Part One
Part One
OVERVIEW
OVERVIEW
MODULE 1
MODULE 1
Contemporary Concepts of Management
Contemporary Concepts of Management
Learning Objectives Learning Objectives
The student after reading this module is expected to: The student after reading this module is expected to: 1
1.. KKnnoow w tthhe e ccoonncceeppt t oof f mmaannaaggeemmeenntt.. 2.
2. PePercrceieive ve ththe ne nuauancnces es of of vavaririouous ds defefininititioions ns of of mamananagegemementnt 3.
3. Be abBe able to idele to identntifify y ththe e vavaririouous s elelememenents of mants of managagememenent t anand d apapprprececiaiate thte theieir r opopereratatioionanall implications.
implications.
1.
1.
ManagementManagement is the process by which human efforts are coordinated and combined with other is the process by which human efforts are coordinated and combined with other resources to accomplished organizational goals andresources to accomplished organizational goals and objectives.objectives. Mary Parker Folett defines management as
Mary Parker Folett defines management as “the art of getting things done through people.”“the art of getting things done through people.”
Management requires an understanding of the economic principle of the division of labor, which Management requires an understanding of the economic principle of the division of labor, which breaks down into subtasks, and the coordination of effort, which recognize the subtasks into an efficient and breaks down into subtasks, and the coordination of effort, which recognize the subtasks into an efficient and
effective whole. effective whole.
2.
2.
ManagementManagement is making the most effective use of available resources, whether in form of machines,is making the most effective use of available resources, whether in form of machines, money or people (men/women). The process of organizing, using, and controlling human activities money or people (men/women). The process of organizing, using, and controlling human activities and other resources toward specific ends.and other resources toward specific ends.
2.1
2.1
Management as concept and process should not be confused with the term “management”Management as concept and process should not be confused with the term “management” commonly used in labor-management relations. Management in this case refers to the people commonly used in labor-management relations. Management in this case refers to the people responsible for the management of an organization, i.e., for directing, planning and running responsible for the management of an organization, i.e., for directing, planning and running of its operations, for the implementation of its policies and the attainment of its objectives. of its operations, for the implementation of its policies and the attainment of its objectives. ManManageagemenment t refrefers ers to to the the grogroup up of of perpersonsons s resresponponsibsible le for for runrunninning g an an orgorganianizatzation ion or or directing human activity toward specific
directing human activity toward specific ends.ends.
3.
3.
ManagementManagement is the process of coordinating human, informational, physical and financial resourcesis the process of coordinating human, informational, physical and financial resources into accomplish organizational goalsinto accomplish organizational goals
4.
4.
ManagementManagement is the process of coordinating the resources of an organization so as to achieve theis the process of coordinating the resources of an organization so as to achieve the primary goals of the organization.5.
5.
ManagementManagement is the process of planning, organizing, leading and controlling a business’s financial,is the process of planning, organizing, leading and controlling a business’s financial, physical, human, and information resources in order tophysical, human, and information resources in order to achieve its goalsachieve its goals
6.
6.
ManagementManagement involvesinvolvesCo
Coorordidinanatiting ng ththe e huhumaman, n, mamateteririal al anand d fifinanancnciaial l resresouourcrces es totowaward rd acaccocompmplilishshiningg organizational goals effectively and efficiently.
organizational goals effectively and efficiently.
Relating the organization to the external environment and responding to societal needs. Relating the organization to the external environment and responding to societal needs. Devel
Developinoping g an an organorganizatiizational climate onal climate where people where people can can accompaccomplish their lish their indivindividuaidual l andand collective goals.
collective goals.
Performing certain definable function such as goal setting, planning, assembling resources, Performing certain definable function such as goal setting, planning, assembling resources, organizing, implementing, and
organizing, implementing, and controlling.controlling.
Carrying out various interpersonal, informational, and
Carrying out various interpersonal, informational, and decisional rolesdecisional roles
7.
7.
ManagementManagement is the process of reaching organizational goals by working with and is the process of reaching organizational goals by working with and through people andthrough people and other organizational resources.other organizational resources.
8.
8.
ManagementManagement is the process by which a cooperative group directs actions of others toward commonis the process by which a cooperative group directs actions of others toward common goals. (Massie and Douglas.)goals. (Massie and Douglas.)
9.
9.
ManagementManagement is the process of working with and trough others to effectively achieve organizationalis the process of working with and trough others to effectively achieve organizational objectives by efficiently using limited resources in a changing environment. (Kreitner.)objectives by efficiently using limited resources in a changing environment. (Kreitner.)
10.
10.
ManagementManagement is the coordination of all resources through the process of planning, directing andis the coordination of all resources through the process of planning, directing and controlling in order to attain stated objectives. (Sisk)controlling in order to attain stated objectives. (Sisk)
11.
11.
ManagementManagement is establishing an effective environment for people operating in formal organizationalis establishing an effective environment for people operating in formal organizational groups. (Koontz and O’Donnell.)groups. (Koontz and O’Donnell.)
12.
12.
ManagementManagement entails activities undertaken by one or more persons in entails activities undertaken by one or more persons in order to coordinate the activitiesorder to coordinate the activities or others in the pursuit of ends that cannot be achieved by any one person (Donnelley, Gibson & or others in the pursuit of ends that cannot be achieved by any one person (Donnelley, Gibson & Evancevich.)Evancevich.)
13.
13.
ManagementManagement is a process imbedded in a is a process imbedded in a system of patterned relationships.system of patterned relationships.
Checkpoints Checkpoints 1.
1. FrFrom tom the vhe vararioious dus defiefininititionons of ms of mananagagememenent, wt, whahat art are the the ele elemeementnts of ms of mananagagememenent?t? 2.
2. ExExplplaiain Mann Managagememenent as a prt as a prococesess. Cas. Can it cn it cononsisist ost of a sinf a singlgle acte act? Or i? Or is it a ss it a serieries oes of acf actsts? Ca? Can thn thee process be linear with a
process be linear with a beginning and an ending? Or it is beginning and an ending? Or it is cyclical? And repetitive?cyclical? And repetitive? 3.
3. FaFashshioion n yyouour or owwn n dedeffininititioion n oof mf mananagageememennt.t. 4.
4. DoDoes yoes your cour concncepept or det or defifininitition oon of manf managagemeement ant apppply tly to yoo your owur own comn compapany ony or orgr organanizizatatioion or onn or onee you know vicariously or by
5.
5.
ManagementManagement is the process of planning, organizing, leading and controlling a business’s financial,is the process of planning, organizing, leading and controlling a business’s financial, physical, human, and information resources in order tophysical, human, and information resources in order to achieve its goalsachieve its goals
6.
6.
ManagementManagement involvesinvolvesCo
Coorordidinanatiting ng ththe e huhumaman, n, mamateteririal al anand d fifinanancnciaial l resresouourcrces es totowaward rd acaccocompmplilishshiningg organizational goals effectively and efficiently.
organizational goals effectively and efficiently.
Relating the organization to the external environment and responding to societal needs. Relating the organization to the external environment and responding to societal needs. Devel
Developinoping g an an organorganizatiizational climate onal climate where people where people can can accompaccomplish their lish their indivindividuaidual l andand collective goals.
collective goals.
Performing certain definable function such as goal setting, planning, assembling resources, Performing certain definable function such as goal setting, planning, assembling resources, organizing, implementing, and
organizing, implementing, and controlling.controlling.
Carrying out various interpersonal, informational, and
Carrying out various interpersonal, informational, and decisional rolesdecisional roles
7.
7.
ManagementManagement is the process of reaching organizational goals by working with and is the process of reaching organizational goals by working with and through people andthrough people and other organizational resources.other organizational resources.
8.
8.
ManagementManagement is the process by which a cooperative group directs actions of others toward commonis the process by which a cooperative group directs actions of others toward common goals. (Massie and Douglas.)goals. (Massie and Douglas.)
9.
9.
ManagementManagement is the process of working with and trough others to effectively achieve organizationalis the process of working with and trough others to effectively achieve organizational objectives by efficiently using limited resources in a changing environment. (Kreitner.)objectives by efficiently using limited resources in a changing environment. (Kreitner.)
10.
10.
ManagementManagement is the coordination of all resources through the process of planning, directing andis the coordination of all resources through the process of planning, directing and controlling in order to attain stated objectives. (Sisk)controlling in order to attain stated objectives. (Sisk)
11.
11.
ManagementManagement is establishing an effective environment for people operating in formal organizationalis establishing an effective environment for people operating in formal organizational groups. (Koontz and O’Donnell.)groups. (Koontz and O’Donnell.)
12.
12.
ManagementManagement entails activities undertaken by one or more persons in entails activities undertaken by one or more persons in order to coordinate the activitiesorder to coordinate the activities or others in the pursuit of ends that cannot be achieved by any one person (Donnelley, Gibson & or others in the pursuit of ends that cannot be achieved by any one person (Donnelley, Gibson & Evancevich.)Evancevich.)
13.
13.
ManagementManagement is a process imbedded in a is a process imbedded in a system of patterned relationships.system of patterned relationships.
Checkpoints Checkpoints 1.
1. FrFrom tom the vhe vararioious dus defiefininititionons of ms of mananagagememenent, wt, whahat art are the the ele elemeementnts of ms of mananagagememenent?t? 2.
2. ExExplplaiain Mann Managagememenent as a prt as a prococesess. Cas. Can it cn it cononsisist ost of a sinf a singlgle acte act? Or i? Or is it a ss it a serieries oes of acf actsts? Ca? Can thn thee process be linear with a
process be linear with a beginning and an ending? Or it is beginning and an ending? Or it is cyclical? And repetitive?cyclical? And repetitive? 3.
3. FaFashshioion n yyouour or owwn n dedeffininititioion n oof mf mananagageememennt.t. 4.
4. DoDoes yoes your cour concncepept or det or defifininitition oon of manf managagemeement ant apppply tly to yoo your owur own comn compapany ony or orgr organanizizatatioion or onn or onee you know vicariously or by
MODULE 2
MODULE 2
Management Throughout Recorded History
Management Throughout Recorded History
Learning Objectives: Learning Objectives:
After reading and reflecting on the historical data on management presented in this module, the After reading and reflecting on the historical data on management presented in this module, the student is expected to:
student is expected to: 1.
1. ApApprprececiaiate tte the fhe facact tht that hat humuman ban beieingngs frs from tom the dhe dawawn of hn of hisistotory kry knenew anw and prd pracactiticed ced whwhat aat arere now called concepts, principles, and practices of management.
now called concepts, principles, and practices of management. 2
2.. ReRecocoggninizezed d tthhe e fafact ct tthahat t tthe he crcreeatatioionn, , coconsnsttruructctioion n anand d ddeveveelolopmpmenent t oof f cucultltuureres s anandd civilization throughout the ages could not be
civilization throughout the ages could not be possible without the knowledge of the possible without the knowledge of the concepts,concepts, principles and practices of management.
principles and practices of management.
1
1.. IInnttrroodduuccttiioonn
1.1
1.1
Managers should be concerned with historical perspectives. They need to know the facts Managers should be concerned with historical perspectives. They need to know the facts about what has happened in a similar situation and to relate them toabout what has happened in a similar situation and to relate them to other experiences and other experiences and other knowledge.
other knowledge. Only when they understand the problem environment and how it developedOnly when they understand the problem environment and how it developed can they fully understand the problem they are trying to solve. Managers search for patterns can they fully understand the problem they are trying to solve. Managers search for patterns in the problems they face, and they tend to use learned solutions when those patters recur. in the problems they face, and they tend to use learned solutions when those patters recur. Experienced managers have more experiences to draw on than less experienced managers, Experienced managers have more experiences to draw on than less experienced managers, but all managers can benefit from the history discussed in management books or cases. No but all managers can benefit from the history discussed in management books or cases. No
manager has enough personal experience to deal with
manager has enough personal experience to deal with every problem he or she every problem he or she faces.faces.
1.2
1.2
As the rate of change in our society continues to accelerate, more and more new situationsAs the rate of change in our society continues to accelerate, more and more new situations will occur that arewill occur that are likellikely to y to resemresemble others that occurred in ble others that occurred in the past. This the past. This alloallows effectivews effective so
solulutitionons s to to be be rerepepeatated ed anand d ininefeffefectctivive e sosolulutitionons s to to be be avavoioideded d acacroross ss alall l of of ththee org
organianizatzationion’s ’s ecoeconomnomic ic funfunctictionsons: : marmarketketinging, , finfinancance, e, opeoperatrationions, s, humhuman an resresourourcesces management, and information management.
management, and information management. A successful manager needs to know what A successful manager needs to know what worked before, what didn’t, and why.
worked before, what didn’t, and why.
1.3
1.3
You willYou will benefit from knowing the history of benefit from knowing the history of management management because, as a practicing manager,because, as a practicing manager, you don’t have to make the same mistakes that your predecessors made.you don’t have to make the same mistakes that your predecessors made. You will be able toYou will be able to consult the appropriate sources to discover what worked and what didn’t. You can then consult the appropriate sources to discover what worked and what didn’t. You can then decide the best ways of
decide the best ways of managing yourself.managing yourself.
1.4
1.4
Understanding history gives you basis for acting with your future coworkers and withUnderstanding history gives you basis for acting with your future coworkers and with othersothers who are practicing and studying management now, or who who are practicing and studying management now, or who will be in the future.will be in the future. 1.
1.55 HiHiststorory hy helelps ps yoyou ru rececogogninize ze whwhen en to to acact at and nd whwhen en nonot tt to.o.
1.6
1.6
Knowing history helps you identify the common themes that seem to recur. Knowing history helps you identify the common themes that seem to recur. By knowingBy knowing how issues have been handled in the2. Precursors of Modern Management Theory
2.1.
Historian Daniel A. Wren observed that “management is as old as man.” But, as he also points out, only recently has there been scientific interest in the process. This is probably because we have only recently realized that how we manage our resources affects what we get from them and because large business organizations have only existed since the earlynineteenth century.
2.2.
However, early civilizations did practice management – and in a way not very different from it was done until the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. The Chronology that follows lists the major contributions to the practice of management from approximately 5000 B.C. to the late 20th century. To 1776, when Adam Smith described the benefits of thedivision of labor in The Wealth of Nations, did mass production, which is the foundation of our current economic success, become recognized as possible and desirable.
2.3. Until the 1800s, there really was no systematic development of management theory, and perhaps only in the mid-1990s did it become useful to the average manager.
3. Management Reflects Society
3.1. Management philosophy and its related practices reflect the society within which they exist – its culture, its values, its needs the technological, social, political, and economic forces at work in society change, and therefore management has changed and must continue to change.
3.2.
Before the twentieth century, for example, the practice of management was largely authorization and was based on hierarchical organizational structures similar to those developed by the early military forces of the Egyptians, Romans and other ancient societies. 3.3. The decentralized organizational structure of the Roman Catholic Church slightly modifiedthese structures.
3.4. As Western society became less agriculturally and more industrially based, its leaders and scholars began to realize that traditional management approaches were unsatisfactory.
3.5.
Entering the twentieth century, some 150 years after the beginning of the industrial revolution and some 35 years after the U.S. economy became industrially based (1865), managers began to ponder all the factors that should be considered in managing and in alternative ways of managing. It is from this point that we pursuer the history of management in detail.4. Chronology of Organization Theory and Management Practices Approximate Year Individual or Ethnic Group Major Managerial Contribution
5000 B.C. Sumerians Established written records for both government and commercial use
organizing, and controlling. Employed inventory practices, sales ledgers, taxes, developed bureaucracy for agriculture and construction, i.e. pyramids; employed full-time administrators.
4000 B.C. Hebrews Exception principle, departmentation; Ten Commandments; long-range planning, span of control
2000-1700 B.C. Babylonians (Hammurabi)
Enforced law for conducting business, including standards for wages and obligations of contractors; Use of witnesses and writing for control; establishment of standards of wages; recognition that responsibility cannot be shifted.
1600 Egyptians Centralization in Organization.
1491 Hebrews During Exodus from Egypt, Jethro, father-in-law of Moses, urges Moses to delegate authority over the tribes of Israel along hierarchical lines. Concepts of
organization, scalar principle, exception principle
1100 Chinese Recognized need for organization, planning, directing, and controlling 600 Nebuchadnezzar Production control and wage incentives 500 Mencius Recognized need for systems and
standards
Chinese Principle of Specialization recognized Sun Tzu Recognized need for planning, directing,
and organizing. Sun Tzu’s
Art of War recognizes the need for hierarchical organization,
interorganization communications, and staff planning.
500 Greeks Developed the work ethics. Began scientific method for problem solving 400 Socrates Enunciation of universality of
management.
400 Xenophon Recognized management as a separate art. Records the first known description of the
advantages of the division of labor when he describes an ancient Greek shoe factory.
Cyrus Recognized need for human relations. Use of motion study, layout, and materials handling
360 Aristotle In The Politics asserts that the specific nature of executive powers and functions cannot be the same for all states
(organizations), but must reflect their specific cultural environment
350 Greeks Scientific method applied. Use of work methods and tempo
Plato Principle of specialization enunciated. 325 Alexander the Great Use of staff
200 Romans Developed of factory system for
manufacturing armaments, pottery, and textiles; built roads for distribution; organized joint stock companies; used specialized labor, formed guilds;
employed an authoritarian organizational structure based on function.
175 Cato Used of job descriptions. 50 Varro Use of job specifications
A.D. 20 Jesus Christ Unity of Command Golden rule. Human relations.
284 Diocletian Delegation of authority. A.D. 300 20th
Century
Romans Catholic Church Decentralized hierarchical structure with centralized strategic control and policies 770 Abu Yusuf An important pioneering Muslim scholar,
explores the administration of essential Islamic government functions, including public financial policy, taxation, and
criminal justice, in Kitab al - Kharaj (The Book of Land Taxes). (Year is
approximate)
900 Alfarabi Listed traits of a leader.
al-Mawardi, examines Islamic constitutional law, theoretical and practical aspects of Muslim political thought and behavior, and the behavior of politicians and administrators in Islamic states.
1093-1100 Ghazali Listed traits of a manager. Emphasizes the role of Islamic creed and teachings for the improvement of administrative and
bureaucratic organization in Muslim states, particularly the qualifications and secretaries, in Ihya ‘Ulum ad-Din (The Revival of the Religious Sciences) and Nasihat al-Muluk (Counsel for Kings).
(Year is approximate.)
1300 Venetians Established legal framework for trade & commerce
1300 As-Siyasah Ash-Shariyyah
(The Principles of Religious Government), ibn Taymiyyah, “the father of Islamic administration,” uses the scientific method to out line the principles of administration within the framework of Islam, including the right man for the right job, patronage and the spoils system. (Year is
approximate.)
1340 Luca Pacioli (Genoese) Developed double-entry book keeping. 1377 Muqaddimah An Introduction to History, by Muslim
scholar Ibn Khaldun, argues that methods for organizational improvement can be developed through the study of the science of culture. Ibn Khaldun
specifically introduces conceptions of formal and informal organization,
organizations as natural as organism with limits beyond which they cannot grow, and spirit de corps.
1395 Francisco Di Marco Cost accounting practiced.
1410 Soranzo Brothers Use of journal entries and ledger.
1418 Barbarigo Forms of business organization; work in process accounting used.
1436 Arsenal of Venice, Venetians Cost of accounting; checks and balances for control; numbering of inventoried parts; inter-changed ability of parts; use of
personnel management; standardization of parts; inventory control cost control.
1500 Sir Thomas More Called for specialization; decried sins of poor management and leadership
1513-1525 Niccolo Machiavelli Principle of unity of command. Reliance on mass consent principle; recognized need for cohesiveness in organization; enunciated leadership qualities.
1532 Machiavelli’s The Prince Book of advice to all would be leaders, The Prince, is published five years after its author’s death; it will become the progenitor of all “how to succeed’ books
that advocate practical rather than moral actions.
1767 Sir James Stewart Source of authority theory; impact of automation.
1776 Adam Smith Focused on division of labor & mass production as key to prosperity.
Developed capitalism as frame work of economic activity to replace feudalism. Application of principle of specialization of manufacturing; workers control
concepts; pay back computations. In The Wealth of Nations, discusses the optimal organization of a pin factory; this becomes the most famous & influential
statement of the economic rationale of the factory system and the division of labor. 1785 Thomas Jefferson Called attention to concept of interchange
parts.
1799 Eli Whitney Scientific method; use of cost accounting and quality control; applied
interchangeable parts concept; recognized span of management.
1800 James Watt Matthew Boulton Soho, England
Standard operating procedures;
specifications; work methods; planning, incentive wages, standard times; standard data; employee Christmas parties bonuses announced at Christmas; mutual
employees insurance society; use of audits.
1810 Robert Owen
New Lanark, Scotland
Need for personnel practices recognized and applied; assumed responsibility for training worker; built clean row homes for workers.
One of the first to recognized importance of human resources; improved working conditions; reduced hours of work; raised minimum age of work for children.
1813 Robert Owen “Address to the Superintendents of Manufactories,” puts forth the
revolutionary idea that managers should pay as much attention to their “vital
machines” (employees) as to their “inanimate machines.”
1820 James Stuart Mill Analyzing and synchronizing human motions.
1832 Charles Babbage Improved efficiencies of production using mathematical problem-solving techniques; stressed human resources; used Scientific approach, specialization, division or labor, motion and time study, cost accounting, effect of various colors on employee efficiency.
On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures anticipates many of the motions of the scientific management movement, including “basic principles of management” such as the division of labor.
1835 Marshall, Laughin, et. al. Recognition and discussion of the relative importance of the functions of
management.
1850 Mill, et al. Span of control; unity of command; control of labor and materials;
specialization division of labor; wage incentives
1855 Henry Poor Principles of organization, communication and information applied to railway.
1855 Daniel C. McCallum Use of organization chart to show management structure. Application of systematic management to railways. In his annual report as superintendent of the New York and Erie Railroad Company,
states his six basic principles of administration; the first was to use internally generated data for managerial purposes.
1871 W. S. Jevons Made motions study of spade use; studied effect of different tools of worker; fatigue study.
1881 Joseph Wharton Established first college course in business management.
1885 Henry C. Metcalfe The manager of an army arsenal,
published The Cost of Manufactures and the Administration of Workshops, Public and Private, which asserts that there is a “science of administration” that is based upon principles discoverable by diligent observation.
Art of management; science of administration
1886 Henry R. Towne “The Engineer as an Economist,” read to the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, encourages the scientific management movement
Science of management.
1891 Frederick Halsey Premium plan of wage payment.
1900 Frederick w. Taylor Scientific management; The science of work and functional management cost system; methods study; time study; Frank B. Gilbert
Lillian Gilbert
Scientific of time and motion study; therbligs – micromotions.
1901 Henry L. Gantt Task and bonus system; humanistic approach to labor; Gantt charts;
management’s responsibility for training workers.
1902 Vilfredo Pareto Becomes the “father” of the concept of “social systems”; his societal notions
would later be applied by Elton Mayo and the human relationists in an organizational context.
1903 Frederick W. Taylor Publishes Shop Management 1904 Frank B. and
Lillian Gilbreth
Produced many of the pioneering works on time and motion study; scientific management, applied psychology, and twelve children. (“Cheaper by the Dozen”)
1910 Louis D. Brandeis Frederick .W. Taylor
Coins and popularizes the term scientific management in his Eastern Rate Case testimony before the interstate Commerce Commission by arguing that railroad rate increases should be denied because the railroads could save “a million dollars a day” by applying scientific management methods. An associate of F .W. Taylor, then US Supreme Court Justice.
1910-1913 Hugo Munsterberg Application of psychology to
management, industry, and workers. Psychology and Industrial Efficiency calls
for the application of psychology to industry.
Harrington Emerson Efficiency engineering; principles of efficiency.
1911 Frederick W. Taylor Publishes The Principles of Scientific Management
1911 J.C. Duncan First college text in management 1912 Harrington Emerson Publishes The Twelve Principles of
Efficiency, which puts forth an interdependent but coordinated management system.
1914 Robert Michels In his analysis of the working of political parties and labor unions, Political Parties,
formulates his iron law of oligarchy: “Who says organization, says oligarchy.” 1915 H. B. Drury Criticism of scientific management;
R. F. Hoxie Criticism of scientific management; reaffirmed initial ideas.
F. W. Harris Economic lot size model.
Thomas A. Edison Devised war game to evade and destroy submarines
1916 Henri Fayol France Five foundation stones of modern management. First complete theory of management; functions of management; principles of management; recognized
need for management to be taught in schools.
Publishes his General and Industrial Management , the first complete theory of management.
Alexander H. Church Functional concept of management first American to explain the totality of managerial concepts and relative each component to the whole.
A.D. Erlang Anticipated waiting-line theory.
1917 W. H. Leffingwell Applied scientific management to office. 1918 C. C. Parsons Recognized need for applying scientific
management office
Ordway Tead Application of psychology to industry. 1919 Morris L. Cooke Diverse application of scientific
Management.
1920 Max Weber Germany Study of bureaucracy
1921 Walter D. Scott Brought psychology to advertising and personnel management.
1922 Max Weber Structural definition of bureaucracy is published posthumously; it uses an
“ideal-type” approach to extrapolate from the real world the central core of features that characterizes the most fully develop form of bureaucratic organization.
1924 H. F. Dodge H. G. Romig
Use of Statistical inference and
probability theory in sampling inspection and in quality control by statistical means. Walter A. Shewhart Pioneer of controlled and uncontrolled
variables and the statistical control of processes.
1924 Hawthorne Studies Began at the Hawthorne Works of the Western Electric Company in Chicago; they last until 1932 and led to new thinking about the relationships among work environment, human motivation, and productivity.
1925 Ronald A. Fisher Various modern statistical methods including chi-square test, Bayesian statistics, sampling theory and design of experiments.
1926 Mary Parker Follett In calling for “power with” as opposed to “power over,” anticipates the movement toward more participatory management styles.
1927 Elton Mayo Founder of industrial sociology Human relations in industry and respect for individuals.
1928 T. C. Fry Statistical foundations of queuing theory. 1930 Mary P. Follett Managerial Philosophy based on
individual motivations. Group process approach to solving managerial problems. 1931 James D. Mooney In Onward Industry (republished in 1939
as The Principles of Organization), show how the newly discovered “principles of organization” have really been known since ancient times.
1933 Elton Mayo The Human Problems of an Industrial Civilization is the first major report on the Hawthorne studies, the first significant call for a human relations movement. 1937 Luther Gulick’s “Notes on the Theory of Organization”
draws attention to the functional elements of the work of an executive with his mnemonic device POSDCORB.
1938 Chester Barnard Theory of organization; sociological aspects of management; need for communication.
The Functions of the Executive Managing the Values of the Organization.
1938 P. M. S. Blackett, et al Operations research.
1938 Chester I. Barnard The Functions of the Executive, his sociological analysis of organizations encourages and foreshadows the post war revolution in thinking about
organizational behavior.
1939 Roethlisberger & Dickson Publish Management and the Worker , the definitive account of the Hawthorne studies.
1940 Robert K. Merton Article “Bureaucratic Structure and Personality” proclaims that Max Weber’s “ideal-type” bureaucracy has inhibiting dysfunctions leading to inefficiency and worse.
1941 James Burnham In The Managerial Revolution, asserts that as the control of large organizations
passes from the hands of the owners into the hands of professional administrators, the society’s new governing class will be the possessors not of wealth but of technical expertise.
1943 Lyndall Urwick Collection consolidation, and correlation of principles of management.
1943 Abraham Maslow “Needs hierarchy” first appears in his Psychological Review article “A Theory
of Human Motivation”
1946 Herbert A. Simon “The Proverbs of Administration” attacks the principles approach to management for being inconsistent and often
inapplicable. 1947 Rensis Likert
Chris Argyris
Placed emphasis on psychology, social psychology and research in theory;
incorporation of an open system theory of organization.
1947 NTL National Training Laboratories for Group Development (now called the NTL
Institute for Applied Behavioral Science) is established to the research on group dynamics and later, sensitivity training. Herbert A. Simon Administrative Behavior urges that a true
scientific method be used in the study of administrative phenomena, that the perspective of logical positivism should be used in dealing with questions of policy making, and that decision making
is the true heart of administration.
1948 Dwight Waldo Publishes The Administrative State, which attacks the “gospel of efficiency” that dominated administrative thinking prior to World War II.
Lester Coch and John R. P. French, Jr.,
Note that employees resist change less when the need for it is effectively communicated to them and when the workers are involved in planning the changes.
Norbert Wiener Coins the term cybernetics in his book with the same title, which becomes a critical foundation concept for the systems school of organizational theory.
1949 Norbert Wiener Emphasized systems analysis and Claude Shannon information theory in
management.
Philip Selznick In TVA and the Grass Roots, discovers “co-optation” which he examines how the Tennessee Valley Authority subsumed new external elements into its policy-making process in order to prevent those elements from becoming a threat to the organization.
Norton E. Long In his Public Administration Review article “Power and Administration,” finds that power is the lifeblood of
administration, and that managers had more than just apply the scientific method to problems -- they had to attain, maintain, and increase their power or risk failing in their mission.
Rufus E. Miles, Jr., The Bureau of the Budget first states Miles’ Law “Where you stand depends on where you sit.”
Edsel Murphy Air Force Captain first states Murphy’s Law: “If anything can go wring, it will.” 1950 W. Edwards Deming Founding father of quality movement.
They key quality; reducing variation 1950 George C. Homans Publishes The Human Group, the first
major application of “systems” to organizational analysis.
1951 Joseph M. Juran Company-wide quality cannot be delegated.
1951 Frank Abrahams
Benjamin M. Seleckman
Reinstroduced managerial statesmanship in managerial thinking.
1951 Elliot Jaques Psychological and social factors in group behavior.
1951 Kurt Lewin Proposes a general model of change consisting of three phases, “unfreezing, change, refreezing,” in his Field Theory in Social Science;this model becomes the conceptual frame for organization development.
Ludwig von Bertalanffy Article “General Systems Theory: A New Approach to the Unity of Science” is published in Human Biology; his concepts
will become the intellectual basis for the systems approach to organizational thinking.
1954 Peter Drucker The Practice of Management , popularizes the concept of management by objectives. Alvin Gouldner Patterns of Industrial Bureaucracy
describes three possible responses to a formal bureaucratic structure: ‘mock,” where the formal rules are ignored by both management and labor; “punishment centered,” where management seeks to enforce rules that workers resist; and “representative,” where rules are both enforced and obeyed.
Robert Schlaifer decision making, viewed as an
identifiable, observable, and measurable process; increased attention given to
managerial psychology.
1956 William H. Merton First profiles The Organization Man, an individual with an organization who accepts its values and finds harmony in conforming to its policies.
Talcott Parsons In the premier issue of Administrative Science Quarterly, article “Suggestions for a Sociological Approach to the Theory of Organizations’ defines an organization as a social system that focuses on the attainment of specific goals and contributes, in turn, to the
accomplishment of goals of the larger organization or society itself.
Kenneth Boulding Management Science article, “General Systems Theory -- The Skeleton of Science, “integrates Wiener’s concept of cybernetics with von Bertalanffy’s general systems theory; this will become the most quoted introduction to the systems
concept of organization.
1957 C. Northcote Parkinson Discovers his law that “work expands so as to fill the time available for its
completion.”
Chris Argyris Asserts in his first major book,
Personality and Organization, that there is an inherent conflict between the
personality of a mature adult and the needs of modern organizations.
Douglas M. McGregor Article ‘The Human Side of Enterprise” distills the contending traditional
(authoritarian) and humanistic managerial philosophies into Theory X and Theory Y;
applies the concept of “self-fulfilling prophesies’ to organizational behavior. Philip Selznick Leadership in Administration anticipates
many of the 1980s notions of the “transformational leadership” when he asserts that the function of an institutional leader is to help shape the environment in which the institution operates and to
define new institutional directions through recruitment, training, and bargaining. Alvin W. Gouldner “Cosmopolitan and Locals,” identifies two
latent social roles that tend to manifest themselves in organizations:
“cosmopolitans,” who have small loyalty to the employing organization, high commitment to specialized skills, and an outer-reference group orientation; and ‘low commitment to specialized skills, and an inner-reference group orientation. 1958 March & Simon Organizations, seek to inventory and
classify all that is worth knowing about the behavioral revolution in organization theory.
Leon Festinger The father of cognitive dissonance theory, writes “the Motivating Effect of Cognitive Dissonance,” which becomes the
theoretical foundation for the ‘inequity theories of motivation.”
Robert Tannenbaum & Warren H. Schmidt
Harvard Business Review article “How to Choose a Leadership Pattern” describes “democratic management’ and devises a leadership continuum ranging from authoritarian to democratic.
1959 Frederick Herzberg “Motivations” and “Maintenance” factors in job satisfaction. (with B. Mausner and B.B. Simpleman.)
Charles A. Lindblom “The Science of ‘Mudding Through” rejects the rational model of decision making in favor of incrementalism. Herzberg, Mausner, &
Snyderman
The Motivation to Work puts forth them motivation-hygiene theory of worker motivation.
Cyert and March Postulate that power and politics impact on the formation of organizational goals; their “A Behavioral Theory of
Organizational Objectives” is an early precursor of the power and politics school. John R. P. French &
Bertram Raven
Identify five bases of power (expert, referent, reward, legitimate, and coercive) in their article “The Bases of Social
Power.” They argue that managers should not rely on coercive and expert power bases, as they are least effective. 1960 Douglas McGregor Theory X and Theory Y
Theodore Levitt The first management theorist to stress marketing as key to successful business management.
Richard Neustadt Presidential Power asserts that the president’s (or any executive’) essential power is that of persuasion.
Herbert Kaufman The Forest Ranger shows how organizational and professional
socialization can develop the will and capacity to conform in employees. 1961 Rensis Likert
T. Burns & G.M. Stalker
Participative Management and
Mechanistic and Organic Management styles. LIKERT - new patterns of management.
Victor A. Thompson Modern Organization finds that there is “an imbalance between ability and authority” causing bureaucratic dysfunctions all over the place. Harold Koontz “The management Theory Jungle”
describes thinking about management as a “semantics jungle.”
Burns and Stalker The Management of Innovationarticulates the need for different types of
management systems (organic and mechanistic) under differing circumstances.
Rensis Likert New Patterns of Management offers an empirically based defense of participatory management and organization
development techniques.
William G. Scott Academy of Management Journal Article, “Organization Theory: An overview and an Appraisal, “articulates the relationship between systems theory and organizations
theory and the distinction between micro and macro perspectives in the
Amatai Etzioni A Comparative Analysis of Complex
Organizations, argues that organizational effectiveness is affected by the match
between an organization's goal structure and its compliance structure.
1962 Alfred D. Chandler Structure follows Strategy in Organizations.
Robert Presthus The Organizational Society presents his threefold classification of patterns of organizational accommodation: “upward-mobiles,” who identify and accept the values and find personal satisfaction off the job; and “ambivalents,” who want the rewards of organizational life but can’t cope with the demands.
Blau and Scott Formal Organizations: A Comparative Approach, assert that all organizations
include both formal and informal element, and that it is impossible to know and understand the true structure of a formal organization without a similar
understanding of its parallel informal organization.
David Mechanic Administrative Science Quarterlyarticle “Sources of Power of Lower Participants in Complex Organizations” anticipates the power and politics perspective of
organization theory.
1963 Alfred P. Sloan Developed key principle of
decentralization for big corporations. Strauss, Schatzman, Bucher,
Erlich, & Sabshin
Describe the maintenance of order in a hospital as a dynamic process operating within a framework of negotiated
“contracts” among people and groups with different expectations and interests, in “The Hospital and Its Negotiated Order.” Cyert and March A Behavioral Theory of the Firm,
demonstrate that corporations tend to “satisfice” rather than engage in
economically rational profit-maximizing behavior.
R. Cyert J. March
Behavioral analysis of decision making.
1964 Blake & Mouton The Managerial Grid uses a graphic gridiron to explain management styles and their potential impacts on organization development.
Michel Crozier The Bureaucratic Phenomenondefines a bureaucracy as “an organization which
cannot correct its behavior by learning from its errors.”
Bertram M. Gross Publishes his two-volume The Managing of Organizations, a historical analysis of thinking about organizations from ancient times to the present.
1965 H. Igor Ansoff Corporate Planning
The Theory and Practice of Strategic Planning and Strategic Management. Don K. Price Publishes The Scientific Estate, in which
he posits that decisional authority flows inexorably from the executive suite to the technical office.
Robert L. Kahn Organizational Stress is the first major study of the mental health consequences of organizational role conflict and
ambiguity.
James G. March Edits the huge Handbook of Organizations, which sought to summarize all existing knowledge on organization theory and behavior. 1966 Reg Evans Managers educating each other thru
“Action Learning”.
Katz and Kahn The Social Psychology of Organizations, seek to unify the findings of behavioral through open systems theory.
David C. McClelland “That Urge to Achieve.” In which he identifies two groups of people: the
majority of whom are not concerned about achieving, and the minority who are
challenged by the opportunity to achieve. This notion becomes a premise for future motivation studies.
Warren Bennis Changing Organizations, sounds the death knell for bureaucratic institutions because they are inadequate for a future that will demand rapid organizational change, participatory management, and the growth
of a more professionalized work force. 1967 P. Lawrence Contingency Theory of Organization.
J. Lorsch J. Thompson
Organization as function of environment and technology.
James D. Thompson Organizations in Action seeks to close the gap between open and closed systems theory by suggesting that organizations deal with the uncertainty of their environments by creating specific elements designed to cope with the outside world while other elements are able to focus on the rational nature of technical operations.
Anthony Down Inside Bureaucracy seek to develop laws and propositions that would aid in
predicting the behavior of bureaus and bureaucrats.
John Kenneth Galbraith The New Industrial State asserts that the control of modern corporations has passed to the techno-structure and that this
techno-structure is more concerned with stability than profits.
Antonym Jay Management and Machiavelli, applies Machiavelli’s political principles (from The Prince) to modern organizational management.
1968 Warren Bennis Leadership: Managers do things right. Leaders do the right thing.
Harold Wilensky Organizational Intelligence presents the pioneering study of the flow and
perception of information in organizations.
Dorwin Cartwright & Alvin Zander
Propose that the systematic study of group dynamics would advance knowledge of the nature of groups; how they are organized; and relationships among
individuals, other groups, and larger institutions.
John P. Campbell M. D. Dunnette
“Effectiveness of T-Group Experiences in Managerial Training and Development,” appearing in Psychological Bulletin, provides a critical review of T-group
literature. They conclude that “an
individual’s positive feelings about his T-group experiences” cannot be
scientifically measured, nor should they be based entirely on “existential grounds.” Walker & Lorsch Grapple with the perennial structural issue
of whether to design organizations by product or function in their Harvard Business Review article, “Organizational
Choice: Product vs. Function.”
Frederick Herzberg Harvard Business Reviewarticle “One More Time, How Do You Motivate Employees?” catapults motivators or satisfiersand hygiene factors into the forefront of organizational motivation theory.
1969 Aston Group Organizational structure, size and technology.
Laurence J. Peter Promulgates his principles that “in a hierarchy every employee tends to rise to his level of incompetence.”
Lawrence & Lorsch Organization and Environment , call for a contingency theory that can deal with the appropriateness of different theories under differing circumstances; they state that organizations must solve the problem of simultaneous differentiation and
integration. Paul Hersey &
Kenneth R. Blanchard
“Life Cycle Theory of Leadership,” appearing in Training and Development Journal , asserts that the appropriate
leadership style for a given situation depends upon the employee’s education and experience levels, achievement motivation, and willingness to accept responsibility by the subordinates. 1970 Abraham Maslow Hierarchy of Needs in Motivation.
Burton Clark The Distinctive Collegeidentifies ways that three colleges created and maintained their distinctiveness through the
management of symbols. John P. Campbell,
Marvin D. Dunnette, Edward E. lawler III, & Karl E. Weick, Jr.
Articulate the expectancy theories of motivation. People are motivated by calculating how much they want
something, how much of it they think they will get, how likely it is their actions will cause them to get it, and how much others in similar circumstances have received. Chris Argyris Writes Intervention Theories and
Methods, which becomes one of the most widely cited and enduring works on organizational consulting for change that is written from the organizational
behavior/organization development perspective.
1971 Chris Argyris & Donald A. Schon
Organizational Learning
John W. Humble Developed Drucker’s MBO as practical methodology
Edward de Bono Lateral Thinking.
Graham T. Allison Essence of Decision demonstrates the inadequacies of the view that the
decisions of a government are made by a “single calculating decision maker” who has control over the organizations and officials within his government. Irving Janis “Groupthink,” first published in
psychology Today, proposes that group cohesion can lead to the deterioration of effective group decision-making efforts. 1972 General Motors Lordstown Ohio, automobile assembly plant calls
national attention to the dysfunctions of dehumanized and monotonous work. Harlan Cleveland The Future Executive, asserts that
decision making in the future will call for “continuous improvisation on a general sense of direction.”
Charles Perrow Complex Organizationis a major defense of bureaucratic forms of organization and an attack on those writers who think that bureaucracy can be easily, fairly, or
inexpensively replaced.
Kast & Rosenweig Academy of Management Journal article “General Systems Theory: Applications for Organization and Management,” assess the level of successful application of general systems theory in organizations and advocate a contingency theory as a less abstract and more applicable theoretical approach.
1973 Henry Mintzberg How strategy is made & how managers use their time; mental process-right brain/left-brain
E. F. Schumacher “Small is Beautiful:” The human scale vs. corporate giantism.
Jay Galbraith Designing Complex Organizations, articulates the systems/contingency view that the amount of information an
organization needs is a function of the levels of its uncertainty, inter-dependence of units and functions, and adaptation mechanisms.
1974 Michael Cohen & James March
Introduce the phrase organized an archies to communicate why colleges and
universities are distinctive organizational forms with uniquely difficult leadership needs and problems. The report was published as the book, Leadership and Ambiguity: The American College President .
Robert J. House & Terrance R. Mitchell
Journal of Contemporary Business article “Path-Goal Theory of Leadership” offers path-goal theory as a useful tool for
explaining the effectiveness of certain leadership styles in given situations. Victor H. Vroom Organizational Dynamics article “A New
Look at Managerial Decision-Making” develops a useful model whereby leaders can perform a diagnosis of a situation to determine which leadership style is most appropriate.
Steven Kerr Academy of Management journal article “On the Folly of Rewarding A, While Hoping for B” substantiates that many organizational reward systems are “fouled up” -- they pay off for behaviors other than those they are seeking.
1975 Oliver E. Williamson Analyzes organizational decisions to produce products and services internally
using economic market models, and assess the implications of such decisions on, for example, organizational authority, in Markets and Hierarchies: Analysis and Antitrust Implications.
Lyman Porter, Edward Lawler III, & Richard Hackman
Behavior in Organizations, examines how individual -- organizational relationships emerge and grow, including how groups can exert influence on individuals in organizations and how such social influences relate to work effectiveness. 1976 Michael Maccoby Psychoanalytically interviews 250
corporate managers and discovers “The Gamesman,” a manager whose main interest lies in “competitive activity where he can prove himself a winner.”
Jensen & Meekling Describe an organization as simply an extension of and a means for satisfying the interests of the multiple individuals and groups that affect and are affected by it, in “Agency Costs and the Theory of the Firm.”
Eric Trist In “A Concept of Organizational Ecology,” proposes a concept of
organizational population ecology based on the field that is created by a number of organizations whose interrelations
comprise a system. The system is the field as a whole, not its component
organizations.
1977 Hannan & Freeman Article “The Population Ecology of Organizations” proposes a new unit of analysis for understanding organizations: the “population of organizations.”
They Hold on to It” explains how power and politics help organizations adapt to their environment by reallocating critical resources to subunits that are performing tasks most vital to organizational survival. Davis & Lawrence In Matrix Caution against using a matrix
form of organization unless there exist specific organizational conditions that are conductive to its success.
Rosabeth Moss Kanter Men and Women of the Corporation, describes the unique problems women encounter with power and politics in organizations.
1978 Edgar H. |Schein The “psychological contract” between employer and employed; career anchor”; organizational culture.
Thomas J. Peters Organizational Dynamics article “Symbols, Patterns, and Settings: An Optimistic Case for Getting Things Done” is the first major analysis of symbolic management in organizations to gain significant attention in the “mainstream” literature of organization theory.
1979 Rosabeth Moss Kanter Harvard Business Review article “Power Failure in Management Circuits”
identifies organizational positions that tend to have power problems – then
argues that powerlessness Is often more of a problem than power for organizations. Henry Mintzberg Structuring Organizations is published,
the first book in integrative series on “The Theory of Management Policy.”
1980 Michael Porter Corporate Strategy;
Strategies for competitive advantage, both national and international.
Connoly, Conlon, & Deutsch Argue that evaluations of organizational effectiveness should employ multiple criteria that reflect the diverse interests of the various constituencies that are
involved with organizations, in “Organizational Effectiveness: A Multiple-Constituency Approach.”
Meryl Reis Louis Administrative Science Quarterlyarticle, “Surprise and Sense Making: What Newcomers Experience in Entering
Unfamiliar Organizational Settings,” proposes that sense-making by
newcomers usually must rely on
inadequate sources of information which can lead them astray.
1981 Anthony Cobb & Newton Margulies
In “Organization Development: A Political Perspective,” argue that organization development (OD) has developed more political sensitivity and sophistication than most critics realize, but that political activity by OD
practitioners is fraught with serious utilitarian and values problems.
Jeffrey Pfeffer Power in Organizations integrates the tenets and applications of the power and politics school; of organization theory. Thomas Ouchi
Pascal & Athos
Theory Z and Pascale and Athos’ The Art of Japanese Management popularize by the Japanese management “movement.” 1982 Tom Peters &
Robert H. Waterman, Jr.
The “Excellence” cult & prescriptions for managing chaotic change. In Search of Excellence
Deal and Kennedy Corporate Culture, and Business Week’s cover story on “Corporate Culture.” 1983 Rosabeth Moss Kanter Empowerment of individuals as force for
change; the “post-entrepreneurial” corporation.
John Adair ‘Action-Centered Leadership’. How Task, Tam and Individual Overlap.
Henry Mintzberg Power in and Around Organizations molds the power and politics school of organizational theory into an integrative theory of management policy.
Rosabeth Moss Kanter In The Change Masters, defines change mastersas architects of organizational change; they are the right people in the right places at the right time.
Cultural-Bearing Milieux” becomes the first readable, integrative statement of the organizational cultural school’s assumptions and positions
Michael Keeley “Values in Organizational Theory and Management Education,” proposes that organizations exist by virtue of agreement on joint activities to achieve separate purposes of important constituencies, not
to achieve organizational goals or purposes.
Ian Mitroff Stakeholders of the Organizational Mind explains how the perceptions of internal and external organizational stakeholders influence organizational behavior -- particularly, decision making about
complex problems of organizational policy and design.
Pondy, Frost, Morgan & Dandridge
Edit the first definitive volume on symbolic management, Organizational Symbolism.
Linda Smircich Article “Organizations as Shared Meanings” examines how systems of commonly shared meanings develop and are sustained in organizations through symbolic communications processes, and also how these shared meanings provide members of an organizational culture with a sense of commonality and a distinctive character.
1984 Charles Handy The future of work and organizations. Sergiovanni & Corbally Edit the first notable collection of papers
on the organizational culture perspective, Leadership and Organizational Culture.
Sergiovanni’s opening chapter “Cultural and Competing Perspectives in
Administrative Theory and Practice” clearly articulates the fundamental underlying assumptions of the organizational culture and symbolic management perspective.
Siehl and Martin Report the findings of the first major quantitative and qualitative empirical study of organizational culture in their
“The Role of Symbolic Management: How Can Managers Effectively Transmit Organizational Culture?”
1985 Edgar Schein Writes the most comprehensive and
integrative statement of the organizational culture school in his Organizational Culture and Leadership.
Nils Brunsson In The Irrational Organization, postulates that rationality may lead to good
decisions, but it decreases the probability of organization action and change.
Muhammad A. Al-Buraey The Administrative Development, combines Western methodology and technique with Islamic substance, values, and ethics, to demonstrate how the Islamic perspective (as a system and a way of life)
is an important moving force in the process and realization of administrative
development world-wide.
1986 Desmond Graves Corporate Culture: Diagnosis and Change, presents the first serious
methodological treatise on “diagnosing” organizational culture.
Michael Harmon & Richard Mayer
Write a comprehensive test that applies organization theory in the public sector, Organization Theory for Public
Administration.
Gareth MOrggan Images of Organization develops the art of reading and understanding
organizations and starting from the premise that our theories of organization
are based on distinctive but partial mental mages or metaphors.
1988 Michael Keeley Combines and extends his previous essays on multiple constituencies, organizational purposes, systems of justice, values, and
organizational worth into the first comprehensive statement of A Social-Contract Theory of Organizations.
Quinn and Cameron Compile Paradox and Transformation , an important collection of essays on the necessity for managing with paradoxes in complex organizations, rather than
necessarily trying to eliminate them. American Journal of Sociology Publishes a heated debate between the
leading proponents and detractors of population ecology of organization theory. Shoshana Zuboff In The Age of the Smart Machine,
examines the effects of information technology change on authority and hierarchy -- on people and organizations. 1989 Rosabeth Moss Kanter Book When Giants Learn to Dance
examines how organizations can gain the advantages of smallness (flexibility) and size (staying power) at the same time. Alan Wilkins Developing Corporate Character ,
explains how it is difficult but possible to change elements of an organizational culture without destroying the positive aspects of the culture that already exist. 1990 Richard Pascale The creative use of conflict in
organizations.
Kenichi Ohmae The Borderless World (1982 – The Mind of the Strategist)
Richard J. Schonberger Each function in a business should be a “customer” of the next in the chain. Sally Helgesen Creates diary studies that explore how
women leaders make decisions and gather and disperse information in organizations. Helgesen suggest that “women may be the new Japanese” of management, in The Female Advantage.
Elliott Jaques “In Praise of Hierarchy,” argues that critics of hierarchy are misguided. Instead of needing new organizational forms, we need to learn how to manage hierarchies better.
James F. Short, Jr., and Lee Clarke
In Organizations, Uncertainties and Risk, describe how organizational behavior is impacted by decision making under risk and uncertainty, and how, in turn, risk and uncertainty in the general society affect the decision making of organizations.
Paul S. Goodman & Lee S. Sproull
Describe how organizational behavior is affected by new technologies. They argue that the impacts of technology are so profound that organizations must find new
ways of conducting enterprise in order to survive the new techno/business climate; in Technology and Organizations.
Allan R. Cohen & David L. Bradford
Influence Without Authority discusses an alternative method of work achievement based on the law of reciprocity that leads
to organizational self-empowerment and the mutual advantage of participants. Pasquale Gagliardi Symbols and Artifacts: Views of the
Corporate Landscape, focuses on corporate artifacts: buildings, objects, images, and forms that go into the making of corporate cultures. Gagliardi presents social constructivist, phenomenological, and interpretive views of reality.
Peter Senge Highly influential book, The Fifth Discipline, describes organizations with
“learning disabilities” and how “learning organizations” defy the odds to overcome them.
David Ulrich & Dale Lake
Develop a theory of inside competition that emphasizes organizational capability. Their book, Organizational Capability: Compelling from the Inside Out , explains what “capability” is and how to develop competitiveness based on management action.
Lex Donaldson Academy of Management Reviewarticle, “The Ethereal Hand: Organizational Economics and Management Theory,” demonstrates the potentialities and pitfalls of organizational economics.
Karl Weick “Technology as Equivoque: Sense-making in New Technologies,” examines
cognitive process that people use in their struggle to adapt to work in environments where important events are unpredictable and chaotic; in Goodman and Sproull’s book, Technology and Organizations. 1991 Robert G. Lord & Frame leadership in terms of how
Karen J. Maher organizational “commandants” process information -- rational, limited capacity, expert, and cybernetic -- and relate this to how other participants in the leader’s environment process information about him or her; in, Information Processing: Linking Perceptions and Performance. Kathleen D. Ryan &
Daniel K. Oestreich
Driving Fear Out of the Workplace: How to Overcome the Invisible Barriers to Quality, Productivity, and Innovation, explains the relationship between fear and workplace productivity. Management should take responsibility for fear in the workplace, starting with themselves, and then enlist the efforts of all organizational participants.
Manfred Kets de Vries Demonstrates how individuals’s rational and irrational behavior patterns influence organizations; in Organizations on the Couch.
1992 Emmanuel T. Santos (I/AME at Wharton)
Apocalyptic liberation as highest fulfillment of needs.
Thierry C. Pauchant & Ian I. Mitroff
Explore crisis-prone organizations and the psychological and emotional factors that
enable managers to ignore the possibility of pending crises, in Transforming The Crisis-Prone Organization.
Jeffrey Pfeffer Managing With Power , describes how to consolidate power and use it for
constructive organizational goals. The book teaches managers how to use power
for advantage, to stop fearing it, and to realize that if they do not use power, someone else will.
Barbara Czarniawska-Joerges Explains sense-making in organizational life -- even when organizational behavior does not make sense. Her ideas as
proposed in Exploring Complex
Organizations: A Cultural Perspective constitute a cultural and cross-contextual analysis of sense-making in large organizations.
David Nadler, Marc Gerstein, &
Uses architecture as a metaphor to identify evolving forms and features of
