i n fe re nc e he re a nd s ta te d th at t he m ass ( o r in er ti a) o f th e o b jec t co nt ai ne d t he e xt ra e ne rg y. R el at iv it y re su lt s in a n ew d ef in it io n o f en er g y as f o ll o w s: w he re E = t o ta l en er g y, Ek = k in et ic e ne rg y, m = m ass , c = s p ee d o f li g ht W he n an o b jec t is s ta ti o n ar y, i t ha s no k in et ic e ne rg y, bu t st ill h as s o m e en er g y du e to i ts m ass . T h is i s ca ll ed i ts m as s en er g y o r re st e n er gy a nd i s g iv en b y: w he re E = r es t en er g y (J ), m = m as s (kg ), c = s p ee d o f li g ht ( 3 x 10 8 m s -1 ) 2 mc E E k + = 2 mc E =

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W ill ia m K im H S C P h ys ic s S u mm ar y | p ag e 18 D is cu ss t he i m p li ca ti o n s o f tim e d il at io n an d l en g th co nt ra ct io n fo r sp ace t ra vel T o m ea su re s p ee d w e ne ed t o m ea su re d is ta nce a nd t im e. If c re m ai n s co ns ta nt , th en i t fo ll o w s th at d is ta n ce ( le ng th ) an d t im e m u st c ha ng e. Spa ce and ti m e a re r el a ti ve c on ce p ts . L en g th C o n tr a ct io n (t he L o re nt z-F it zG er al d C o nt rac ti o n) T he l en g th o f a ‘m o v in g ’ ro d app ea rs to c o nt rac t in t he d ir ec ti o n o f m o ti o n re la ti ve t o a ‘ st at io na ry ’ o bs er ve r. w he re l is t he m o v ing l en g th , l0 i s th e ‘r es t’ l en g th ( th at i s, th e le ng th a s m ea su re d b y an o bs er v er a t re st w it h re sp ec t to t he r o d ) an d v is t he s p ee d o f th e ro d. T im e D il a ti o n T im e in a ‘ m o v in g ’ fr am e app ea rs t o g o s lo w er r el at iv e to a ‘ st at io na ry ’ o bs er ve r w he re t is t he o bs er ve d t im e fo r a ‘s ta ti o na ry ’ o b se rv er a nd t0 i s th e tim e fo r an o bs er ve r tr av el li ng i n th e fr am e. t0 i s ca ll ed t he p ro p er t ime ( th is i s th e ti m e m ea su re d b y an ob se rv er p re se n t a t th e sa m e lo ca ti on a s th e eve nt s tha t ind ic a te th e st a rt and e nd o f an eve n t) . M a ss D il a ti o n T he m ass o f a ‘m o v in g ’ o b jec t is g rea te r th an w h en i t is ‘ st at io na ry ’. w he re m i s th e m as s fo r a ‘m o v in g ’ o b jec t an d m0 i s th e m as s fo r th at o b je ct w he n it i s ‘s ta ti o na ry .’ T he r el at iv it y o f tim e al lo w s fo r sp ace t ra ve l in to t he f u tu re b u t no t in to t he p as t. W he n tr av el li ng a t re la ti v is ti c sp ee d s (0 .1 c o r fa st er ), re la ti v it y in fl u en ce s th e tim e th at p ass es o n th e sp acec ra ft . A st ro na u ts o n a re la ti v is ti c in te rs te ll ar j o u rn ey w ou ld f ind t he ir t ri p h as t ak en f ew er y ea rs t ha n o bs er ve d o n E ar th . Im p li ca ti on s of Sp ec ia l R el a ti vit y: 2 2 0 1 c v l l − = 2 2 0 1 c v t t − = 2 2 0 1 c v m m − =

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W ill ia m K im H S C P h ys ic s S u mm ar y | p ag e 19 C o re T o p ic T w o : M o to rs a nd G en er a to rs 1 . M o to rs u se t he e ff ec t o f fo rce s o n cu rr en t-ca rr yi ng c o ndu ct o rs i n m ag ne ti c fi el d s Id en ti fy t ha t m o v ing c ha rg ed p ar ti cl es i n a m ag ne ti c fi el d ex p er ie nce a f o rce C ha rg ed p ar ti cl es m o vi ng i n an e xt er na l m ag ne ti c fi el d w il l ex p er ie n ce a f o rce . If t he m o v ing ch ar g ed p ar ti cl es a re f lo w ing t hr o ug h, an d c o n fi n ed w it h in , a co ndu ct o r th at i s in a n ex te rn al m ag ne ti c fi el d , th e co ndu ct o r w il l al so e xp er ie nce a f o rce . T h is e ff ec t is k no w n as t he m o to r ef fect . F = q vB U se l ef t h an d “ F B I g u n” A n ex am p le : V a n A ll en R a d ia ti o n B el ts T he E ar th ’s m ag ne ti c fi el d ca p tu re s ch ar g ed p ar ti cl es f ro m t he s o la r w in d ( lo w e ne rg y) a nd c o smi c ra ys ( h ig h en er g y) . T he c ha rg es a re f o rce t o s p ir al a lo ng t he f ie ld li n es acc u m u la ti ng i nt o t w o d o ug hn u t-sh ap ed b el ts o f “r ad ia ti o n” c al le d t he upp er a nd l o w er V an A ll en r ad ia ti o n be lt s.

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W ill ia m K im H S C P h ys ic s S u mm ar y | p ag e 20 D is cu ss t he e ff ec t, o n th e m ag n it ud e o f th e fo rce o n a cu rr en t-ca rr yi ng c o ndu ct o r, o f va ri at io ns i n : T he s tr en g th o f th e m ag ne ti c fi el d i n w h ic h it is l o ca te d T he m ag n it ud e o f th e cu rr en t in t he c o ndu ct o r T he l en g th o f th e co ndu ct o r in t he e xt er na l m ag ne ti c fi el d T he a ng le b et w ee n th e d ir ec ti o n o f th e ex te rn al m ag ne ti c fi el d a nd t he d ir ec ti o n o f th e le ng th o f th e co ndu ct o r … T he f o rce i s p ro po rt io na l to t he m ag ne ti c fi el d s tr en g th , B … T he f o rce i s p ro po rt io na l to t he c u rr en t, I … T he f o rce i s p ro po rt io na l to t he l en g th , L … T he f o rce i s at a m ax im u m w he n th e co ndu ct o r is a t ri g ht a ng le s to t he f ie ld , an d i s ze ro w he n th e co ndu ct o r is p ar all el t o t he f ie ld . T he m ag n it ud e o f th e fo rce i s p ro po rt io na l to t he c o m p o ne nt o f th e fi el d t ha t is a t ri g ht a ng le s to t he c o ndu ct o r. θ sin B Il F =

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W ill ia m K im H S C P h ys ic s S u mm ar y | p ag e 21 D es cr ib e qu al it at iv el y an d qu an ti ta ti ve ly t he f o rce o n lo ng p ar all el c u rr en t-ca rr yi ng co ndu ct o rs : (A m p er e’ s la w ) A m p er e’ s L aw T w o p ar all el w ir es , eac h ca rr yi ng a c u rr en t, w il l ex er t a fo rce o n th e o th er . T h is h ap p en s beca u se ea ch c u rr en t p ro du ce s a m ag ne ti c fi el d ( as i n O er st ed ’s e xp er im en t) . T he re fo re eac h w ir e fi nd s it se lf ca rr yi ng a c u rr en t ac ro ss th e m ag ne ti c fi el d p ro du ce d b y th e o th er w ir e an d h en ce e xp er ie nc es a fo rce . D et er m in in g t h e m ag n it ud e o f th e fo rce b et w ee n t w o p a ra ll el c o ndu ct o rs T he m ag ne ti c fi el d s tr en g th a t a d is ta nc e, d , fr o m a l o ng s tr ai g ht c o ndu ct o r ca rr yi ng a c u rr en t, I, ca n be f o u nd u si ng t he f o rm u la : w he re k = 2 .0 x 10 -7 N A -2 T he m ag n it ud e o f th e fo rce ex p er ie n ced b y a le ng th , l, o f a co ndu ct o r du e to t o a n ex te rn al m ag ne ti c fi el d i s: If c u rr en ts a re i n th e sa me d ir ec ti o n, th en t he c o nd u ct o rs w ill a tt ra ct . If c u rr en ts a re i n o pp o si te d ir ec ti o n s, th en t he c o ndu ct o rs w ill re p el . d I I k l F 2 1 = d kI B = d I I k l F re a rr ang ed d kI l I F or lB I F 2 1 1 2 2 = ⎟ ⎠ ⎞ ⎜ ⎝ ⎛ = = d I1 I2

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W ill ia m K im H S C P h ys ic s S u mm ar y | p ag e 22 Fd = τ b D ef in e to rqu e as th e tu rn in g m o m en t o f a fo rce u si ng : Id en ti fy t he f o rce s ex p er ie nce d b y a cu rr en t-ca rr yi ng l oo p in a m ag ne ti c fi el d a nd d es cr ib e th e n et re su lt o f th e fo rce s G en er a ll y, = n B IA co s ! T o rque i s tu rn in g f o rce . It s’ un it s ar e N ew to n-m et re s (N m ). w he re = t o rqu e, in N m F = f o rce , in N D = d is ta nce f ro m r o ta ti o na l ax is , in m C u rr en t L oo p s Fd = τ d l F = B Il = B Il d F = B Il = B Il d R o ta ti o na l ax is I

N

S

B IA d l BI B Ild B Ild B Ild = × = = + = + = ) 2 ( 2 2 1 τ τ τ (F o r eac h tu rn o f th e loo p ) b b ϑ m ax = n B IA ze ro = n B IA co s !

References

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