ITC 4 MBA-I Evening

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4.1 Microchips,

Miniaturization, & Mobility



_{Vacuum Tubes}

 Vacuum tubes were the original logic gates of computers; they

controlled the flow of electricity in circuits.

 _{They looked like light bulbs, were hot, and burned out quickly.}  A circuit is a closed path that can be flowed by electric current.



_{Transistors Replaced Vacuum Tubes}

 _{The original transistors, tiny electronic switches, were 1/100}th

the size of vacuum tubes (less power used, faster, more reliable)

 Transistors form part of an integrated circuit--all the parts of an

electronic circuit embedded on a single silicon chip.



_{Silicon & Semiconductors}



Silicon: A semiconductor made of clay and sand



Semiconductor: A material whose electrical properties

are intermediate between a good conductor and a

nonconductor of electricity

 _{Perfect underlayer for highly conductive, complex circuits}  Microchips (Microprocessors) are made from

semiconductors



Chip: A tiny piece of silicon that contains millions of

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4.1 Microchips,

Miniaturization, & Mobility



_{Miniaturization Miracles}



Microchips

 _{Store and process data in electronic devices}



Microprocessors

 The miniaturized circuitry of an entire computer processor

(“brain”) on a single chip

 _{Contains the central processing unit (CPU), which}

processes data into information



The development of microchips and processors has

enabled the development of small, mobile electronic

devices.

Binary System: the basic data-representation method for computers uses just two numbers: 0 and 1, representing the off/on states of electricity or light pulses.

 All data and program instructions in the computer are

represented as binary

 _{Bit: each 0 or 1 is a bit}

 Byte: a group of 8 bits = 1 character, digit, or other value  Kilobyte: 1,000 (1,024) bytes

 Megabyte: 1 Million (1,048,576) bytes  Gigabyte: 1 Billion (1,073,741,824) bytes

 Terabyte: 1 Trillion (1,009,511,627,576) bytes  Petabyte: 1 quadrillion bytes

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4.2 The System Unit: The

Basics



_{Binary coding schemes assign a unique binary code to}

each character.

 EBCDIC

 Requires 8 bits per character  Used for IBM mainframes  ASCII

 Requires 7 or 8 bits per character, depending on the version  8 bit Extended ASCII provides 256 characters

 Commonly used for microcomputers  Unicode

 Requires 16 bits per character

 Handles 65,536 characters—used for Chinese and Japanese



_{Machine Language}



A binary-type programming language (0s and 1s) built

into the CPU that is run directly by the computer



Each CPU type has its own machine language



_{Language Translators}



The computer’s system software converts higher-level

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4.2 The System Unit: The

Basics

Computer Terms

Opening in the computer cabinet used for the installation of electrical equipment.

This converts AC to DC to run the computer.

Protects the computer from being damaged by power spikes. Plug your computer into one.

Protects a computer against brownouts or low power conditions that happen a lot in summer.

Uninterruptible Power Supply. Battery-operated device that provides power for a limited time when there is a blackout. The main system board of the computer (also systemboard). The miniaturized circuitry of a computer processor.

Groups of interconnected chips on the motherboard that control information flow between the microprocessor and other system components connected to the motherboard.



_{Two main types of microprocessors are made for}

microcomputers--one for PCs and one for Macs.



_{Microprocessor manufacturers are Intel, AMD,}

Motorola/Freescale, and IBM.



_{Multicore processors have more than one processor}

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4.2 The System Unit: The

Basics

 _{Processing Speeds}

 Every microprocessor has a system clock built in that controls the chip’s

processing speed.

 Older CPU processing speeds are in megahertz

 _{1 MHz = 1 million cycles per second}

 _{Current CPU processing speeds are in gigahertz}

 _{1 GHz = 1 billion cycles per second}

 _{The faster a CPU runs, the more power it consumes, and the more heat it}

generates



_{Processing Speeds (}

_continued

₎



Workstation and mainframe speeds are measured in

MIPS

 MIPS stands for millions of instructions per second  _{Workstations perform at 100 MIPS or more}

 Mainframes now perform as fast as 981,024 MIPS



Supercomputer processing speed is measured in

flops

 Flops stands for floating-point operations per second

 _{Los Alamos Lab’s new Roadrunner has a speed of 1,105}

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4.3 More on the System

Unit

Parts of the CPU

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Definition

The number of bits the processor can process at any one time

The central processing unit (chip) has two parts; the control unit and the ALU

The part of the CPU that deciphers instructions and carries them out

The part of the CPU that performs mathematical and logical operations

High-speed storage areas that temporarily store data during processing



_Memory



Two type of storage: primary and secondary

 _{Primary storage = “memory,” “main memory,” “RAM”; this}

type of memory is temporary and volatile

 Secondary storage = “storage” disks and tape; this type of

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4.3 More on the System

Unit

How Memory Works

Primary Memory Chips RAM

ROM

CMOS

Flash

Explanation

Random Access Memory chips are volatile and hold:

a. Software instructions

b. Data before & after the CPU processes it

Read Only Memory

a. Cannot be written on or erased without special

equipment

b. Are loaded at factory with fixed (permanent)

start-up instructions (BIOS), that tell the computer how to load the operating system

Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor

a. Powered by a battery

b. Contains time, date, calendar, boot password

Nonvolatile memory that can be erased and reprogrammed more than once

a. Doesn’t require a battery

b. Used in newer PCs for BIOS instructions

RAM Chip Types DRAM SDRAM SRAM DDR-SDRAM SIMM DIMM Explanation

1. Dynamic RAM must be constantly refreshed by the

CPU or it loses its contents

2. Synchronous Dynamic RAM is synchronized by the

system clock and is much faster than DRAM

3. Static RAM is faster than DRAM and retains its

contents without having to be refreshed by CPU

4. Double-data rate synchronous dynamic RAM; type

used most commonly in microcomputers

5. Single Inline Memory Module has RAM chips on

only one side; insert in expansion slot to increase RAM

6. Dual Inline Memory Module has chips on both

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4.3 More on the System

Unit



_{Speeding up Processing: Cache}



The CPU works much faster than RAM, so it often must

wait for information



Cache temporarily stores instructions and data that the

processor uses frequently to speed up processing

 _{Level 1 cache is part of the microprocessor}  _{Holds 8 to 256 kb}

 _{Faster than Level 2 cache}  _{Level 2 cache is external cache}

 _{Holds 64 kb to 2 Mb}

 Level 3 cache is on the motherboard  Comes on very high-end computers



_{Virtual Memory—also used to speed up processing}



This type of memory is unused hard disk or optical (CD)

space that the processor uses to extend the capacity of

RAM



The processor goes first to L1 cache, then L2 cache,

then RAM, then virtual memory

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4.3 More on the System

Unit

Speeding up Processing

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

_{Additional Methods of Speeding up Processing}



Interleaving

Bursting



Pipelining



_{A port is a connecting socket or jack on the}

outside of the computer unit into which are

plugged different kinds of cables

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4.3 More on the System

Unit

Ports

Used to transmit data slowly over long distances

a. Sends data sequentially, one bit at a time b. Used to connect keyboard, mouse, monitors,

dial-up modems

For transmitting data quickly over short distances

a. Transmits 8 bytes simultaneously

b. Connects printers, external disks, tape

backups

Small Computer System Interface

a. Connects up to 7 devices in a daisy chain b. Transmits data 32 bits at a time

Universal Serial Bus can theoretically connect up to 127 peripheral devices in a daisy chain



_USB



Goals

 _{Be low-cost}

 Be able to connect lots of devices  _{Be hot swappable}

 People hate rebooting after connecting new devices, because it

takes time

 _{Hot swapping means a device can be connected/disconnected}

without rebooting  Permit plug and play

 _{Devices are automatically configured when they are installed –}

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4.3 More on the System

Unit



_{USB (}

_continued

₎

 Standards

 _{USB 1.1--the original standard}

 _{USB 2.0--the current standard for new PCs}  _{USB 3.0–for high-end computers}

 USB OTG (On the GO) is used for small peripherals, such as

cellphones  _Connectors

 A--in USB Type 1.1 and 2.0  B--in USB Type 1.1 and 2.0  Mini B–in USB Type 2.0  _{Mini A–in USB OTG}

Port Type FireWire MIDI IrDA Bluetooth Ethernet Multimedia Description

Intended for devices working with lots of data; used for camcorders, DVD players, TVs

Musical Instrument Digital Interface

a. Connects musical instruments

b. Used in creating, recording, editing, performing music

Infrared Data Association: Infrared ports used to make a cableless connection

Uses short-range radio waves that transmit up to 30 ft; connects computers to printers, keyboards, headsets, and other devices

The standard for linking all devices in a Local Area Network

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4.3 More on the System

Unit

Expansion Cards



_{If a computer uses closed architecture, no expansion}

cards can be added; if the computer uses open

architecture, expansion cards can be inserted in

expansion slots inside the computer, connected to the

motherboard.

Bus PCI bus

AGP bus

PCIe Express bus

Expansion cards connect with different types of buses on the motherboard.

Description

Peripheral Component Interconnect

a. For high-speed connections b. 32 or 64 bits wide

c. Typically used for sound cards, modems,

high-speed network cards Accelerated Graphics Port

a. Twice the speed of PCI bus

b. Supports video and 3-D graphics cards

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4.3 More on the System

Unit

Examples of Some Expansion

Cards



_{Types of Expansion Cards}



Graphics cards (for monitors)

 _{Also called a video card, video RAM (VRAM), or video}

adapter

 Converts signals from computer into video signals that can

be displayed as images on a monitor



Sound cards (for speakers and audio output)

 _{Used to convert and transmit digital sounds through analog}

speakers, microphones, and headsets



Modem cards (for remote communication via phone

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4.3 More on the System

Unit



_{Types of Expansion Cards (}

_continued

₎



Network interface cards (for remote communication via

cable)

 Allows the transmission of data over a cable network



PC cards (for laptop computers)

 _{Thin, credit card-size flash memory devices used principally}

on laptop computers to expand capabilities

Storage Types Descriptions

Floppy disks Removable disks; Floppies store 1.44 MB; mostly obsolete, except on legacy systems

Hard disks Made from thin rigid metal covered with magnetizable substrate. Most disks have 2 or more platters

Optical disks Removable CDs and DVDs

Magnetic tape Thin plastic tape coated with magnetizable substance

Smart Cards Like a credit card, but contains a microprocessor and memory chips

Flash memory Nonvolatile memory – no moving parts

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4.4 Secondary Storage



_{Floppy Disks}



Flat piece of mylar plastic inside a 3.5” plastic case

Store about 1.44 MB



_{Data is recorded in tracks: concentric recording bands}

Formatting breaks the tracks into small wedge-shaped

sectors



Read/Write head transfers data between the computer

and disk



Not used much any more, except on some legacy

systems



_{Hard Disks}



Thin, rigid metal, glass, or ceramic platters covered with

a substance that allows data to be held in the form of

magnetized spots

 _{The more platters there are, the higher the drive capacity}  _{Store data in tracks, sectors, and clusters}

 _{Formatting creates a file allocation table that maps files to}

clusters or inodes

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4.4 Secondary Storage



_{Hard Disks (}

_continued

₎



Hard Disk Types:

 _{External Hard Disk – a freestanding disk drive}

 _{Removable Hard Disk – inserted into a bay or a cartridge} drive built into the computer’s system unit



Hard Disk Controllers – special circuit boards that control

the read/write heads and manage the flow of data to and

from the hard disk

 EIDE – Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics (e.g., SATA)  SCSI – Faster than EIDE controllers

 Fibre Channel – Used in large servers – faster and costlier than SCSI



_{Optical Disks}



CDs (compact disks) and DVDs (digital versatile/video

disks) are optical disks



Data is written and read using lasers, not a disk

read/write head

 _{CD-ROM is Compact Disk Read-Only Memory}

 CD-R (compact disk-recordable) is used for recording only

once

 _{CD-RW (compact disk-rewritable)is an erasable optical disk}

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4.4 Secondary Storage



_{Optical Disks (}

_continued

₎



DVD is a CD-style disk with extremely high capacity



DVD-R (DVD-recordable) is used for recording only once

_{DVD-RW, DVD-RAM, DVD+RW are reusable DVDs}



Blu-ray is an optical-disk format used to record, rewrite,

and play back high-definition (HD) video, as well as to

store large amounts of data.



_{Magnetic Tape}



Thin plastic tape coated with a substance that can be

magnetized

 Store terabytes of data

 _{Used in the form of tape cartridges}

 Still popular for large backups because of their large data

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4.4 Secondary Storage



_{Smart Cards}



Resembles a credit card, but contains a microprocessor

and memory chips

 May function on three levels: credit, debit, and/or personal

information

 Storage capacity: around 10 MBs  _{Contact smart cards}

 _{Must be swiped through card readers}  Can wear out from use

 Contactless smart cards

 _{Read when held in front of a low-powered laser}

 _{Flash Memory}

 Nonvolatile memory with no moving parts

 Available as:

 _{Flash memory cards}

 _{Insert these into a flash port of a camera, handheld PC, smartphone}  _{Flash memory sticks}

 _{A form of flash memory that plugs into a memory stick port in, for}

example, a digital camera, camcorder, photo printer

 _{Flash memory drives (keychain drives)}  _{A finger-sized module of flash memory}

 _{Plugs into the USB port of most PCs and Macintoshes}  Solid-state memory drives

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4.4 Secondary Storage



_{Online Secondary Storage (Cloud Storage)}



Allows you to use the internet to back up your data

 _{Sign up with a vendor and receive access to software that}

allows you to upload your data to that company’s server

New Technology Description of Processing Technology Application

Virtualization

Doing processing online instead of buying one’s own software and some hardware.

Nanotechnology Tiny machines work at a molecular level to make nanocircuits

Optical Computing Uses lasers and light, not electricity

DNA Computing Uses strands of synthetic DNA to store data Quantum Computing Based on quantum mechanics and stores

information using particle states

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4.5 Future Developments in

Processing & Storage



_{Future Developments in Secondary Storage}



Higher-density disks

 _{Perpendicular recording technology: stacking magnetic bits}

vertically on the surface of a platter (instead of horizontally, as usual)

 Molecular electronics– storage at the subatomic level  Holograms, molecular magnets, bacteria