Supervision of early childhood development education Programmes implications for provision of quality preschool Education in Nairobi Province

361)b)

-SUPERVISION OF EARLY CIDLDHOOD DEVELOPMENT EDUCATION PROGRAMMES: IMPLICATIONS FOR PROVISION OF QUALITY

PRE-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN NAIROBI PROVINCE

BY

JOY BUDEMBU MUDAKI

ESS/I0488/2007

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE

I' OF MASTER OF EDUCATION (ADMINISTRATION)

OF KENYATTA UNIVERSITY

DECLARATION

This research project is my original work and has not been presented for a degree in any other university.

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Date---JOY BUDEMBU MUDAKI

REG NO: E55/1044/07

This research project has been submitted for examination with our approval asthe University Supervisors.

Signature----~-':':t~=~~---• Date

DR. G. ADINO ONYANGO

Lecturer, Department of Educational Management, Policy and Curriculum Studies

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DR. F. W. NJUGUNA

DEDICATION

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to appreciate and acknowledge my supervisors Dr. Onyango Adino and Dr.

F.W. Njuguna of the department of educational management, policy and curriculum

studies for the effort, hard work and professional guidance they offered me to make this

work a success. My gratitude also goes to my beloved family: my husband Oscar

Mutwasi for the love, financial and moral support that he gave me during the period of

my study, without him, this work would not have been possible. To my children: Julie,

Nicole, Sonia and Ryan, you endured lonely times while I worked tirelessly on this

project, your love kept me going. Further gratitude goes to my sisters Beth Atiavila and Jacqueline Arita for running errands for me giving me time to concentrate on my studies.

Finally, for the technical and handy work of Anthony, Bojana, Phydelis and Eunice who

played a key role in data analysis, type setting, printing and editing of this work.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DECLARATION ii

DEDICATION iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iv

LIST OF TABLES viii

LIST OF FIGURES x

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACCRONyMS xi

ABSTRACT xiii

CHAPTER ONE 1

INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background to the Study .1

1.2 Statement of the Problem 11

1.3 Purpose of the Study 13

1.4 Objectives of the Study 13

1.5 Research Questions 14

1.6 Significance of the Study 15

1.7 Assumptions of the Study 15

1.8Limitations of the Study 15

#1.9 Theoretical Framework 16

, 1.10Conceptual Framework 18

1:"11Operational Definition of Terms 20

CHAPTER TWO 21

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 21

2.1 Introduction 21

2.2 Importance of Early years 21

2.3 Historical Development of Early Childhood Care and Education (ECDE) in Kenya.28

2.5 Supervision of Education in Schools: A Global View 36 2.6 Studies Conducted in the Area of Supervision and Inspection .40 2.7 Supervision and Quality Assurance and Standards inEducation inKenya .41

2.8 Quality of Education 44

2.9 Supervision and Monitoring in ECDE .48

2.10 Summary of Literature Review : 49

CHAPTER

THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 51

3.1 Introduction 51

3.2Research Design 51

3.3 Locale of the Study , 52

3.4 Target Population 52

3.5 Sample and Sampling Procedures 52

3.6 Research Instruments 53

3.7 Piloting of the Research Instruments 54

3.8 Validity Research Instruments 55

3.9 Reliability of Research Instrument 55

3.10 Data Analysis Technique 55

CHAPTER FOUR 57

DATA ANALYSIS, RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS OF THE

FINDINGS

4.1 Introduction 57

4.2 Background Information of the Respondents 59

4.3 The element of assessment in Early Childhood Development Education Programmes ... 66 4.4 The Effectiveness ofQASOs and DICECE Officers in Performing Various

4.5 The Perception of QASO and DICECE officers supervisory practices on the teacher's

performance and the ECD centre environment 85

4.6 Challenges Encountered in Supervision ofECDE Centers 87 4.7 Measures that can be adopted to improve supervision of Early Childhood

Development Education Programmes 91

CHAPTER FIVE 94

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 94

5.1 Introduction 94

5.2 Summary 94

5.3 Conclusions 98

5.4 Recommendations 99

References ; 101

APPENDICES 106

Appendix A: RESEARCH PERMIT 107

Appendix B: QASO 107

Appendix C: Questionnaire for DICECE Officers 111

Appendix D: Questionnaire for Primary School Head teachers .116

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1:Number of Pre-Primary Schools, Public Primary Schools and

Pre-school Teacher Colleges (2003-2007) 3

Table 1.2: Expenditure of Ministry of Education 2003/04- 2007/08 in Millions of Kenya Shillings... 6

Table 1.3: Indicative Programme Based Budget 2008/09 2010111: Summary

of Expenditure by Programmes on Education in millions ofKsh 6

Table 4.1: Professional Qualifications of the Pre-school Teachers... 60

Table 4.2: Distribution ofECDE Teachers by Teaching Experience... 61

Table 4.3: Distribution of ECDE Teachers by Type ofIn-Service Training 62

Table 4.4: Distribution of Headteachers, DICECE and QASO Officers by Gender.. 63

Table 4.5: Distribution of Headteachers, DICECE and QASO Officers by

Professional Qualification... 64

Table 4.6: Distribution of Headteachers, DICECE and QASO Officers

by Working Experience 66

Table 4.7: Pre-School Teachers Responses on Reasons that Prompted School

Visits for Assessment 71

Table 4.8: Pre-School Teachers' Response on the Areas of Assessment 72

Table 4.9: QASOs' Responses on Areas of Assessment 75

Table 4.10: Pre-school Teachers' Responses on the Effectiveness ofQASOs and DICECE Officers in Performing Curriculum and Instruction Functions ...78

Table 4.11: Headteachers Responses on Effectiveness ofQASO's and DICECE

Officers in Terms of Performing Curriculum and Instruction Functions 80

Table 4.12: Pre-School Teachers' Responses Regarding the Effectiveness of QASO and DICECE Officers in their Supervision of Teaching and

Learning Resources 81

Table 4.14: -Responses of Pre-School Teachers Perception on QASO/DICECE

Officers 85

Table 4.15: The Distribution ofDICECE and QASO Officers on the

Challenges they Face in Supervision 90

Table 4.16: Measures that can be Adopted to Improve Supervision of ECDE

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 4.1: Distribution of Pre-School Teachers by Gender---59 Figure 4.2: QASOs and DICECE Officers Distribution on the Frequency

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACCRONYMS

ASAL Arid and Semi rid lands

CRC Convention on the Rights of the Child DEO District Education Officer

DICECE - District Centre of Early Childhood Education DQAS Directorate of Quality Assurance and Standards ECCDE

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ECD Early Childhood Development

ECDE Early Childhood Development Education ECE Early Childhood Education

EFA Education for All FPE Free Primary Education .GER Gross Enrolment Ratio

GOK Government of Kenya

KESSP Kenya Education Sector Support Programme KIE Kenya Institute of Education

,-KSH Kenya Shillings

MoEST Ministry of Education Science and Technology NACECE- National Centre for Early Childhood Education NGO's Non- Governmental Organizations

QASO Quality Assurance and Standards Officers.

TSC

UNESCO -.

UNICEF

-Teachers Service Commission

United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation

ABSTRACT

The main purpose of this study was to investigate how supervision of Early Childhood Development Education (ECDE) was carried out in public pre-schools in Nairobi Province and the implications it had for the provision of quality education in these pre-schools. The study target was 20 pre-school institutions in Nairobi Province. The sample comprised of 22 DICECE Officers, 6 QASOs, 20 headteachers and fifty (50) pre-school teachers in the sampled schools. Descriptive research was used to analyze data. Questionnaires were the main instruments of data collection. The collected data were analysed using descriptive statistics, employing quantitative approach. From the analysis, the study found out the following: that the effectiveness of QASO's and DICECE Officers in supervision was merely good; despite the inadequacies in the supervision by both QASO's and DICECE officers, the overall perception of the supervision was positive. The study also established that the two key challenges which can have negative implication on performance were in accessibility and lack of adequate teaching and

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the background to the study, statement of the problem purpose of

the study, research questions, limitations and delimitations of the study, theoretical and

conceptual frameworks and definitions of terms.

1.1 Background to the Study

Definitions of early childhood care and education differ around the world. The more

industrialized nations consider early childhood to be a period from birth through age

eight while developing countries focus from birth through age six, (Essa, 1999).

Regardless of the different definitions, the increased interest in early childhood education

around the world reflects respective nations' philosophical beliefs about children.

The world conference on Education for All (EF A) that took place in Jomtien Thailand in

March 1990, articulated the significance of early years as the foundation for the life of an

individual. The belief that early learning begets later learning and success just like early

I'

failure breeds later failure has been validated in both economic and educational research

(Heckman, 1999). Accordingly, children may be viewed as growing plants that need

nurturance, miniature adults, natural and national resources that need to be nurtured as

future investments to the sustenance of a society and Vs ability to compete in the

Researches in early childhood development and education programmes play critical role in laying a foundation for further education and character formation. It has been noted that participation in comprehensive early childhood programmes of good quality can significantly alter the development trajectory of a child (UNESCO, 2005).

According to France and Utting (2003), good quality early education is a preliquisite to educational efficiency. Children acquire the basic skills, concepts and attitudes required for successful learning and development prior to entering formal education system thus reducing the chances of failure and lay a foundation of life-long learning. As reflected in many official documents such as Gachathi and Kamunge education commission reports (Republic of Kenya 1976, 1988), the government is keenly aware of investing in quality care and education for pre-school children. ECDE is, therefore, a holistic integrated approach that requires a healthy nurturing environment that includes opportunities for holistic development of children.

1.1.1 Early Childhood Development and Education in Kenya

government has made a commitment to have at least one ECD centre in every public

primary school (Institute of Economic Affairs (IEA), 2007). Republic of Kenya (RoK)

Economic Survey (2008) indicates there was a total of 37,263 pre-schools both public

and private and a total of 18,063 public primary schools in the county.

Table 1.1: Number of Primary Schools, Public Primary Schools and Pre-Primary Teacher Colleges (2003-2007)

Category 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007

Pre-primary 29,455 32,879 34,043 36,121 37,263

public primary 17,697 17,804 17,807 17,946 18,063

Pre- primary colleges 3 4 6 8 10

Primary training colleges 29 30 30 30 33

Source: Ministry of education

According to MoEST, UNESCO/aCED on ECD policy review report (2005), early

childhood development in Kenya is under the Ministry of Education. Under the

presidential circular number one of 1990, the pre-school education programme was

transferred from the then Ministry of Culture and Social Services to the Ministry of

Education, Science and Technology (MoEST). According to the Ministry of Education

statistics (2003) in the area ofECDE since independence, 35% of children aged 3-6 years

were accessing ECD services. Kenya is fourth in Africa with only Mauritius, Namibia

According to the ministry of education strategic plan, Zero Draft (2006). ECD sector had

witnessed significant growth. ECDE centres increased from 26, 924 in 2000 to 31,879 in

2004. As a consequence, the enrolment rose from 1,255,194 in the year 2001 to

1,602,721 in the year 2004 for public ECD centres. These statistics are unacceptable

considering the importance of ECDE. The GER at ECDE stood at 57.6% while of

primary at 104.8%. This disconnect is worrying. The low GER has been attributed to

various reasons: First, the provision of physical facilities for ECD centres is largely the

responsibility of communities; and the central governrnent laying a minimal role. Early

childhood education enrolment increased from 1.67 million in 2006 to 1.69 million in

2007. Participation levels in pre-primary schools increased from GER of 58.8% in 2006

to 59.3% in 2007. The number of trained (ECD) teachers went up by 3.0% from 52,600

in 2006 to 54, 177 in 2007 (RoK, 2008).

ECDE in Kenya is governed by a partnership policy of the MoEST whose main aim is to

enhance the provision of ECD services throughout the country. The policy was first

stipulated in the Sessional Paper No.6 of 1988 on education and manpower training for

tlfe next decade and beyond with a view to boosting the sector. Numerous stakeholders

have various roles and responsibilities for the provision of direct and indirect services for

children. The main partners include government ministries, private organizations, NGOs

and bilateral and multilateral partners. The community however is the most important

partner taking responsibility for the provision of physical facilities, payment of salaries,

The MoE is the major sector in the government responsible for the country's ECD programmes and involves other ministries for planning and implementation. Within the ministry are three concerned sections at the national level: the ECD unit of the Directorate of Basic Education, responsible for the formulation of policy guidelines, registration of pre-schools, co-ordination of data collection, funding, donors and provision of trainers; The ECD unit of the Division of the Directorate of Quality Assurance and Standards responsible for inspection of pre-schools and training institutions, administration of teacher trainee examinations and pre-school teacher certificates; and the National Centre for Early Childhood Education (NACECE) housed in KIE is responsible for pre-school curriculum and material development, training of and professional support to DICECE trainers and co-ordination of research, monitoring and evaluation.

The Ministry of Education acknowledges that access to early childhood lays a strong foundation to future learning and development of children in their early years and has a positive effect on enrolment and retention as expressed in Kenya Education Sector

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Table 1.2: Expenditure of Ministry of Education 2003/04- 2007/08 in Millions of Kenya Shillings

RECURRENT

EXPENDITURE

Pre-primary Education 15.51 25.66 .57 50.45 50.45

Primary Education 5,966.52 6,583.42 7,148.58 7,746.53 7,874.59

Secondary Education 945.42 938.79 2,893.70 1,018.98 7,758.98

Source: Ministry of Education

Similarly, KESSP 2005- 2010 investment programme indicates that the total ECDE

budgetary allocation in millions of Kenya shillings amounts to 1,948.2 while that of

primary school amounts to 2,368.395. Republic of Kenya (2008) on the 2008/09

indicative programme-based budget summary of expenditure by programmes In education 2008/09 - 2010111 also reveals that, the ECD sector continues to receive the

least budgetary allocation within the basic education programmes in millions of Kenya

shillings as indicated below:

Table 1.3: Indicative Programme Based Budget 2008/092010/11: Summary of Expenditure by Programmes on Education in millions of Ksh.

Programme . Approved Estimates Estimates Projected Estimates

Year 2007/08 2009/09 2010/10 2010/11

Free Primary Education 14,681 16,488 16,634 17,398

Free Secondary and Tertiary 8,094 13,221 14,112 14,120 Education

Early Childhood Education 69 250 230 230

Kenya has four curricula for early childhood development, they include; Guidelines for

early Childhood Development in Kenya popularly known as the ECD guidelines,

Kindergarten Headmistresses Association Curriculum, Montessori, the Islamic Integrated

programme and the curricula of parental and education programme. The curricula have

provided flexibility and variation in terms of facilities and activities undertaken which is

a healthy feature in the curricula. Communities are allowed to develop appropriate

affordable and relevant services without any pressure and competition. The lesson from

Kenya is that the community is a very important source for the development of ECDE

programmes and must continue to be tapped and appreciated for sustainability (Kipkorir

&Njenga, 1993).

Pre-school is not compulsory, hence attendance in pre-school is not a pre-requisite to

joining the first grade of primary education. With the introduction of free primary

education, there's a recent decline in enrolment at pre-school level since parents have to.

pay for ECDE services. As a result, parents tend to keep their children at home until they

reach the entitlement age for FPE. Consequently, ECD teachers whose salaries in most

cases rely on parents' contributions are leaving their jobs due to non-payment. One of the investment rationale and strategies highlighted in the MoE, UNESCO/OECD

(2005) policy review report was subsidising ~CD teacher's salaries which, however,

would raise feasibility issue if it was to be done according to the governrnents teacher

remuneration scale as determined by the teachers service commission (TSC). Kenya's

•

facilitate the decentralization of service delivery to local government authorities. It

strengthened the revenue base of local government authorities to enable them to conduct

management and financing of services in education, nutrition and health. The act has

empowered local authorities to provide social services in their respective areas.

The local authorities including county councils, municipal council, town and urban

councils meet substantial costs in ECD services within their jurisdiction. Their

contributions are mainly financial. They pay salaries of pre-school teachers and supervisors, set up and maintain facilities, purchase equipment and other materials and

meet the cost of training pre-school teachers (MoEST, 2005).

A major characteristic of pre-school education in Kenya is that pre-schools serve a wide

cross-section of children from different social, economic, cultural and religious

background unlike in many other African countries where pre-schools are for children of

wealthy members of the elite. Children attending Kenya's ECD services come from a

wide spectrum of rich and poor, educated and uneducated families (Republic of Kenya,

UNESCO, 2005). Reports show that today, Kenya has about 1,691,093 children attending

pre-school with a total of 816,163 boys and ~14,930 girls managed by 54,177 trained

teachers and 22,147 untrained teachers in 37,263 pre-schools (RoK, 2008).

1.1.2 Supervision of ECDE Programmes in Kenya

Supervision is an important aspect of ECDE programmes. It aims at regular and

..

(KIE, 1995). Supervision of ECDE services is done by the Directorate of Quality

Assurance and Standards in collaboration with DICECE trainers and supervisors who

have a special responsibility of supervising the ECDE programmes. It is important to

supervise in order to gather information from children, care-givers, parents, communities,

and general ECD environment. This can be used to correct errors, modify practices where

necessary and motivate as well as encourage all involved in ECD. The changes resulting

from supervisory activity strengthen the ECD programmes.

According to KIE (1995), supervision is a continuous monitoring of ECD activities to

ensure the sharing of experiences and information, improves the quality of programmes,

encourages, motivates, enriehes and promotes personal as well as professional growth for

all those involved. Supervision is important because it helps to ensure that childrens'

needs are met, enables efficient implementation of curriculum, checks whether the

objectives of the programmes have been achieved, promotes maintenance of basic

standards, identifies problems and constraints and identifies strengths and achievement.

During supervision, the supervisor is supposed to take into consideration the various

factors so as to ensure that the environment of ECD centre is conducive to the total

development of a child. Supervision involves assessing physical facilities such as

classrooms, toilets, compound, indoor and outdoor equipment and materials for their

suitability for learning and child development. In many educational acts, guaranteeing a

satisfactory level of educational quality is achieved primarily through inspection and

•

In pre-school setup, teaching/learning situation is the most important area which should be supervised, this is because children learn through play, manipulation of objects and interacting with people and material in their environment, (KIE, 1995). Teachers and caregivers need special skills to ensure that learning takes place effectively. Supervision should be aimed at ensuring the total development of children and how children interact with one another.

The ECD section of the Ministry of Education, Directorate of Quality Assurance and Standards is responsible for maintaining and improving educational standards in all pre-schools owned by the community and private sector. The QASO's have the authority to enter and inspect any school a! any time without notice, and report their findings to the director quality assurance and standards (MoEST, 2000). The bulk of supervision is carried out by DICECE trainers and zonal QASO and TAC tutors based at the District level. The QASO's monitor the teaching-learning process and inspect facilities and services at pre-schools (MoEST, UNESCO/OECD, 2005).

services; organize follow-up action on quality assessment reports among other duties

(RoK, 2006).

The issues that hamper the quality assurance function sector include: inadequate legal

provisions; inadequate requisite skills; lack of tools to measure learning achievement;

---inadequate capacity for school level supervision; lack of national system of teacher

INSET accreditation; inadequate curriculum support materials; lack of adequate capacity

and facilities for curriculum support through radio and other channels; lack of capacity to

assess learners' special needs and respond to them and inadequate budgetary allocation .

MoEST (2006).

There remains numerous challenges facing the supervision of ECDE programmes in the

country which has grave implications for the provision and enhancing of quality

pre-school educational standards in Nairobi Province. Supervision in pre-schools is

inadequate and the physical presence of QASO has not effectively been felt in

pre-schools. There is inadequate information which calls for further research since QASO

and DrCECE officers' contributions have not exhaustively been assessed. It is from this

background that there is need to investigate the contribution of supervisory activities of

QASO and DrCECE officers towards enhancing quality of pre-school education.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Despite the effort by the government, community initiatives and other collaborating

partnership, in trying to improve quality of pre-school educational services in Kenya,

According to the World Bank report (1996) on the evaluation of ECD centres which is

consistent with a report by Kenya Institute of Education NACECE, (2004) on effects of

FPE on ECD programmes, inadequate monitoring and supervision was cited as one of the

key issues in the sector.

MoEST, UNESCO/OECD (2005), consistent with RoK (2006) further identifies

insufficient supervision and inspection as one of the perceived problems facing ECD

citing the following as causes:

1. Officers in charge of monitoring pre-schools are not conversant with pre-school

curriculum, teaching and methodology.

11. Inspection guidelines provided by the ECD section of the directorate are long and

largely irrelevant and are not user friendly.

iii. Shortage of QASO to ensure that all existing pre-schools have been registered.

iv. Implementation of FPE has led to a heavy workload for QASOs and TAC tutors of

closely monitoring FPE and leaving little room for them to work with ECD centres.

v. Shortage ofDICECE trainers and zonal QASOs to ensure that all existing pre-school

are supervised on regular basis.

There are 22 DICECE officers and 6 zonal QASO officers in charge of supervision of all

ECDE programmes in the entire Nairobi Province. Unlike DICECE officers, QASOs are

also charged with providing the same services to all public and registered private primary

schools most of which are feeder schools for the pre-schools. There are 561 pre-schools

to City Education Department, 2009. As earlier indicated in the literature review, with the

introduction of FPE the burden of supervising ECD programmes has been left to

DICECE officers and TAC tutors leaving supervisory services in ECDE almost

paralyzed.

Comparing the number ofDICECE officers and zonal QASOs in the province against the

number of pre-schools, supervision and monitoring is a daunting task for these officers.

The researcher is, therefore, prompted to investigate the supervisory practices of QASOs

and DICECE officers in public pre-schools in Nairobi Provinces. This will close the

existing gap in information about the implication supervision of ECDE programme has

for the provision of quality pre-school education in the region.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study was to investigate supervision of ECD programmes and its

implications. for the provision of quality pre-school education in Nairobi Province.

Specifically, the study looked at the supervisory functions of the DICECE officers and

zonal QASOs. It also determined the effectiveness of supervision and the extent it

affected the quality services offered in pre-school education in the province.

1.4 Objectives of the Study

The study sought to find out the following:

1. The elements of assessment in Early Childhood Development Education Programmes

11. The Effectiveness of QASOs and DICECE officers in performing various supervisory

functions in the province.

iii. The perception of external supervisors' supervisory practices on the teacher's

performance and the ECD centre environment.

IV. Challenges encountered in supervision of ECDE Centers in the province.

v. Measures that can be adopted to improve supervision of Early Childhood

Development Education Programmes.

1.5 Research Questions

The study was based on the following research questions:

1. What are the major aspects of assessment of Early Childhood Development

Education Programmes among pre-schools in Nairobi province?

11. To what extent QASOs and DICECE Officers effective in performing vanous

Supervisory Functions in the province?

iii. What is the perception of QASO and DICECE officer's supervisory practices on the

teacher's performance in the province?

iv. What are the challenges encountered III supervision of ECDE Centers III the

, province?

v. What measures can be adopted to improve supervision of Early Childhood

1.6 Significance of the Study This study was significant because:

1. The study provided useful information about the status of supervision in ECDE services and therefore contributed to the improvement of the ongoing process of providing quality pre-school education by the Ministry of Education.

11. It helped to identify training needs of QASO, DICECE officers and ECD teachers. 111. Discrepancies uncovered could help identify feasibility problems that the QASO's

and DICECE officers face in supervision and hence possible solutions.

IV. Information obtained from this study could guide the MoE and policy makers on future formulation and implementation of policy guidelines related to ECDE prOVIsIOn.

1.7 Assumptions of the Study

The study was based on the following assumptions:

1. Respondents gave accurate, truthful and honest answers to items that were in the questionnaire.

11. All public pre-schools used guidelines for Early Childhood Education Curriculum.

1.8 Limitations of the Study

setups. Some respondents were not be willing to grve information because of being

suspicious of there researcher. The researcher overcame these by creating a good rapport

with the respondents and assuring them of confidentiality of their responses.

1.9 Theoretical Framework

This study was guided by rationale of supervision theory developed by Robinson (1968).

According to him, supervision of professionals in education is necessary to fulfill a

number of functions, among them being to make the job of teaching easier. Others are,

ensuring that there are adequate number of teachers, good orientation programmes and

provision of adequate supplies and equipment.

The theory states that the results of teaching are highly intangible and teachers have a

better way of assessing their quality of work or effects of their work. These teachers may

invite education officers to supervise them not because they need help but because they

want a reassurance that they work well. This would earn them recognition and build in

them confidence. Teacher's morale needs to be maintained. It can be done through

rewards, involving them in decisions that affect their work ethics and provision of

teaching materials among others. Another important aspect of this theory is that

supervision of classroom instruction is necessary to ensure that functions of all teachers

are coordinated. Robison suggests that this can be done through proper time scheduling

and clustering of pupils according to their grades. An important concept developed by

Robinson is that of a working team which would bring together diverse skills of a number

of equal or near equal specialists. For him, much of the co-ordination of their efforts

The theory states that teachers differ in their degree of professional competence and in

their need for advice regarding their classroom work. However, he points out that there is

a difference between requested for and un-requested advice. Advice that is unsolicited

inclines towards questioning of teachers' professional competence while advice that

follows a request from the teacher inclines towards a genuine desire for help in the

solution of a problem.

Programme development is an aspect that Robinson's theory attributes to be important

in supervision. This involves professional growth of teachers. According to him, these

two dimensions of supervision cannot be separated since a programine for curriculum

development has a concomitant outcome in professional development of teachers.

Similarly, programmes designed for teachers' professional growth should result in

improvement of teaching and learning. From this theory there are five important

functions that are necessary to fulfill in supervision of professionals. These functions

became an integral part of the study as they hit directly on variables that were

investigated in the study. These functions are:

a) Facilitation: Supervision is supposed to facilitate teaching.

b) Morale Building: Whenever teachers are supervised, they feel that they are doing

their work well, thus it boosts their morale in the workplace.

c) Co-ordination: Supervision ensures that there's co-ordination of teachers in the

d) Advisory function: When the atmosphere of supervision is well-developed then

teachers will feel free to consult those in higher ranks.

e) The Development function: As a result of supervision, there IS curriculum

development aswell as professional growth of teachers.

Robinson feels that the five functions that is, facilitation, morale building, co-ordination,

advisory and development justify the necessity for supervision of professionals in

education. This study sought to find out whether supervision of ECD programmes by

education officers, the QASOs and DICECE trainers satisfy these five functions.

1.10 Conceptual Framework

From the rationale of supervision theory developed by Robinson (1968), the researcher

designed a conceptual framework that shows the independent variables and how they

helped the study. The model is based on the concept that overall supervision of the ECD

programme led to improvement in service delivery of pre-school education. Supervision

also led to better quality education in terms of curriculum and instruction, use of

adequate, relevant teaching materials, resources and provision of enough physical

facilities. This was facilitated by the competent skills of the supervisors and supervisory

practices which was be best carried out when supervisors fulfill five important functions

in supervision which include: morale building, coordination, advisory function and the

development function. When supervisory practices were carried out, they led to better

methods of teaching, motivated teachers and learners, consequently leading to

achievement of educational goals in ECD. An combined led to the desired outcome. It

also led to a learner who is holistically nurtured which is indicated by the achievement in

social, psychomotor and cognitive skills. These skills are a prerequisite to entering formal

Fig. 1.2: A model of Supervisory Practices by QASO's in Public Pre- Schools in

Nairobi Province

QASO officers

Supervisory Activities

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Communication "\

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Results in E

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ECD centre climate

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methods

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Motivated teac

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Motivated le

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Pupil outcome Achievement in:

• Social skills for example social interaction and communication.

• Psychomotor skills for example: fine motor and physical activity.

• Cognitive skills for example: language development, classification and ordering.

• Affective skills: can deal with feelings and emotions • Formal school readiness.

1.11 Operational Definition of Terms

Caregiver - Someone who looks after the pre-school children and they may include,

teachers and parents.

Child - A young person below the age of six years.

Early childhood development education - Is education provided to children under the

age of six years where development experiences are provided before start of compulsory

schooling, mainly to meet the child's cognitive, social, moral spiritual, emotional and

physical needs.

Quality Assurance and Standards officers - An educational professional under MoE

who supervise Education Standards, curriculum development and implementation in

schools.

Inspection - Visits to schools for checking facilities; also referred to as assessment.

Pre-school - Refers to the schooling that provides care for young children inreadiness

for primary education, the term will be used interchangeably with kindergarten, nursery,

day care and pre-unit. I'

Quality- It is a measure of degree of excellence and worthiness of pre-school education

geared towards meeting the Kenyan ECD guidelines.

Supervision -This is a process that entails keeping check and monitoring to ensure

C

HAP

TER TWO

REVIEW OF

RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

This chapter contains review of related literature on supervision of Early Childhood Development Education with reference to provision. It focuses on what philosophers, scholars, educationists, researchers and the Ministry of Education have found out concerning Early Childhood Education. The literature review is based on historical development of ECDE in Kenya, policy context of ECDE, supervision of education in . schools: a global review, quality of education, quality assurance in education in Kenya and quality assurance in ECDE.

2.2 Importance of Early Years

Early childhood development is crucial for human capital and formation for enhancing educability of children. These early years, from 0-6 years are critical in development of humans' physical, mental and social aspects. According to World Bank (1997), studies have confirmed that three quarters of a human brain is formed by age five and developmental deficiencies that may occur during this period are difficult to reverse.

who receives extremely poor care or rarely hears language is likely to suffer development

deficits that are difficult to redress (UNESCO, 2006).

Recognition of early years of life is not a new phenomenon, it can be traced back in the

18th century when the first five years were dignified as important stage of human

development as reinforced by Pestlozzi (1827) and Froebel (1852) when they recognized

the natural unfolding of childhood and the role of the home and especially the mother in

early education of the child. The world conference on Education For All (EFA) that took

place in Jomtiem, Thailand in March 1990, articulated the significance of the life of an

individual. These deliberations have been corroborated by various researchers on the

brain development especially Shore Rima (1997), Mustard (1998),0' Doneel (1999) and

Stephens (1999). All these researchers emphasize that the first six years of life are

extremely important (UNESCO/OECD, 2005). According to these studies, early years are

important because:

• The environmental experiences during this period are significant in influencing

one's life. The experiences of this period are known to either enhance or inhibit

realization of ones potential life.

• This is also the fastest period of growth and development in all aspects.

• Development of the brain is most rapid in the early years, by the 2nd year of life

the brain of the child is 70% of adult brain. By six years of age, it reaches 90% of

its adult weight and size. In addition, by the end of six years, the brain of the child

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life time. All that is left is to make these connections permanent through

providing early stimulation and quality care.

• All the 'critical windows of opportunity' are open during this period. These are

the periods when children are able to earn and acquire certain knowledge, skills

and attitudes very quickly within minimal effort. Parents, other caregivers and

teachers need to make use of this period in order to maximize children's holistic

development their potential in life.

• This is the period when the brain IS most malleable and also highly

impressionable. Environmental influences especially care, nurturance and brain

stimulation have the greatest impact on the brain.

• This is the period when it is very easy to mould the character of children by

inculcating social norms, values and habits as well as regulation and control of

emotion.

Good programmes can significantly enhance young children's wellbeing in the formative

years and complement the care received at home. There is one means of guaranteeing the

rights of young children, improving there well-being and repairing them for primary

schools. The immediate and long-term benefits make such programmes cost-effective

strategy for reducing poverty and offsetting disadvantages (UNESCO, 2006). As cited in

the MoEST, UNECSO/OECD Discussion Paper on Early Childhood Policy Framework

for Kenya (2005) because of the proven importance in early years, Kenya would reap

enormous benefits with investment into quality programmes for infants and children.

·

.

1. Increase in productivity at family, community and national levels.

11. Increased opportunities for prenatal and community empowerment.

111. Reduction of poverty since quality early childhood experiences contribute to

more productive human resources since children exposed to such experiences

have better success in school and hence they grow up to get better paying jobs

when they enter the labour market. Such adults have better living standards.

IV. Improved chances for the girl child since girls who enroll in ECD are likely to

proceed to primary school and higher levels of formal education.

v. Reduction of social inequalities since quality early childhood programmes help

children from poor families to get out of the cycle of poverty since stimulating

ECD experiences enhance retention and academic performance hence better

success in school resulting to better paying jobs.

VI. Improved moral values in the communities as a result of increased investment

during this period, will support parents so that they are able to inculcate values

and morals in their children. The window of moral and value training is open

during the early years, when children tend to grow up to be disciplined, well

adjusted socially and morally upright youth and adults.

V11. Improved family welfare since communities and parents acqurre more

knowledge and skills and positive attitudes on various issues related to the

needs and rights of children and their welfare, hence families and community

Vlll. Increased opportunities for parental and community empowerment since ECD

programmes offer very good opportunities for creating awareness on other

development issues, for example those relating to various methods of

improving living standards.

The rapid growth and development does not mean that the child's intelligence is fixed by

the age of five. Psychologists and educational theorists support the view that learning

and development depend on quality stimulation during the early years. Current theories

indicate that there is a much complex interaction between heredity, environment and

experience than was assumed in the past. It follows therefore, that attendance at a

pre-school setting of whatever type might be expected to have some impact on early learning

and development, whether positive or negative. The works of pioneers; Froebel,

Montessori, McMillan and Isaacs all stress on the positive gains from early education.

2.2.1 Studies on the Effects of Attendance in Pre-School Education

IP

area of ECDE have confirmed that the early years of life are critical to the acquisition of

concepts, skills and attitudes and lay the foundation for long life learning. Once a child

fails to receive sufficient educational stimulation from those responsible for her or him in

the vital early years, the lost ground is hard to recover leading to fundamental

programmes that can be traced to poor readiness for fonnal education. This is usually due

Studies conducted on how pre-school education affects an individual's educational

achievement and success have focused on the immediate, short-term effects such as

cognitive, social, emotional and behaviour development. Others have examined medium

term effectiveness such as child's later performance in school and long-term

effectiveness such as qualifications, employment and life chances. Effectiveness is being

measured increasingly by the long-term benefits to the state and society (Smith, 1994).

Research on nursery schools and classes is oriented more towards evaluating gains in

intellectual performance rather than social competence. However, the social skills which

children acquire in early years are essential to their success at school and in life. A broad

overview of research into the effects of pre-school education on educational achievement

and later success of a child in life is provided by Clark (1988), Godenur and Crahy

(1993) and Martin, Moss and Merhuisch (1992). These researchers gathered information

about the children's pre-school experiences and assessed their progress at age 5 and 10.

They concentrated on six types of provisions, three in maintained sector and the other

three in private sector. Overall report concluded that attendance at pre-school resulted in

the child's cognitive ability and educational attainments. There were some statistical I'

differences between the types of provision, but no evidence to suggest that any actually

hindered a child's cognitive development. The authors acknowledged the difficulties of

having to consider so many intervening variables such as; the age at which the child

starts attending school, the frequency of attendance, the number of settings attended,

children's' home lives and backgrounds, socio- economic status, size and stability of the

experience does not rest on a single aspect of the curriculum. The important factor

seemed to be the educational role of the adults, the quality of the curriculum, and the

extent of parental involvement and interest. The findings also suggested that children

from disadvantaged homes were more likely to gain from pre-school provision than their

counterparts.

Similar findings about positive effects of pre-school education on academic achievements

later success in life have been reported from America. In the 1960s there was a prevailing

view that early deprivation was a major cause of later school failure and that

compensatory programmes in the pre-school years would help to break the cycle of

disadvantage and achievement. Under the Head Start Project in America, several

initiatives were funded by the state that predominantly targeted children from the most

disadvantaged families. These children were sponsored to attend pre-school education in

an effort to try to address the problems of social inequality and poverty. Early results

seemed to indicate positive effects with some cognitive gains among the beneficiaries.

Fewer children had to be placed in special schools and the number of children who had to

repeat a year was reduced. Follow-up reports of those who participated in these

I'

programmes indicated they were found to have lower rates of school failure, higher

career aspiration, fewer teenage pregnancies, less drug dependency and lower rates of

involvement in crime (Smith, 1994).

High quality provision in ECDE programmes according to Smith (1994), consistent with

in later phases of schooling. It changes the attitudes, aspirations and expectations. It can

not tackle all the inequalities in the society, but educating the under-fives makes a

difference. This enables all children to develop positive self-images and sense of their

own capabilities and worth. It also matters to the children in their early years and to the

society because children are our future.

2.3 Historical Development of Early Childhood Care and Education (ECDE) in

Kenya

The first recorded school for young children in Kenya was founded at Rabai, a coastal

town in 1886, by the Church Missionary Society. The first early care centres can be

traced to the 1940s when British colonists established centres to serve both the European

and Asian children. During the same period, the colonial government established early

childhood care centres for Kenyan children living on the tea, coffee and sugar

plantations. These centres were set up in response to Mau Mau uprising and struggles for

independence (Eshiwani, 1993). The centres were non-academic childcare settings and

only provided custodial care, a situation that persisted until early 1970s.

A massive expansion of early childhood care and education centres throughout the

I'

country followed Kenyans independence in 1963. The new Kenyan sovereign state

articulated the educational goals as national development "Kenyanization" of the

curriculum, respect for Kenyan culture, social equality and national unity and

collaboration (Eshiwani, 1990, 1993). Next, the Ominde commission of 1964

high-lighted the importance of universal primary education as a basic right. This marked the

Early Childhood Development Education in Kenya expanded rapidly by 1970, the

increasing participation of Kenyan women in the labour force, the growing number of

female -headed households and changing family structures and child-rearing practices

created new demands for external support. During the same period, the government

entered into partnerships with communities and other institutions engaged in provision of

pre-school education in Kenya. These partnerships involved NGOs, parastatals, religious

organizations, The Bernard Van Leer Foundation, The Aga Khan Foundation and

UNICEF. In addition, families and community members provided land for school

buildings and playgrounds and helped to construct and maintain these sites (Bogonko,

1992). Since the mid-1970s, significant government initiatives have emphasized the

importance of providing care and education in pre-schools. Two notable initiatives are

the Gachathi and Kamunge Educational Commissions from 1976 and 1988 respectively,

which play key roles in creating greater recognition of pre-school education within the

Ministry of Education.

In 1984 the MoE established National Centre for Early Childhood Education (NACECE)

a national endeavour aimed at harmonizing the growth, evaluation and oversight of early

I'

childhood education. A year later sub-centres were established at district level, these

centres were called District Centres for Early Childhood Education (DICECE) (MoEST,

UNESCO/OECD. 2005).

Today, a variety of institutions charged with the responsibility of training early childhood

logistical purposes. These institutions range from local training centres (The DICECE) to

National Training Centres (The NACECE) and local universities which offer a range of

programmes to cater for various needs of the ECCE professionals, offering prospective

teachers short courses ,two year diploma courses and bachelors degree, masters and

doctoral programmes in Early Childhood Education.

2.4 The Policy Context of ECDE in Kenya

Provision of ECD services involves households, communities and government as an

integrated development of children. The structure of ECDE provision is divided into two

parts 0 -3 year olds and 4- 5 year old children. For this sub-sector, the MoE policy

focuses on 4-5 year old children with a view to providing a holistic and integrated

programme that meets a child's cognitive, social moral, spiritual, emotional and official

needs. The policy framework proposed to integrate ECDE for 4 - 5 year old children in

the countries formal primary education sub-sector (IPAR, 2008). As reflected in many

official education reports documents such as the presidential working party on education

manpower for the next decade and beyond and national committee on education

objectives. (RoK, 1976, 1988) the government is keenly aware of the importance of

investing in quality care and education for pre-school children. Kenya has continuously

provided resources towards improvement in access through programmes which include

community mobilization, support grounds and health and nutrition. As a result, with

support from the levels at ECDE, training and establishment of centres have increased

According to KESSP 2005 - 2010, the main issues and challenges to be addressed in this

ECDE sub-sector include the need for a comprehensive policy, enhanced access,

adequate financing and training of teachers. The government is to continue to address

these issues within its policy of promoting the development and management of EDCE

through partnership with households, communities and the private sector. The

government was to work with it's stakeholders to develop an overall ECDE policy that

would incorporate a legal and comprehensive national ECDE framework to guide the

development and management of ECD programmes. It was also to intensify programmes

for capacity building and resource mobilization to empower communities and other

stakeholders to develop ECDE facilities and to provide efficient management. In

particular, the government is to provide within KESSP investment support for training of

teachers, targeted support grants to poor communities, to expand and improve ECDE

services based on agreed criteria and implementation plans in order to ensure that

benefits go to the children enrolled in ECDE programmes (RoK, 2005).

The Sessional Paper No.1 of 2005 on a policy framework for education, training and

research pointed out that the government is already implementing measures that seek to

I'

improve the performance of the ECDE sub-sector. These include: establishing guidelines and standards for the management, supervision and curriculum development for ECDE;

establishing of NACECE and DICECE for the purposes of in-servicing teachers and

training trainers; mobilizing communities and parents through awareness creation and

providing community support grants to support marginalized and vulnerable communities

enhance quality at this level include: implementing a 2-year in-service training

programme for ECDE teachers; mounting a 9-month training of trainers' course;

developing supervisors and inspectors to ensure the quality of ECDE programmes and

equipping NACECE. The Sessional Paper also recommended the development of a

comprehensive ECD policy framework and service standard guidelines.

Efforts have been made towards developing consolidated ECD policy by MoE with the

support of UNICEF and UNESCO. It is gratifying to note that the early childhood draft

policy framework for Kenya has been developed although the process seemed to be

overtaken by events when the government declared free primary education in early

2003 followed by the restructuring of the Ministry. The key partners in ECDE include

local authorities, religious organizations, NGOs and external donors whose roles are spelt

out in the draft policy. According to RpK (2006), this draft policy stipulates the following

strategies in dealing with challenges in ECDE:

• Pre-school education services in the country be provided through the process of cost

sharing while the ministry will continue to give professional guideline and expertise

I' to the programme. Partners will undertake other responsibilities including the

provision of personnel and physical facilities. Pre-school education services in the

country can best be provided through decentralized approach which will take place

through the framework of the establishment of the DICECE.

• Training and ratification of pre-school teachers will be undertaken by the MoE in

many pre-school teachers as possible through a decentralized in-service mode of

training which is cost-effective and more relevant to the needs of the teachers, children, parents and community. For the purpose of quality control in matters relating to certification of the pre-school teachers, the Ministry of Education will be the only ministry that will award pre-school teachers certificates in the country. The chief QASO of schools will have a discretion of equating certificates awarded by other institutions or organizations, the certificates awarded before this regulation also be equated so as to harmonize them with the regulation.

• Employment and salary structure of pre-school teachers should be done in accordance with the current local authorities salary structure as recommended by the National joint negotiating council. The council will incorporate all the local authorities in

Kenya and can only be operationalized by inter-ministerial forum between the Ministry of Education, the local government, treasury and the directorate of personnel management.

• Curriculum development at pre-school level is to be facilitated by KIE with the inception ofNACECE/DICECE programme by mobilizing field teams in developing

I' local materials based on Kenyan oral traditions, card games and graphic materials including manipulative materials that are concrete to engage in meaningful play.

• Health and nutrition of pre-school children should be adequately catered for by encouraging DICECE trainers to liaise with relevant service departments including

health personnel nutritionists and other extension workers in the district to ensure that

inducted in primary health care within the framework of child to child, child to adult

and adult to adult approach.

• Research and evaluation in pre-school be conducted to ensure that pre-school programmes are based on sound empirical data, it is possible to collect data

continuously which is ploughed back into the programme and is used to correct

errors and also to strengthen any weaknesses detected in the programme.

• Registration and supervision governments policy is that the public take responsibility of establishing and maintain educational institutions. For this reason, the various

sponsors who offer pre-school education will continue to establish and maintain pre-school institutions.

Pursuant to the government of Kenya's Sessional Paper No. 1 of 2005 on a policy

framework for education training research, a comprehensive Early Childhood

Development (ECD) policy framework and service standard guidelines have been

developed. The policy framework provides a co-ordination mechanism and explicitly

defines the role of parents, communities, various government ministries and departments,

development partners and other stakeholders in the provision of ECD services.

~ .

Development of this policy framework has taken into cognizance the critical role of

investing in young children in order to achieve the millennium development goals

(MDGs) of poverty reduction, maternal mortality and creation of gender equality (RoK,

2006).

The National early childhood development policy framework (2006) targets all children

are four categories: conception to birth, 0 -3 years, 3- 6 years and 6 - 8 years. Special

attention must be focused on providing for needs and rights of the vulnerable and

marginalized young children in ASAL including those with special needs. The policy

framework also targets primary care-givers of these children and communities who need

empowerment in the provision of better services for these children.

The main objectives of this policy framework include: to ensure that quality services for

infants and children are accessible and affordable to all children, including the

vulnerable, disabled and marginalized; to promote and strengthen partnerships and

collaboration among all stakeholders involved in the provision of services and

programmes for children; to mobilize resources to provide quality services to all young

children; to provide standards and quality assurance guidelines for enhancement of

quality and efficiency.

The comprehensive policy framework is important because it will help to: regulate the

provision of services for infants and children, guide the activities of various partners in

the provision of services for young children; amalgamate and harmonize all policy

I'

statements to ensure better co-ordination in the provision of services and better utilization

of resources; address the gaps in the existing policy guidelines for instance, there's no

central organization mandated to register ECDE centre, there are no data on management

However, there are policy concerns in EDCE in Kenya. Despite the progress made in the

sub-sector, management of this important area has been wanting. The provision of ECDE

services especially for those children aged 0 -3 years has not been well co-ordinated.

Although government Ministries are said to be involved, there has not been reliable data

on access to services provided by different players both in the public and private sector.

Implementation, monitoring and evaluation have not been effective especially in public

ECD centres. With the rising poverty levels in Kenya, there are disparities in accessing

ECDE services leading to severe regional inequalities especially in Arid and Semi-Arid

land (ASAL), (UNESCO, 2005). The Sessional Paper No.1 of2005 on policy framework

on education also pointed out lack of clear policy on transition from pre-primary to

primary as one of the challenges in EDCE.

2.5 Supervision of Education in Schools: A Global View

School supervision and support services are a crucial element in improving the quality of

basic education. These services although existing in almost every country, have been

severely neglected by policy makers. This policy neglect has been reflected by a similar

indifference among researchers. Indeed, the most recent comprehensive study on

education supervision in developing countries dates from mid, 1970s (Lyons and

Pritchard, 1976). In the recent years however, changes in education management have

fundamentally affected supervision and support services and this has contributed to a

In both developing and developed countries, education policy makers have shifted their

attention from expansion issues to quality issues, since 1980s. This focus on schools has

led to important reforms in the administration of education and led to increased interest in

mechanisms of quality control resulting in a serious questioning of traditional supervision

services. Most European countries set up their school supervision systems generally

known as the inspectorate. These agencies have a core responsibility in the development

of modem education systems. Their task was not only to supervise the implementation of

rules and regulations but also to carry out functions such as guidance, information and

stimulation. The ultimate objective of inspection was to improve education quality

(Gabriel & Anton, 1987). These inspectors were members of the most famous

supervision service known as England's Her Majesty's Inspectorate founded in 1934.

These became a model for quite a number of developing countries.

France's inspection system, whose background goes back even further to the French

Revolution has been copied by several of its colonies. Gabriel and Anton (1987) note that

Algeria, for instance, retains much of French inspection practice. Pakistan and Zambia on

the other hand tend to follow English inspection practice. In most countries, school

,.

support services which include school visits in their job description do not date back so

far. In England, for instance, the first such service was given in 1902.

Throughout the history of supervision, services have undergone various changes subject

mainly to the political environment and the wider reforms in education. School and

teacher supervisors have indeed been a political and politicized issue in quite a number of

instance, school was one of the main battlefields of the anti- apartheid struggle.

Inspectors and more surprisingly, subject advisers were seen as instruments of control

and oppression (Lyons & Pritchard, 1997). While in all countries the objectives of school

supervision and support is to improve the quality of education, most ministries of

education will list, as their primary task, the monitoring of what goes on in schools. In

Spain, for instance, the first function of the inspectorate is to "ensure that the laws,

regulations and any other legal dispositions of educational administration are fulfilled in

schools and services". In Thailand, two groups of inspectors exist whose task is almost

exclusively to monitor the implementation of the ministry policy (Watson, 1994).

In all countries therefore, the foremost task of supervisor is not to surprise schools. Job

description details the number of school visits to be undertaken. In Indiana for instance,

the norms prescribe that every school is inspected once a year and visited two to three

times a year by their inspecting officer (Gabriel & Anton, 1997). A trend to assign

teacher supervision to the head of school and to request supervision of staff to focus on

the school evaluation is spreading. Some countries have considered teacher inspection to

be the prerogative of the school director. In Burundi, MoE policies require the directors to make 150 visits per year and file written reports with the school inspectors on what

they have observed. However, in several, countries, Thailand, Russia and Japan, it

remains the task of local level inspectors to supervise teachers (Watson, 1994).

Some countries separate administrative supervision from pedagogical supervision, for

to sustain, it is not easy to classify duties as either professional or educational and those which are managerial or administrative in nature. Clearly, an inspector visiting a school may well perform both kinds of duty for example collecting statistical data or looking into problems of supply of materials or staffing and building problems and in the same visit inspecting the work of particular classes or teachers (Lyons and Pritchard, 1997).

The disappointing performance of many external supervision services has led to the

prospect of moving away this type of external supervision and support or limiting its role by placing emphasis on in - school quality monitoring devices. Only a few countries have implemented such profound reforms. In New Zealand, England, Iceland and Scandinavian countries supervision without an external inspection service already exists. In Denmark, primary schools are not visited by external authorities. The school plans have to be approved by the municipal council but monitoring is done mainly through the

school council, the headteacher and the staff itself. The headteacher is responsible for the school administration and will observe classroom teaching only in the case of new

teachers or those who have particular problems. Each private school however is attached to an inspector chosen by the parents or appointed by the municipality (Gabriel & Anton,

"

1997).

School supervision is necessary because many basic problems can only be solved properly and monitored at school level. Occasional visits by school inspectors can not prevent the problems and the gradual deteriorating of the schools. Daily function