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da r

d

s o

f

t

h

e

N

o rt

h

C

a r o

l i

n a

D

e_pa rt

m

e nt o

f E

n v

ir o r

m

i ent a n

d N

atu r a

l R

e s o u r c e s

2 5

8

.

C

o

m

p

a r

i

s o n o

f T yp i

c a

l

M

B R E f fl

u e nt

Q

u a

l i

t y to

St

an

d

a r

d

s

f

o r

R

ec

l

a

i m

e

d

W

ate r

i

n

N

o r th Ca r o

l i

n a

2

7

9

.

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u ent

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u a

l i

t y o

f

M

B R F

ac

i l i

t

y

at

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a u

le

y C

r e e

k

,

D

u

lu

t

h

,

G

a

2 9

10

.

E

x a

m

p

le s o

f A d

v a n c e

d T

r e at

m

e nt

b

y

M

e

m b

r ane T e c

h

no

l

og y

f

o r

W

ate r

R

e c

l

a

m

ation

in

the

So u

t

h

e a ste r n

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e_g

io n

o

f

t

h

e

U

.

S

2 9

1 1.

C

o

m

_p

a r

i

son o

f

W

ate r

R

ec

la

m

at

io n

i

n

N

o r th Car o

l i

na to a

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e

w

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ate s

3 0

12

.

A

s s u

m

p

t

i

o n s o

f A

v era

g

e

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ate r

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s a

g

e

R

ate s

P

e r

C

a

p i

ta

B

a s e

d

o n Data

Pr o v

i d

e

d b

_y

M

etc a

l f & E d d

_y

(

2 0 0 5

)

an

d

D

e

O

reo et a

l

.

(

19 9 6

)

3 9

13.

A

v e r age a n

d

M

a x

im

u

m

W

ate r

A g

e

in

Po

ta

b le

W

ate r D

i

str

i b

ut

i

o n

Sy

ste

m

s 4

5

14

.

A

v e r a

g

e an

d

M

a x

im

u

m

W

ate r

A g

e

in

W

ate r Re c

l

a

m

at

i

on

D i

str

i b

ut

i

o n

S

_y ste

m

4 9

15

.

E

sti

m

ate

d C

o st

p

e r u n

it

le n

g t

h

a n

d w

e

i gh

t o

f p i

pe

m

ate r

i

a

l

5

1

16

.

C

o st

E

st

im

ates

f

or

E

x

i

st

i

n

g P l

an an

d R

e us e

O p

t

i

ons

A

an

d B

52

17

.

S

pr ay

I

r r

i g

at

i

o n

L

an

d

Ar e a

S

a v

i

n

g

s

C

a

lc

u

l

at

i

on s

18

.

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o st

Sa

v

i

n

g

s

in

Sp

ra

y I

r

ri g

at

i

o n

E q

u

i p

m

e nt,

P

er ce nt

Sa v

i

n_gs

i

n La n

d A

r e a

f

o r

S

_pr a_{y I}r

ri

_gat

i

on o

f

E

fi fl

u e nt

a n

d R

e_qu

i

r e

d St

o ra

_g

e

V

o

l

u

m

e

5 6

19

.

O ff

s ets o

f D

ua

l

W

ate r

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n

g Sy

ste

m

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o sts

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e s u

l

t

in

g fr

o

m

R

e

d

uction

in

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r a

_y

Ir

_{ri g}

ation

_{E q}

u

i p

m

ent an

d S

_pra

_y

Ir

_ri

_gat

i

on

L

an

d A

r e a 5 7

A l

.

P i

pe s e ct

i

o n

l

e ng t

h

s a n

d d i

a

m

ete r s

i

n t

h

e

R

e u s e

D i

st

ri b

ut

io n

S yste

m

6 9

A 2

.

P i p

e s e ct

i

on

l

e n

g

t

h

s a n

d d i

a

m

ete r s

i

n t

h

e

P

ota

b le

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st

ri b

ut

i

on

S

_yste

m

in

the

E

x

i

st

i

n_g

P l

an

72

A 3

.

P i p

e s e ct

i

o n

l

e n

g

t

h

s an

d d i

a

m

eters

in

t

h

e

P

ota

b le

D i

stri but

i

on

S

_yste

m

in

O

_{p t}

io n

A

7

3

A 4.

P i

pe s e ct

i

o n

l

e ng t

h

s a n

d d i

a

m

ete r s

i

n t

h

e Pota

b le

D

i

stri but

i

o n

S

_yste

m

in

O p

t

io

n

B

7

4

A 5

.

P

e r

C

a

p i

ta

Pe r

D

a

y I

n

d

o o r an

d O

ut

d

o o r

W

ate r

U

s age

f

o r 1

2

U

.

S

.

C it

i

e s

(

D

e

O

reo et a

l

_,

19 9 6

)

7 5

B 1

.

P

r e s s u r e s

in

Re u s e

D i

st

ri b

ution

S

yste

m

f

o r

R

e s

i d

entia

l F i

r e

E

vents at

Se

l

e cte

d N

o

d

e s

79

B 2

.

P

r e s s u r e s

i

n

R

e u s e

D i

st

ri b

ut

i

o n

S

yste

m

f

o r

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onun e r c

i

a

l F i

r e

A

c

k

n o

w l

e

d g

m

e n

t

s

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e

h

e

l p p

r o v

i d

e

d b

_y t

h

e

d

e v e

lo

_p

e r o

f B ri

a r

C h

a

_p

e

l

_, a n

d

t

h

o s e c

lo s e

to t

h

e

d

e v e

lo

_p

m

e nt,

w

a s v

i

ta

l

to t

h

e c o

m

p l

et

io n

o

f

t

h i

s

p

r o

j

e ct.

S

pe c

i fi

c a

l l

y,

I w

o u

l d l i k

e t

h

a n

k

E d T i

m

o n e_y,

fr

o

m

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e

w l

a n

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o

m

m

u n

i

t

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d C hri

s

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n

d

t,

fr

o

m

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o

h

n R .

M

c

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a

m

s, In c.,

f

or

_p

rov

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n

_{g m}

e

w i

t

h

a

l l

t

h

e

_{p l}

a n s a n

d i

n

f

o r

m

at

i

o n

I

n e e

_d

e

_d

an

d

m

a

k in

_g

s u r e t

h

at I

w

a s

a

b l

e to o v e r c o

m

e an

_{y i}

s s ues.

W

e

i d

o n

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an_g

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d

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d

e a

l

o

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e

l p w i

t

h

t

h

e

m

o

d

e

l i

n_g a n

d

a n a

l

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i

s o

f

t

h

e

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st

ri b

ut

i

o n n et

w

o r

k

_,

i

n a

d d i

t

i

o n to _pr a ct

ic a

l

a s_pe cts o

f d

e s

i

_gn

in

_g a s_yste

m

f

o r a

c o

m

m

i

m i

t_y.

I

a

m

g

r ate

fi

i

l f

o r

h i

s

h

e

l p w i

t

h E P A N

E

T 2

an

d h i

s

w i l l i

ngne s s to

m

e et

w i

t

h

m

e

w h

e n

I

n e e

d

e

d

.

T h

a n

k

s a re a

l

s o

d

ue to

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h

n

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r e e n e

fr

o

m

O

W

A SA

,

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a n

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m

e r

fr

o

m B l

a c

k

a n

d

V e atc

h

,

S

e an Fa r

l

ey

fr

o

m U S

P

i

pe an

d Fo u

n

d

ry

C

o ., Br a n

d

on

S

m

i

t

h fr

o

m

H D Su

p

p l

y

W

ate r

w

o r

k

s, a n

d S

tep

h

e n

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a

m b fr

o

m

t

h

e

N i

c

k

e

l

In st

i

tute.

I e s_pe c

i

a

l l

_y

w

o u

l d l i k

e to t

h

a n

k D

r.

D i G i

a no a n

d

Dr .

O k

un

f

o r

g i

v

i

n

g

m

e t

h

e

o

_{p p}

ortu n

i

t

_y

to

w

o r

k

on t

h i

s_pr o

_j

e ct.

I

gr e at

l

y ap pr e c

i

ate a

l l

t

h

e

i

r gu

i d

anc e,

i

n a

d d i

t

i

o n to

t

h

e

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at

i

e n c e t

h

e_y s

h

o

w

e

d d

u

ri

n

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m

_y

t

i

m

e at

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I

v a

l

u e a

l l

t

h

at

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a ve

le a r n e

d fr

o

m

t

h

e

m

,

i

n a

d d i

t

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o n to a

l l

t

h

e

f

a c u

l

ty an

d

sta

ff

o

f

t

h

e En v

ir o n

m

e nta

l Sc

i

e n c e s an

d

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n

_{g i}

nee

ri

n

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e

_p

a rtme nt t

h

at

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av e

h

a

d

t

h

e c

h

anc e to

m

e et

w h i l

e

h

e r e

i

n

C h

a_pe

l H i l l

.

I

a

l

s o

w

ou

l d l i k

e to t

ha n

_{k m y f}

a

m

i l

_y an

d f ri

e n

d

s

f

o r

_p

r o v

i d i

n_{g t h}e s u_{p p}o rt

I

I

n

t

r o

d

u c

t

i

o n

Re_gu

l

at

i

ons at t

h

e

l

o c a

l

a n

d

state

l

e v e

l i

n t

h

e

U

.

S

.

d i

ctate t

h

e s

i

z e o

f w

ate r

d i

st

ri b

ut

i

o n s

_y

ste

m

m

a

i

n s

b

a s e

d

on

m

e et

i

n

_g

t

h

e

f i

r e

d

e

m

a n

d

c o

d

e. T

h

e r e a r e s eve r a

l

m

et

h

o

d

s to

d

ete r

m i

n e t

h

e s

i

z e r e

_q

u

i

r e

m

e nts, s u c

h

a s t

h

e Ins u r a n c e

S

e r v

i

c e O

ffi

c e

M

et

h

o

d

(

A w w

a

R F

a n

d K i w

a,

2 0 0 2

)

,

b

ut

i

n

g

e n e r a

l

, t

h

e p

i

pe

d i

a

m

ete r s a r e

b

a s e

d

on c a

l

c u

l

at

i

o n s

t

h

at

d

ete r

m i

n e

h

o

w

m

uc

h w

ate r

m

u st

b

e a v a

i l

a

b l

e

i

n t

h

e s_yste

m

to ex t

i

n

_g

u

i

s

h fi

r e s

i

n

r e s

i d

ent

i

a

l

a n

d

c o

m

m

e r c

i

a

l b

u

i l d i

n

_g

s.

T h

ese r e

g

u

l

at

i

o n s

d

o not c ons

i d

e r t

h

e

q

u an t

i

t

y

o

f

w

ater actua

_{l l y}

ne e

d

e

d

to a

d

e

_q

u ate

_{l y}

s u

_{p p l}

_y

d ri

n

k i

n

_{g w}

ate r

d

e

m

an

d

.

A

s a r e s u

l

t, t

h

e

p i

pe

d i

a

m

ete r s

i

n

d i

st

ri b

ut

i

o n s

_y

ste

m

s a r e

f

a r

l

ar_ger t

h

a n r e

_q

u

i

r e

d f

o r t

h

e

d

e

m

an

d i

n s

m

a

l l

- t_o

m

e

d i

u

m

-s

i

z e c o

m m

u n

i

t

i

e s an

d

e v e n

i

n t

h

e o ute r, s u

b

u r

b

an a r e a s o

f l

a rge c

i

t

i

e s

(

O k

un,

1

9 9

7,

2 0 0 6

)

.

A l l

o

w

a n c e o

f fi

r e

d

e

m

a n

d

a

l

s o c a u s e s t

h

e

w

ate r r e s

i d

e n c e t

i

m

e

₍

o

ft

e n r e

f

e r r e

d

to

a s "

w

ater a

_g

e"

)

i

n t

h

e

d i

st

ri b

ut

i

on s

_y

ste

m

to

b

e

f

a r

l

o n

_g

er t

h

a n n e c es s ar

_{y b}

ec ause t

h

e

v e

l

o c

i

t y o

f w

ate r

i

s s

l

o

w

e r

i

n _p

i

_pe s

w i

t

h d i

a

m

ete r s _gr e ate r t

h

a n n e e

d

e

d

to a c c o

m m

o

d

ate

t

h

e

d

a

i l y w

ate r

d

e

m

a n

d

r ate

(

A

W W

A

,

2 0 0 5

)

.

C

o n s

i d

er a

b l

e r e s e a r c

h h

a s s

h

o

w

n t

h

at

l

o ng

w

ate r a

_g

e

h

a s s eve r a

l

n e_ga_t

i

v e e

ff

e cts on

w

ate r

_q

u a

l i

t

_y

,

i

nc

l

u

d i

n

g

a

d

e c r e a s e

i

n

d i

s

i

n

f

e ctan t r e s

i d

u a

l

,

p

r o

d

uct

i

o n o

f

ta ste a n

d

o

d

o r c a use

d b

y

m

i

c r o

b i

a

l

r egr ow t

h

, a n

i

n cr e as e

i

n t

h

e conce ntrat

i

on o

f h

ar

m

fi

i

l d i

s

i

n

f

e c t

i

on

by

-pr o

d

ucts,

p

o ss

i b l

e re

g

r o

w

t

h

o

f

h

a r

m

f

u

l b

acte

ri

a a n

d

a n

i

n c r e a s e

i

n t

h

e s u s c e_{p t}

i b i l i

t y to

i

n

fi l

tr at

i

o n o

f

c o nta

m i

n ants

c a u s e

d b

_y

_{p i p}

e

b

r e a

k

s

(

A

W W

A

_,

2 0 0 5

)

.

D

ec r e a s e s

i

n

d i

s

i

n

f

e cta nt r e s

i d

u a

l

a

ri

s e t

h

r ou

g h

c

h

e

m

i

c a

l

o x

i d

at

i

o n r e a ct

i

o n s

w i

t

h b

ot

h

o r_gan

i

c a n

d i

nor_gan

i

c c

h

e

m

i

c a

l

s.

C

o r r o s

i

on o

f

p

i

pe s

i

n t

h

e a

_{g i}

n_g

d i

st

ri b

ut

i

o n s

_y

ste

m

s _pr o

d

uc es

f

e r r o u s

i

r o n on t

h

e _p

i

_pe s u r

f

a c e s t

h

at a r e

r e a

d i l

_y ox

i d i

ze

_{d b y b}

ot

h fi

-e -e- _an

d

_co

m b i

_{n e}

d f

_{o r}

m

_{s o}

f

_c

h l

_o

ri

_ne

m

o re

l

o ss

i

n

d i

s

i

n

f

e c t a nt re s

i d

ua

l

t

h

a_{n o}t

h

er ox

i d

at

i

o n re a ct

io

n s

(

e.g.,

w i

t

h

n atu r a

l

o r ga n

i

c

m

at te r

l

e a v

i

n

_g

t

h

e

w

ate r tr e at

m

e nt

_{p l}

an t

₎

that o c c u r

i

n t

h

e

b

u

l k w

ate r

(

D i G i

ano a n

d

Z h

an

_g

,

2 0 0 5

)

.

W

ate r a

_g

e c o u

l d b

e r e

d

u c e

d b

_y r e

m

o v

in

_{g t}

h

e

fi

r e

d

e

m

an

d fi

-o

m

t

h

e

d

e s

i

_gn o

f

d i

str

i b

ut

io n

s

_y

ste

m

s su c

h

that s

m

a

l l

e r

d i

a

m

ete r

_{p i p}

e s ar e n e e

d

e

d

.

A

s

O k

u n

(

2 0 0 6

)

s u_g

_g

e sts,

fi

r e

d

e

m

an

d

c o u

l d b

e

m

et a

l

te r n at

iv e

l

y

b

y r e c

l

a

i m

e

d w

ate r

in

a s epa r ate

d i

str

i b

ut

io n

s

_y

ste

m

that a

l

s o se rves ot

h

er n on

_p

ota

b l

e

w

ater n e e

d

s.

B

y e

l i

m

i

nat

i

n

g

t

h

e

ne e

d

to s u_{p p}

l

_y

fi

r e

d

e

m

an

d in

the

_p

ota

b l

e

w

ate r s_yste

m

, p

i

pe

d i

a

m

ete r s c a n

b

e

d

e c r e a s e

d

fi

-o

m

t y p

i

c a

l

r e_qu

i

r e

d

v a

lu

e s o

f 6

to

8 i

n c

h

e s _to a s

lo

w

a s 2

i

n c

h

e s

i

n s

m

a

l l

e r c o

m

m

u n

it

i

e s,

b

a s e

d

u

_p

o n

_p

er c a

_{p i}

ta

w

ate r

d

e

m

an

d

(

O k

un,

2 0 0 5

)

.

H

o

w

e v e r, no stu

d i

e s o

f d i

str

i b

ut

io

n s

s_yste

m

d

e s

i

_gn s

h

a v e

b

e en

m

a

d

e to _qu ant

i

_fy

t

h is r e

d

uc t

i

on

i

n

_{p i}

_pe

d i

a

m

ete r s.

O

t

he r

b

e ne

fi

ts o

f d

u a

l

s_yste

m

s c a n

in c

l

u

d

e r e

d

uc e

d

c o sts

i

n tr e at

i

n

_{g d}

r

i

n

k in

_g

w

ate r a s

le s s

h

a s to

b

e _pr o

d

u c e

d

a n

d

a

m

o r e r o

b

ust s_yste

m

that c an

w i

t

h

sta n

d w

ate r

s

h

o rta_ge s.

R

e c

l

a

i

m

e

d w

ate r c an s u

p p l

e

m

e nt u s e s t

h

at

d

o n ot r equ

i

r e

h i

g

h q

u a

l i

t y

w

ate r,

s u c

h

a s

ir r

i g

at

i

o n a n

d

c o o

l i

n

_{g w}

ater, an

d i

n thes e ca se s, a

d

u a

l

syste

m

can

b

o o st

w

ate r

c on se r v ation e

ff

o rts.

T h

e s e

b

ene

fi

ts a r e t

h

e

m

a

i

n

d

r

i

v

i

n

g f

a cto r s

f

o r c o

m

m

un

it

i

e s

w h

e n

c o n s

i d

e r

in

_g

d

u a

l

s_yste

m

s.

W

h i l

e

d

ua

l w

ate r s

_y

ste

m

s are a

l

re a

d y i

n

_{p l}

a ce

i

n a nu

m

b

e r o

f m

un

i

c

i p

a

l i

t

i

es

i

n t

h

e

U

.

S

.

, n o n e o

f

the s e

in c o r

p

o r ate s

fi

r e

d

e

m

an

d

.

T h

e

Sy d

ney

,

A

ustr a

l ia s u

b

u r

b

o

f R

ous e

H i l l i

n c o r

_p

o r ate

d

a

d

ua

l

s_yste

m

f

o r

fi

r e

d

e

m

an

d i

n

19 9 4

an

d i

t

is s

t

i l l

s u c ces s

fi

i

U

_y

in

o_pe r at

i

on

(

O k

u n,

19 9 7

)

.

A

c c o r

d in

g

to t

h

e

E

n v

ir o n

m

enta

l P

r ote ct

i

o n

A

gen cy

(

E P A

)

W

ate r

R

e u s e

G

u

i d

e

l i

n e s

(

U

.

S

.

E P A

_,

2 0 0 4

)

,

fi

r e

p

r ote ct

i

o n

i

s a

l l

o

w

e

d w it

h

r e c

l

a

i

m

e

d

an

d

W

a s

h in

_{g t}on.

H

o

w

e v e r, no c

it

ations

w

e r e

f

o un

d

to

i

n

d ic a

te t

h

at r e c

l

a

i m

e

d

v

ra

te r

i

s,

in

f

a ct, u s e

d fo r

fi

r e

p

r ote ctio n to

d

ate.

W

h i l

e r etr o

f

it t

i

n_g o

f

e x

i

stin

_{g d i}

str

i b

ut

io n

s_yste

m

s to s

h i ft fi

r e

d

e

m

a n

d

to

r e c

l

a

i m

e

d w

ate r

w

o u

l d b

e c o st

l

_y an

d d i

ffi

c u

lt

, c o n str u ct

i

on o

f

ne

w

sy ste

m

s

i

s qu

i

te

f

e a s

i b l

e.

H

o

w

e v e r, c o

m m

u n

i

t

ie s a

n

d l

an

d d

e v e

l

ope r s

m

u st

fi

r st

b

e c o n v

i

nc e

d

to c o n s

i d

e r

th is c o n c e_{p t}. An e ntir e

l

y n e

w i

n

f

r a str u ctu r e c an

b

e

d

e s

i g

ne

d

to

i

nc o rpo r ate a

d

u a

l

d i

str

i b

ut

i

o n s_yste

m

f

or

_p

ota

b l

e an

d

non

_p

ota

b l

e

w

ate r.

C

o

m

m

u n

i

t

i

e s t

h

at a r e sprea

d

out

m

_{i g h}

t

d

es

i g

n t

h

e

i

r s e

w

e r a

_g

e a n

d

non

_p

ota

b l

e

d i

str

i b

ution s_ys_{t e}

m

s u s

i

n

_g

s ate

l l i

te

r e c

l

a

m

atio n

_{p l}

a nts n ear t

h

e s o u r c e s o

f

t

he

w

a ste

w

ate r s a s

w

e

l l

a s a c on v e nt

i

o n a

l

w

a ste

w

ate r tr e at

m

e nt

_{p l}

ant at the

_p

o

in

t o

f w

a ste

w

ate r

d is

_po s a

l

.

I

n a

d d i

tio n

, s ate

l l i

te

r e c

l

a

m

ation

_{p l}

ants

m

i g h

t s er v e s u

b

u r

b

an c

l

u ste r s.

T h

e

m

o st

p

r o

m i

s

i

n

g

tr e at

m

ent

f

o r

s ate

l l it

e r e c

l

a

m

at

io n

_{p l}

ants

is

t

h

e

m

e

m

b

r a n e

b io r e a c

to r

(M

B

R

)

.

It

p

r o

d

uc e s an e x c e

l l

en t

w

ate r

_q

ua

l i

t y a s

m

e a sure

d b

_y e x tr e

m

e

l

_y

lo

w b i

oc

h

e

m

i

c a

l

ox_{y g}en

d

e

m

an

d

, tu r

b i d i

t y an

d

m

i

c r o

b

e c on c e ntr at

i

o ns.

T h

e

_p

u r_po s e o

f

t

h i

s r e s ear c

h w

as to e x

_{p l}

or e t

h

e

f

e a s

i b i l it

_y

o

f i

n sta

l l i

n_g a

d

u a

l

s_yste

m

t

ha

t

i

n c

lu

d

e s n o n_pota

b l

e

w

ate r

f

o r

fi

r e

d

e

m

an

d i

n t

h

e n e

w

_{, p}

l

a i

m

e

d

c o

m

m

un

it

_y o

f

Br

ia r

C h

a

_p

e

l

.

T h is

i

s a r e s

i d

e nt

i

a

l

an

d

c o

m

m

e r c

i

a

l d

e v e

lo

p

m

e nt t

h

at

is

j

ust un

d

e r

c onstr u ct

io

n

in

C h

atha

m

C

o u nt

_y

,

N

.

C w it

h

a

p

r o

j

e c te

d

po

p

u

la

t

io

n o

f

a

b

o ut

6

_,

0 0 0

.

A

u n

i

_qu e

f

e atu r e o

f

a

l l

s

i

m

i l

ar

d

e v e

l

o

_p

m

e nts

in

t

h is

_p

a rt o

f C h

at

h

a

m C

ou n_{t y}

i

s t

h

e n e e

d f

o r

o n

-s

i

te

w

a ste

w

ate r treat

m

e nt an

d l

an

d d i

s

_p

os a

l

o

f

e

f flu e n

t

b

e c a us e the r e

i

s n o centra

l

w

a ste

w

ate r tr e at

m

ent

f

a c

i l i

t y.

T h i

s s

i

tu at

i

on

g i

v e s r

i

s e to the po s s

i b i l i

ty o

f d

e c e ntr a

l i

z e

d

w

ate r r e c

la

m

at

i

o n

i

n

w h i

c

h

a

d

u a

l w

ate r s_yste

m

c ou

l d b

e c o n str u cte

d

at t

h

e o uts et o

f

De s

i

_gn s

f

o r

b

ot

h

t

h

e

_p

ota

b l

e an

d

n o n_pota

b le

d i

str

i b

ut io n s_yste

m

s

w

e r e _pr o_po s e

d

f

o r t

h

r e e a

l

te rnat

iv e

in t

e n s

it

i

e s o

f w

ate r r e u s e

in

t

h

e

B

r

i

a r

C h

a

_p

e

l p

r o

_j

e ct a n

d

c o

m

_pa r e

d

to

e x

i

st

i

n_g

_{p l}

a n s

f

o r a c o n v e nt

i

o n a

l d i

str

i b

ut

io n

s_yste

m

.

A

s a po

i

nt o

f

c o

m

p

a r

is o n

, the

r e

d

u ct

io

ns

i

n

d i

a

m

eter o

f p i p

e s

in

the

_p

ota

b l

e

w

_{a t}e r s

_y

ste

m

w

e r e c a

l

cu

la

te

_d

a

_ft

e r r e

m

o v a

l

o

f fi

r e

d

e

m

an

d

. T

h

e n t

h

e a

d d it

i

o na

l

r e

d

u ct

io n s

i

n

p i

pe

d i

a

m

ete r s

f

o r t

h

e

p

ota

b le

w

ate r

l i

n e s

w

e r e c a

lc u

l

ate

d

a s s u

m

i

n

_g

r e c

l

a

i

m

e

d w

ate r

f

or

i

r r

i

_gat

io n

o

f p

u

b l i

c _gr e e n s_pa c e s a n

d

p

r

i

vate

la

w

ns a

lo n

_g

w

i

t

h fi

r e

d

e

m

an

d

.

St

i l l fu r

t

h

e r r e

du

ct

i

ons

in

p ip

e

d ia

m

ete r s

w

e r e

d

ete r

m

i

n e

d f

o r t

h

e

h i gh

e st

_p

o s s

i b l

e

le v e

l

o

f

r e u s e t

h

at a

l l

o

w

s

f

o r to

i l

et

fl

u s

h i

n_g, a

lo

n g

w i

t

h i

r r

i g

atio n an

d fi

re

d

e

m

an

d

. T

h

e c o r r e s

po n

d in

_g

_p

i p

e

d ia

m

ete r s an

d w

ate r sto r a_ge

ta n

k d im

e n s

i

o n s

f

o r t

he

no n

_p

ota

b l

e

w

ate r

d is

tr

i b

ut

i

on n etwo r

k

s

w

e r e a

l

s o

d

ete r

m

in e

d

.

C

a_p

i

ta

l

c o sts

f

or t

h

e

_p

r_o

_p

o s e

d

a

l

te r n at

iv e

d

u a

l w

ate r s_yste

m

s

w

e r e

d

e v e

lo

_p

e

d

.

T h

e c osts o

f

a

w

ate r sto r a

_g

e tan

k f

o r

fi

r e

_p

r ote ct

i

o n a n

d

co nstr u ct

io n o

f

an

M

B R f

o r

w

a ste

w

ate r tr e at

m

e nt t

h

at

w

o u

l d

_pr o

d

u c e

w

ate r o

f h i

_g

h

enou

_{g h q}

u a

l i

t_y

f

o r r e u s e

w

e r e

in

c

lu

d

e

d

.

I

n a

d d it

i

o n

,

t he

r e

d

uct

io n

in

l

an

d

a r e a

f

o r u

l

ti

m

ate

d i

s

p

o s a

l

o

f

e

ffl

uen t

b

e c a u s e

o

f w

ate r r e c

l

a

m

at

i

on

w

a s c a

lc u

l

ate

d

.

T h

e

fi

na

l

a s

p

e ct o

f

the

p

ota

b l

e

w

ate r

d is

tr

i b

ut

io n

c o sts

w

a s the e v a

l

u at

i

on o

f

sta

i

n

l

e s s ste e

l p ip i

n

_{g i}

n ste a

d

o

f

t

h

e c o n v e nt

io n a

l

m

ate r

i

a

l

s

(

d

uct

i l

e

i

r o n an

d PV C

₎

in

t

h

e c u r r e nt p

la

n.

Wh i le o

b

v

io

us

l

y

m

o r e e xpe n s

i

v e t

h

an

c onv e nt

io n a

l

_p

i p

e

m

ater

ia

l

s_, sta

in

l

e s s ste e

l h

a s s eve r a

l

a

d

v a nta

_g

e s

w i

t

h

r e s_pe ct to

pr e s e r v

i

n_g

h i

_g

h w

a_te r _qu a

l it

_{y d}

u r

i

n_g

d is

tr

i b

ut

io n

an

d

t

h

u s _pr o v

i d i

n_{g g}r e ate r _pr ote ct

i

o n o

f

h

u

m

an

h

ea

l

t

h

;

i

t

i

s a

l

so

f

a r

lo

n

_g

e r-

l

_{a s}ti_n

g

a n

d l

e s s

_p

r o n e to

b

r ea

k

a_ge tha n c o n v e nt

io n a

l

p

i

pe

m

ate r

ia

l

s.

T h

e o

b

j

e ct

i

v e o

f

t

h

e c ost an a

l

ys

is

w

a s to

d

ete r

m i

n e

i f

t

h

e

d i

a

m

ete r

sta

i

nle s s ste e

l

c o

m

_pet

it

i

v e

w i

th t

h

e c on v en t

i

on a

l d

e s

i

_gn that

w

o ul

d

r e_quir e

m

u ch la rge r

R

ev

i

e

w

o

f

L

i

te r atu r e

F

u nct ions o

f

t he

W

ate r

D i

st

ri b

ut

i

on

S

yste

m

W

ate r

d i

st

ri b

ut

i

o n n et

w

o r

k

s a r e t

h

e

_{p ri}

m

a r_y

m

et

h

o

d

o

f w

ate r

d

e

l i

ve r_y to _pe o_p

l

e

l i

v

i

n_g

i

n t

h

e

U

n

i

te

d S

tate s.

A

p pr o x

i

m

ate

l

y

8 0

%

o

f A

m

e

ri

c a n s a r e s e r v e

d b

y a c e ntr a

l i

z e

d

w

ate r s

_y

ste

m

w h i l

e

10

to

2 0

%

r e

l

_y on

_{p ri}

vate

w

e

l l

s to o

b

ta

i

n

w

ate r

(

U

.

S

.

E PA

_,

2 0 0 7

)

.

O k

i

m

(

1

9 9 7

)

str e s s e

d

t

h

at

U

.

S

.

d i

st

ri b

ut

i

on syste

m

s

h

a v e

b

e en

d

e s

i

gn e

d

s

i

nc e t

h

e

i

r

i

nc e_{p t}

i

o n

2 0 0

_ye a r s a

_g

o to s e r v e t

w

o

f

u nct

i

o n s :

1

)

_p

r ov

i

s

i

on o

f

_pota

b l

e

w

ate r an

d 2

)

fi

r e

p

r ote ct

i

o n.

P

ota

b l

e

w

ate r

d

e

m

a n

d i

s u s e

d h

e r e

g

e n e r a

l l

y to

i

n c

l

u

d

e a

l l

ty p

i

c a

l d

o

m

est

i

c

an

d

c o

m

m

e r c

i

a

l

usa

_g

es

(

h

u

m

an c o n su

m p

t

i

on, c o o

k i

n

g

, s

h

o

w

e

ri

n

g

, to

i l

et

fl

u s

h i

ng,

l

a un

d

e

ri

n

_g

,

l

an

d

s c a

p

e

i

r

ri

gat

i

o n , c a r

w

a s

h i

ng a n

d

ot

h

e r

m

i

s c e

l l

ane o u s c o

m m

e r c

i

a

l

c ons u

m

_{p t}

i

o n

)

.

A

s

w i l l b

e

d i

s c u s s e

d l

ate r, t

h

e

w

ate r

d

e

m

an

d f

o r

fi

r e pr ote ct

i

o n

d

ete r

m

i

ne s t

h

e

d i

a

m

ete r o

f

t

h

e

_{p i p}

es a n

d

t

h i

s c a n

h

a v e ne

_g

at

i

v e

i

m

_p

a cts on

w

ate r

_q

u a

l i

t

_y

at t

h

e c o n s u

m

e r's ta_p.

N

on-

m

u n

i

c

i p

a

l d i

st

ri b

ut

i

o n s

yste

m

s

h

a v e a

l

s o

b

e en c onstr u c_te

d

_to

p

r o v

i d

e

w

ate r

f

o r

i

r

ri g

at

i

on a n

d i

n

d

u st

ri

a

l

m

anu

f

a ctu

ri

n_{g p}r o c e s s e s

₍

A

WW

A

M

anu a

l

)

.

T

o

d

a

_y

's

_p

ract

i

ce

f

o r

_p

r o v

i d i

n

_{g f}

o r

fi

r e

_p

r ote c t

i

o n

i

s

_p

r e s ente

d i

n t

h

e

A

m

e

ri

c an

W

ate r

W

o r

k

s

A

s s o c

i

at

i

o n 's

M

a n u a

l

M

3 1 w h i

c

h i

s

dri

v en

b

_{y t}

h

e

i

n s u r a n c e

i

n

d

ustr_y

(

A

W

W

A

,

19 9 8

)

.

A m i

n

i

m

u

m

p i p

e

d i

a

m

ete r o

f 6 i

n c

h

e s or

8 i

nc

h

e s

m

o r e r e c ent

l

y

i

s

r e

_q

u

i

r e

d

.

P

r o v

i d i

n g

w

ate r

f

o r

fi

r e

d

e

m

a n

d i

s

h i

g

h l

y r e

g

u

l

ate

d

a n

d

o

ft

e n

i

s a c

h

o

i

c e r at

h

e r

t

h

a n a

l

e_g

i

s

l

ate

d

r e_qu

i

r e

m

ent o

f

m

u n

i

c

i

_pa

l i

t

i

e s

b

_y state

l

e_g

i

s

l

atu r e s. In

f

a ct_,

i f

t

h

e

m

u n

i

c

i p

a

l i

t

y d

o e s n ot o

w

n t

h

e

w

ate r ut

i l i

_{t y},

i

t

m

u st n egot

i

ate

w i

t

h

t

h

e ut

i l i

t y to

i

nc o r

_p

o r ate

fi

r e

_p

r ote ct

i

o n a s a

_p

r

i

m

a r_y

fi m

ct

i

o n o

f

t

h

e

d i

st

ri b

ut

i

o n s_yste

m

.

M

o st put

f

ort

h

t

h

e e

f f

ort to

h

ave t

h

e

i

r

w

ate r

d i

st

ri b

ut

i

o n s_yste

m

s

d

es

i

_gne

d

a n

d

m

a

i

nta

i

n e

d

to

p

r o v

i d

e

fi

r e

_p

r ote ct

i

o n

f

o r a v a

ri

et y o

f

r e a s o n s,

m

o st

i m

port ant

l

y o

f w h i

c

h i

s t

h

e

fi

r e

d

e

m

an

d

throu _g

h

t

h

e

w

ate r

d is

tr

i b

ut

io

n s_yste

m

i

s that pr o_pe rt y

in

s u r anc e r ate s

w

o u

l d

in

c r ea se

_g

r eat

l

_y an

d w

o u

l d h

a ve a

m

a

j

o r

i

m

_pa ct on t

h

e e c o n o

m

i

c v

i

a

b i l i

_{t y} o

f

m

an_y

c o

m

m

un

it

i

e s.

T h

e c o st o

f i

n s u r anc e

m

u st

b

e

w

e

i

g

h

e

d

aga

in s

t t

h

e c o st o

f w

ate r

d is

tr

i b

ut

io n

s_yste

m

c a

_p

ac

i

_{t y} a n

_{d w i}

_t

h w

ate r c o sts te n

d in

_{g t}o

b

e

l

o

w

, t

h

e

d

e c

i

s

i

on to

p

r o v

i d

e

f i

r e _pr ote ct

i

o n t

h

r o u

_{g h}

t

h

e

w

ate r

d i

stri bu t

i

o n s_yste

m

i

s o

f te n

the r e su

lt

₍

A

W W

A

fi

r e

m

anu a

l

)

.

T hr

ee

m

et

h

o

d

s

m

a

_{y b}

e us e

d b

_y a r e

_g

u

la

to r_y

b

o

d

_y

w h

en

f

o r

m

u

l

at

i

n

_g

t

h

e

fi

r e

fl

o

w

r e

_q

u

i

r e

m

ents.

I

n the s

i

m

p l

est

m

et

h

o

d

o utl in e

d i

n

M

a n u a

l

M

3 1,

t

h

e r e

q

u

ir e

d fl

o

w

ca

_p

a c

i

t y

f

o r

fi

r e

d

e

m

an

d f

o r r esi dent

i

a

l

an

d

c o

m m

e r c

i

a

l b

u

i l d i

n_gs

is s

_pe c

i fi

e

d b

_y a

fl

o

w

r ate

f

o r a

_{g i}

v e n

b

u

i l d i

n_g-_{u sa}

g

e

d

e s c

ri p

t

io

n

₍

r e s

i d

e nt

i

a

l

o r _co

m

m

e r c

i

a

l

)

a n

d

t

h

e

d

u r at

i

o n o

f

t

h

e

fi

r e e v ent

₍

N C F i

r e

R

e

_g

u

l

atio n s,

W

e

i d

on

g Z h

ang

)

.

A

s an e x a

m

p l

e

, t

h

e

fl

o

w

r ate

i

n

g

a

l l

on s

_p

e r

m

i

n ute

(g p

m

)

a n

d d

u r at

i

on o

f fl

o

w i

n

h

o u r s

₍

hr

₎

f

o r e a c

h b

u

i l d i

n

_g

u s a

_g

e that

h

a s

b

e en a

d

o

_p

te

d b

_{y t}

h

e

O

r an

_g

e

W

a te r an

d Se

w

e r

A

ut

h

o

ri

t

_y

(

O

W

A SA

)

i

n

N

o rth Ca r o

l i

n a

a r e

_{g i}

v e

i

n

T

a

b le

1.

T

a

b

le

1

.

F i

r e

F l

o

w

Re

qu

i

r e

m

e nts

U

s e

d b

_y

O

W

A S A

(

N

ort

h C

a r o

l i

na

)

R

e_qu

i

r e

d F i

r e F lo

w

(g p

m

)

D

ur at

io n

₍

h

r

)

1 50 0

₍

R

e s

i d

e ntia

l

)

2

2 5 0 0

₍

C

o

m

m

e r c

ia

l

)

2

T w

o

m

o r e co

m

_p

l

e x

m

et

h

o

d

s a r e

_{g i}

v e n

b

_{y t}

h

e In s u r anc e

Se r v

ic e s

O f fi

c e an

d b

_y

I l l i

no

i

s

I

n stitute o

f T

e c

hn

o

l

o

_g

_y

R

e sea r c

h I

n st

it

ute to_get

h

e r

w i

t

h I

o

w

a

St

ate

U

n

iv e r s

i

_{t y}.

I

n eac

h

o

f

t

h

e s e,

fi

r e

fl

o

w

r ate s a r e

b

a s e

d

upo n

f

a cto r s that a

f fe c

t t

h

e

i

nte n s

it

y o

f fi

r e s. Ex a

m

p

l

e s

o

f f

a cto rs a r e

b

u

i l d in

_g c o n str u ct

i

o n

m

ate

ri

a

l

s,

b

u

i l d i

ng o c c upa n cy,

fi

r e e xpo sur e a n

d

e

m

e r

_g

enc

_y

co

m

m

u n

i

c at

io n

.

E

a c

h

state

p

uts

f

ort

h

r e

g

u

l

ation s st

i

pu

la

t

in

g w h i

c

h

o

f

t

h

e

A

s

O k

u n

(

19 9 7

)

p

o

i

nts o ut, the r e

q

u

i

r e

m

e nts

f

o r

f

i r e

f l

o

w

r e su

l

t

i

n

f i

re

d

e

m

a n

d

r athe r tha n

_p

o ta

b l

e

w

ate r

d

e

m

a n

d

c o ntr o

l l i

n

_g

t

h

e s

i

z e of

w

ate r

d i

str

i b

ut

i

o n _p

i

_{p i}n_g. T

h

e

S

tate o

f N

o rth Ca r o

l i

n a r e_gu

l

ate s t

h

e s

i

z e o

f

w

ate r

m

a

i

n s t

h

at

_p

r o vi

d

e f ir e _pr ote ct

i

o n to a

m

i

n

i

m

u

m

d i

a

m

ete r o

f 6 i

n c

h

e s an

d

a

m

i

n

i m

u

m

s

_y

ste

m p

r e s s u r e o

f 2 0 p

ou n

d

s

_p

e r s

_q

u a r e

i

nc

h

(p

s

i

) (

N C A C

1

5A

,

S I 8

)

.

D

epen

d i

n g on t

h

e c

h

a r a cte r

i

st

i

c s o

f

a

w

ate r

d i

str

i b

ut

i

o n

s_yste

m

_, t

h

e

_{p i p}

e

d i

a

m

eters cou

l d b

e

8 i

nc

h

e s o r

l

a r

_g

e r to

m

a

i

nta

i

n s_yste

m

w i d

e _pr e s s u r e

st

i p

u

l

ate

d b

_y co

d

e.

D ete

ri

o r at

i

on o

f

W

ate r

Q

ua i

it

y

i

n t

h

e

D i

st

ri b

ut

i

o n

S

yste

m

W

ate r

d

e

m

a n

d

,

p i p

e

d i

a

m

ete r, an

d p i p

e

m

ate r

i

a

l

a r e a

l l f

a cto r s that c an a

f f

e ct

w

ate r

_q

ua

l it

_{y i}

n

d i

str

i b

ut

i

o n s_yste

m

s.

D

ete r

m

i

n

i

n

g

n etwo r

k

c a

p

a c

i

t y

f

o r r e s

i d

entia

l w

ate r

d

e

m

a n

d f

o r t

h

e

f

utu r e

i

s a s

i m p l

e

_p

r o c e s s

i

n

w h i

c

h

c u r r e nt

w

ater u s a

_g

e r ate s a r e a

_{p p l i}

e

d

to _po

_p

u

l

at

i

o n

_p

r o

j

e ction s.

C

o

m

m

e r c

i

a

l

an

d i

n

d

u str

i

a

l w

ate r

d

e

m

a n

d

s a r e

m

o r e

d i f fi

c u

l

t to

d

ete r

m

i

n e

d

e

_p

e n

d i

n

_g

o n

w

ate r r e

_q

u

i

r e

m

ents

f

o r a

_p

art

i

c u

l

a r

b

us

i

ne s s o r _pu

b l i

c s e r v

i

c e_;

y

et, a s

i

m

i l

ar

p

r o c e s s

i

s

f

o

l l

o

w

e

d i

n

b

ot

h

c a s e s.

B

e ca u s e

_p

ota

b l

e

w

ate r

d

e

m

an

d i

s

m

u c

h l

esst

h

a n t

h

e

fi

r e

f l

o

w d

e

m

an

d

an

d fi

res

a r e unco

m

m

on o c c u r r e n c e s, t

h

e

p i p

e

d i

a

m

ete r s a r e

f

a r

l

a r

g

e r t

h

an n e c e s s a r

y

to

m

e et t

h

e

d

a

i l

_y

_p

ota

b l

e

d

e

m

an

d

₍

A w w

a

R F

a n

d K i w

a,

2 0 0 2

)

. A s a r e s u

l

t_, t

h

e

w

ate r v e

l

o c

i

t y

c o r r e s

_p

on

d i

n

_g

to t

h

e _pota

b l

e

w

ate r

d

e

m

an

d

r ate

i

s

f

a r

l

e s s t

h

an

i f

t

h

e

d i

a

m

ete r s

w

e r e

s

i

z e

d

to

m

e et t

h i

s

d

e

m

a n

d

.

L

o

w w

ate r v e

l

o c

i

t y r e s u

lt

s

i

n e x ce s s tr a v e

l

t

i

m

e o

f w

ate r

t

h

r o u

_gh

t

h

e

d i

str

i b

ution s_yste

m

b

e

f

o r e r e a c

h i

n

_g

cu sto

m

e r

'

s ta

_p

.

A

s an exa

m

p l

e_, tr a c e r

stu

d i

e s c o n

d

u cte

d i

n the

d i

str

i b

ut

i

on s_yste

m

s o

f R

a

l

e

i

_g

h

an

d D

u r

h

a

m

,

N

.

C

. s

h

o

w

e

d

that

t

h

e

m

e an r es

i d

e n c e t

i m

esat s o

m

e s a

m p l i

n

_g

stat

i

ons

i

s o

f t

en s e v e r a

l d

a_ys a n

d

c an

b

e u

_p

to