Storytelling Practices in the New Millennium

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Storytelling Practices in the New

Millennium

A Snake and Dragon Lore Case Study

MA Thesis

Asian Studies (60 ECTS)

History, Art and Culture of Asia

Martina Ferrara

s1880624

Supervisor

Professor Ivo Smits

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Abstract

In this new millennium, the world is facing many drastic changes. Technology has revolutionized our lives and we are still trying to grasp the essence of this new age. Many traditions are fading, one

of them being the practice of oral storytelling, used in pre modern societies by common folks to

amuse themselves and to educate children at the same time. This essay analyzes the transition from traditional storytelling to mass communication, and its implications, through the case study of

Japanese snake and dragon lore. The dragon, a well established symbol of Eastern Asian cultures, is

the mythical evolution of a snake, considered to belong to the same species. The two animals are treated, however, in very different ways: the first is venerated as a kami, a god, while the second, even though object of worship too, is so feared that speaking about it is still considered a taboo.

During the last century oral storytelling practice has been fading out, overpowered by the attractiveness of new medias. However, while the traditional practice is slowly dying out,

storytelling itself is, I argue, just changed media. This essay will look into modern portraying of

snakes and dragons, comparing tradition with new media. Through the example of Oscar winner movie Spirited Away (2001) and especially through the character of the white dragon Haku, it will be shown how anime and manga can represent a new way for the transmission and preservation of

folk tales and beliefs. The director, Hayao Miyazaki, created the movie with the precise aim of educate children about Japanese values and traditions. Manga and anime can be considered a new

form of storytelling, accessible simultaneously by anybody and anywhere in the world, that at the

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Chapter One

Introduction

According to the Oxford Dictionary, storytelling is the activity of telling or writing stories. Such

practice has been part of human life since the beginning of times. However, the New Millennium is drastically changing the way in which stories are told, and especially oral storytelling practices are

fading away. Through the analysis of a case study from Japan, this essay aim is to come to a better

understanding of the shift from old storytelling practices to new ones, and the consequences that may derive from it. The case study chosen comes from Japanese folklore, precisely from folk

beliefs regarding snakes and dragons, considered supernatural beings. To what extent and in what ways did Hayao Miyazaki’s Oscar winning anime movie Spirited Away connect to older traditions of storytelling involving these beliefs? Which of them were taken into account for the development

of Haku, a white dragon, character in Spirited Away? How were these beliefs and folk tales transmitted in the past? What kind of beliefs and folk tales were they? How are they transmitted nowadays? And in which way are they portrayed? The comparison with modern storytelling will be

made through the analysis of the character of Haku in Spirited Away.

The essay is divided in three main sections. Chapter two will examine the whole body of sources

used in chronological order. What has been already written on snakes and dragons as mythical creatures? What has been written on the practice of storytelling and transmission of folktales in

Japan? And how has Spirited Away been interpreted since its coming out in 2001? Authors like De Visser, Opler, Mackenzie, Sasaki, Sasaki, and Fox will be used as main sources on snakes and dragons beliefs and tales. De Visser especially, is the scholar that focused more than any other on

the figure of the dragon and its mythical origins, that can be traced back to China and India. His

work has been studied by all the other sources mentioned, and it is therefore the most important among them. Foster’s studies will be also very important to establish the supernatural nature of

these animals, and especially to define if they belong to the category of kami (gods) or yōkai

(demons). It is also important to understand if their belonging to one or the other category changed with the changing of storytelling practices. Adams and Eder’s essays will provide insights on

storytelling practices itself and the mutations of the relationship between people and folktales. What

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and Shamoon essays. Finally, then, Spirited Away themes, issues and aims are the subjects, from different perspectives (religious, environmental etc…), of Lim and Boyd’s articles. This chapter

aim is to show the most possible complete body of literature available on each topic, and how they connect to each other.

The third chapter will deal with stories, folktales and beliefs about snakes and dragons. Snakes are attributed with many powers, usually water related. Snakes and dragon are considered as part of the

same species, according to the most common beliefs, and they are represented visually in the same

way. This chapter purpose is to report, organize and interpret the most relevant snake and dragon stories and beliefs, in the light of Foster’s definitions regarding kami and yōkai. In order to better grasp the essence of these animals and their stories, two tales have been selected as main examples.

First is the Dōjōji legend, also known as the Legend of Madam White Snake, and second Urashima Taro. They both are very famous tales, known all over Japan and with plenty of existing local variations. The first one, of Chinese origins, is the perfect example of a negative snake character

while the second one is set up in the legendary ryūgūjō, an underwater palace belonging to the Dragon King. Furthermore, to challenge Foster’s definitions, I will make use of Ueda Akinari’s

writings and interpretations regarding the kami realm. As author of Tales of Rain and Moonlight, a famous collection of spooky tales inspired by already existing stories (the tale A Serpent’s Lust is deliberately inspired by the Dōjōji legend). Akinari represents a very relevant voice focused on supernatural issues and kami worship. This chapter is a necessary stepping stone towards the understanding of how traditional storytelling have depicted snakes and dragons, both through oral

traditions and written sources from Japanese classics.

The fourth chapter will be dedicated to the transition from traditional storytelling practices to the

modern one, among which can be found anime and manga. The first part of the chapter will explain the historical reasons and social changes that led to the decaying of traditional storytelling.

Phenomenons like that of modernization had a great impact on Japanese society, and changed

radically people’s way of living and daily habits, where the conditions for oral transmission, for

instance, could be found. These changes, especially in technological development, led to the birth of mass media communication and to the creation of something that Kogawa Tetsuo calls ‘mass

culture’. One important phenomenon that was generated by the growing popularity of anime and

manga was the ‘encyclopedic mode’, or the tendency, explained by Deborah Shamoon, that fandoms have towards the creations of databases with properly organized information on their

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which the average fan goes to deepen his knowledge on a topic that caught his interest.

Furthermore, it is a mode which origins can be traced back into folklore art and especially in

Toriyama Sekien’s bestiaries. The second, and longest, part of the chapter, will focus the attention on Spirited Away. What were the ideas and aims behind the creation of the movie? What values and features of the traditional snake dragon can be found in the character of Haku? Haku is a white

dragon with snake like appearances who is, in fact, a river spirit. What does the dragon stand for? What does he embody? Why did Miyazaki chose to give it such an important role in the movie? As

an example of conscious modern storytelling, it is important to understand what the Haku represent

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Chapter Two

Literature Review

2.1 Typology of Snake and Dragon Studies, and the Question of

yōkai

For centuries, oral storytelling has been one of the main activities with which people amused

themselves. Such practice had at least two purposes: to entertain and to teach. Legends, tales and

folk beliefs were often characterized by supernatural events or protagonists, and they often had some type of moral. This is also the case for Japanese folklore. This country political and social

conditions, which will be further explained later in the essay, enabled scholars to have access to a

great number of “first-hand materials”. An impressive quantity of folktales and legends have been 1

recorded throughout history, and many of them survived until the last century. Oral storytelling has

not disappeared yet from Japan and with it, all the folktales normally passed down generation to

generation. Young Japanese people do not have the same lifestyles that their parents, or

grandparents had. In which way, therefore, is this tradition kept alive? If the social context that

allowed folktales to flourish, survive and evolve disappeared into the midst of the 20th century’s

modernization process, how can they survive this age?

One way to analyze this process is to select a folklore figure and to look into how it is perceived by

people of different ages. Miracle animals such as kappa, tanuki, and kitsune have generated a great amount of scholarly literature, so many researchers, in fact, devoted part of their studies to these creatures. However, very little has been written about snakes, who are complex creatures that,

according to folk beliefs, have the ability to evolve into a dragon, one of the characteristic images

associated with Eastern Asian countries.

The first serious attempt to academically discuss this magical animal, in the west, was made by

Willem De Visser back in 1913. In his book, Dragon in China and Japan, De Visser traces the mythological origins of the dragon all the way to India and its nagas, snakes believed to live under water bodies (mainly rivers) and in great wealth. The first part of his book is completely devoted to

the explanation and analysis of these snake deities (cobras snakes to be more specifics). These supernatural beings can be found in many Hinduist and Buddhist tales. The rest of the book is

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divided between China and Japan, showing once more the great influence that the first had on the

second. The book aims to shed light on the complex mythological origins and influences that

contributed to the evolution of this iconic East Asian symbol. The information given by De Visser has been used in almost every later essay written on the topic, enabling future scholars to work from

a set of reliable data. For these reasons, De Visser's book will be used many times in the essay as

principal source of information on dragons and their connection with snakes.

This is also the case with Morris Edward Opler's Japanese Folk Belief concerning the Snake (1945). To De Visser's information, Opler adds a series of statements collected through interviews. Judging

from what he reports, snakes in Japan appears to still be a taboo, especially in the countrysides, while urban realities already in the 40s were disregarding them with skepticism. An oddity, as Opler

points out, regarding Japanese snake lore, is that, while in the majority of cultures around the world

the snake is a symbol of masculinity, in Japan it is associated with bad qualities of the female gender. It looks like snake fear could be a male reaction to female potential power, hinted as a

possible direction for further psychology studies. What is very useful of Opler's approach to the

subject is the amount of first hand information collected from actual Japanese, from which t is possible to have an idea of how such beliefs were still alive in the first half of the 20th century.

The fact that people living in countrysides and in cities tend to react differently towards folk beliefs

is the sign of Japan's modernization process that can be associated with the Westernization and social development of Japan. Modernization, is the global, but not uniform, process of technological and social transformation started during the nineteenth century, in Europe. 1868, the year of the 2

Meiji Revolution, was the starting point of the Modernization process that transformed Japan from

an underdeveloped nation to one of the most industrialized societies of our age, some scholars seem

to think that it is actually now the most modern society on earth. 3

Robert J. Adams explains in a more detailed way the historical and social process that created such

a great generational gap in Japan. In his essay from 1967, Folktale Telling and Storytellers in Japan, Adams claims that, before the beginning of this Westernization process, folktales were a form of entertainment enjoyed at every age, it was a way for families and entire communities, to

relieve themselves from boredom during communal occupations or resting moments. For adults,

especially men, spooky stories were fun and viewed as rite of passage, while for children the

2 _{McCormack, Gavan, and Yoshio Sugimoto. “Introduction: Modernization and Beyond.” Introduction. In}_The Japanese Trajectory: Modernization and Beyond, edited by Gavan McCormack and Yoshio Sugimoto, 1–14.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. p.1

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purpose was an educational. However, after the Meiji Restoration in 1868, and especially after the

Education Rescript Act in 1893, things changed. Education became mandatory for boys and, later, 4

for girls too. The time that children had for listening to tales during the evenings now was spent on

books. Tales became also standardized and studied, slowly replacing the many existing variants 5

with just a few popular ones. This process was more evident in urban realities rather than 6

countrysides, where lifestyles changed on a different speed level. To give the final blow to storytelling practices (still alive to these days but on the verge of disappearing) came then

television. With this new invention, older generations too found a new form of entertainment that

became in a short period of time the main one. In conclusion, Adams acknowledges that even 7

though storytellers and people with first-hand memories of such stories, during the 1960s, were still

alive, the social occasions in which such tales were told are not there anymore. This is an important

historical fact that marks the ending of a form of communication. Storytelling practices may be dying, but are their stories dying too? Since there are still storyteller alive it is possible that they

will find another way to transmit their stories, and that is what this essay aims to do: to compare

traditional storytelling to new forms of storytelling, in which way each of them portrays the figure of the snake. What was the traditional perception of this animal and how it is portrayed with new

storytelling.

Matthias Eder writes on the topic of folktales in 1969, analyzing the subject from a different perspective. Do Japanese people today still believe in folktales? And if they do, to what extent? 8

The question arises from the comparison with Western types of behavior towards supernatural beliefs or legend, that already Greek philosopher and the first Christian thinkers were disregarding

as not real. Reasons behind the almost unique relationship with the supernatural that Japan has are, 9

as Eder points out, many: historical, social and most of all religious. Interestingly, credulity (the tendency of believing to easily in events and concepts, regardless of the fact that they are or not

true) seem to appear in individuals that do not have any connection with old beliefs too. In addition,

now new myths and beliefs tend to have a worldwide impact rather than just local. This can be seen as an involuntary addition to the issues pointed out by previous authors like Adams, such as the

tendency to better hold on to folk beliefs in the countrysides. Even though it is undeniable that such

4 _{Adams, "Folktale Telling and Storytellers in Japan." p.108} 5 _{Ibid. p.108}

6 _{Ibid. p.108} 7 _{Ibid. p.108}

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tendency does exist, supernatural can turn people of way different backgrounds into believers.

However, is believers really the right way of calling every person who just has an interest in the

supernatural? Is believing in such creatures really necessary in order to not forget them? Love for these type of stories comes from the fact that they are interesting, and to read or hear such stories

does not equal believing in them, in my opinion. I argue that, believing in folklore, is not a

condition for its survival anymore. Storytelling evolution and people's relationship with folktales, analyzed by Adam and Eder's, are important phenomenons, vital for this research.

In 1988, Kogawa Tetsuo wrote an essay that shows even more how much communication changed

in relation to technological development. While exploring the ways and meanings of new mass

media Kogawa explains how this is leading to the formation of a mass culture. With the 10

circulation of the same information on a national scale, audiences too tend to homogenize into a

mass. However, the 'revolution' is caused not just by mass media, but from the whole set of new 11

electronic devices that changed Japanese people lifestyles and created new daily habits of every

kind: social relations, communication, values and political consciousness. With precise numbers 12

and data he shows the dramatic increasing of time that Japanese children spent in front of the

television screen, from 56 minutes per day in 1960 to more than three hours per day in 1975. He 13

compares television to an extra body part that generates a new collective consciousness that later

became popular culture.14For these reasons, Kogawa argues that mass media, including anime and

manga, should not be taken lightly, because of the major influence that they have over Japan and over the creation of new aesthetic and social values. This essay represent another stepping stone 15

for the understanding of the evolution of communication, of which storytelling practices are part of.

The latest book that deals extensively with dragons and snakes is China and Japan by Donald Mackenzie, from 1995. The book deals extensively with Chinese and Japanese myths and legends, it traces their origins, connections and similarities with other ancient cults around the world. More

than one-third of the book focuses on dragon and snake lore, using De Visser's book as the main

source, but also adding more information and expanding the geographical origins of such beasts. Stories about snakes and snake like beings are found all over the world but the most ancient come

10 _{Kogawa Tetsuo “New trends in Japanese popular culture.”. In}_{The Japanese Trajectory: Modernization and} Beyond, edited by Gavan McCormack and Yoshio Sugimoto, 54-66. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988. p.55

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from Egypt. It is evident, even from a superficial glance, that almost every culture or civilization

connected snakes with the water element, from rivers and waterfall to the endless ocean. But

Mackenzie point is, besides deepening the research about the roots of Japan and China's myths, to show how there is no such thing as a purely native originated culture. 16Both in China and Japan, he explains, present-day cultures are the result of influences, ideas, and traditions from both inside and

outside the countries. In addition, such imported elements have been more or less object of historical and political processes that choose the survival of one rather than another. This book

shows how snake lore is a world wide spread reality, present in the roots of almost every culture. De

Visser, Mackenzie and Opler's researches combined offer plenty of materials dealing with dragons and snakes. The first two look at the origins and roots of the supernatural beliefs associated with

these animals, while Opler works from interviews that he collected first-hand. Their works are those

from which this essay will rely more upon, as they are reliable sources of data.

Another important essay that will be used for this dissertation was written by Tai Wei Lim in 2013.

Object of the essay is Spirited Away, movie that won an Oscar back in 2001 and considered an

absolute masterpiece of Japanese animation, because of its themes and purposes. Lim discusses in the deep the environmental themes in which Hayao Miyazaki, the director, imbued his movie.

Characters and settings do carry many environmental issues that are very important for the

interpretation of the character of Haku, a white dragon and one of the main characters. Pollution, 17

waste and disrespect towards nature are just a few among the critiques that Miyazaki makes to

human kind. Power dynamics, traditions, children upbringing, economy, communal life and many others are the themes permeating the movie, expressed through the journey of a human girl into the

spirit's world, where our society can be seen reflected. Her article will be particularly useful in the 18

last part of the essay, where snakes and dragon will be discussed in relation to the new

environmental meanings of which they became a symbol. 19

Michael Dylan Foster is probably one of the best-known scholars of Japanese folklore active today;

he works especially on the concept of yōkai. In his book Pandemonium And Parade, Japanese Monsters And The Culture Of Yōkai (2009), he analyzes this concept from a historical but at the same time psychological point of view. What are yōkai, he asks in the first introductory chapter? Defining these creatures is not easy, one could translate this word with terms like "monsters", or

16 _{Mackenzie, Donald Alexander.}_{China and Japan}_{. London: Senate, 1995 p.VIII}

17 _{Lim, Tai Wei. "Spirited Away: Conceptualizing a Film-Based Case Study through Comparative Narratives of}

Japanese Ecological and Environmental Discourses." Animation 8, no. 2 (2013): 149-62.

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"demons", but Foster chose to use the expression "changing things". Why? Because yōkai defy proper translation, in Japanese too, there is no such thing as a precise definition. They are

"'unspecifiable, without a clear form, and therefore extraordinary, strange, to be feared as an outside force'". 20Yōkai, an undefined and mysterious presence of Japanese folklore, Foster says, are

actually an attempt of our minds to rationalize something that we do not understand by giving form

to it. Furthermore, when people create stories about 21 yōkai they add to it an extra element that contributes to the diminishing fear: they make them fun. Foster goes on, also, to remark the 22

difference between yōkai and kami, Japanese gods. In his opinion, the fundamental difference between the two is the presence (kami) or absence (yōkai) of worship. Interestingly, to better 23

explain the difference between them, Foster uses water deities as an example:

"A water spirit, for instance, may be simultaneously worshiped as a kami by families for whom the river provides ample irrigation and feared as a yōkai by families downriver who experienced drought." 24

This statement, even though does not refer directly to snakes, is perfectly explaining the

controversial nature of these animals that in their dragon form are worshiped and venerated as gods.

The second chapter of the book points the finger to the encyclopedic mode that supernatural

creatures and events tend to generate like it is evident in the work of Toriyama Sekien (1712-1788).

Sekien contributed greatly to the visualization of yōkai in his bestiaries, (three books in which yōkai

are drawn and completed with a brief explanation of their powers), full-fledged encyclopedias of the supernatural that will be further explained later in the essay. Foster identify Sekien's books as

the marking moment in which folktales and supernatural became a subject of their own, the first

moment in which scholars became aware of folklore as an independent study category.

Foster's fourth chapter is concerned with the already mentioned and still ongoing discussion about

the social changes that Westernization caused in Japan after the Meiji Restoration. What is the new role of the supernatural in the scientifically oriented new societies? During the 20th century, 25

scholars started to study such beliefs for what they mean for Japan, in terms of social changes, and

nationalism. Disregarded as not real at first, as silly superstitions generated by diffused ignorance,

20 _{Foster, Micheal Dylan,}_{Pandemonium And Parade, Japanese Monsters And The Culture Of Yōkai}_{, University}

of California Press, Berkley, 2009. p.6

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scholars realized in time that there was more to it than pure science. What did 26 yōkai mean for Japan? What they represented of the country's culture and history was at the center of the debate.

Foster's last chapter offers an overview of what has become of yōkai culture in the last half of the century. New creatures have been born and yōkai populates new media like anime and manga. yōkai

in the new millennium is, according to Foster, figures intrinsically Japanese, coming from the same

cultural background and born from new fears of the new era. They are, in the end, still a response 27

to our own fears, reminding that we are not so different, after all, from "ignorant" folks of the past

centuries. Foster's book extensively explains how yōkai have been perceived throughout history and the controversial relationship that Japan had with them. He presents clear facts and definitions to draw from and possibly criticize. Are really snakes fitting in his definitions? It is possible that they

actually defy Foster's theory and that, in the new millennium they evolved in something new in

which our fears do not play such a vital role for their survival.

Humanists are not the only scholars interested in folklore. Biologists and environmental scientists

Sasaki, Sasaki and Fox, in their paper "Endangered traditional beliefs in Japan: influences on snake

conservation" (2010), point out some consequences of snake beliefs are being discussed. The authors of the article, are pointing out a series of superstitions and folk beliefs that are,

involuntarily, protecting this species on the Japanese archipelago. Snakes do not have a good

reputation, still, in the new millennium, people fear them (in the countryside this phenomenon is, again, stronger). Japanese are so afraid of anger a snake, or to offend them in some way that they

stay far away from the areas where they can be found. Therefore, snakes and their habitats are protected from humans damaging nature. As every generation become better educated than the

previous ones, these beliefs are more often disregarded as silly superstition, which has no space in

modern societies. Sasaki and Fox's aim is to suggest the reintroduction of such beliefs amongst the population in order to re-establish a "cultural" protection system for these endangered species. It is,

however, my opinion, that such process would be extremely difficult to reverse (if not impossible at

all), not to mention counterproductive in many other ways, for instance, because a proper scientific education might suffer from it. Sasaki, Sasaki and Fox's article is an important source of data. This is the essay with the most recent set of information, and for this reason essential for analyzing the

relationship between those traditions still surviving today and the way in which they are transmitted.

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The encyclopedic mode, as in the practice of collecting and organizing information through

categories and labels in the context of the supernatural is something that has started to a certain

extent with Sekien but it has become a phenomenon typical of our generations too. Like Deborah

Shamoon points out in the essay from 2013, The Yōkai in the Database: Supernatural Creatures

and Folklorein Manga and Anime, Sekien's catalogues provided a set of images from which new generation of artist can be inspired from. It is the case, for example, of modern manga artist Mizuki Shigeru and his manga series Gegege no Kitarō, in which yōkai are deliberately drawn after

Sekien's images. Thanks to the huge success of his manga and its anime adaptation, Mizuki gave new life to the supernatural, influencing the visual memory of new generation. 28

The point is that there is a tendency towards the classification of the supernatural, started partly by

Sekien and continued by later scholars or artists and that now can be seen brought to extreme level

by modern fandoms. Every new manga gets his own share of fans that create systematically entire Wikipedia pages dedicated to the understanding of their favorite characters and themes. Shamoon's

article offers another important insight regarding new tendencies of the manga and anime world, where readers and fans are creating researches of their own. They might be non-academic types of research, but they are available by whoever is interested in them and has access to an internet

connection.

Michael Dylan Foster dedicates, finally, some attention to snakes in his last work The Book of yōkai: Mysterious Creatures of Japanese Folklore in 2015. The reason why snakes are so

misunderstood is, according to him, because of their body shape, or at least partly. Having no legs or arms, and having behaviors so different from ours, or other "cuter" animals makes them hard to

relate to (in general other mammals, or creatures that we can domesticate). In Foster's words: "a 29

snake is too alien for us to “personify” in this way; it is simply close to impossible to imagine its everyday life from the inside". This is the main reason behind the contradicting nature of snakes, 30

treated often as yōkai, born in that border space between attraction and fear, rather than benevolent

kami controllers of water. Snakes, like other real or fictional creatures believed to be somehow supernatural, do not make sense, we cannot relate emotionally or mentally to them. They test our

power of empathy. Foster's definitions and theories will be fundamental in this research, to 31

28 _{Shamoon, Deborah. "The}_Yōkai_{in the Database: Supernatural Creatures and Folklore in Manga and Anime."} Marvels & Tales 27, no. 2 (2013): 276-289. p.279

29 _{Foster, Michael Dylan. 2015.}_{The Book of yōkai: Mysterious Creatures of Japanese Folklore}_{. p.87} 30 _{Ibid. p.87}

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understand the evolution of snake and dragon lore, to see in which way they conform, or not, to

modern folklore theories.

James Boyd, in 2016, analyses the Shinto influences that the author, Hayao Miyazaki, made use of for the creation of the movie. In his opinion, Spirited Away is full of Shinto's themes and sources

that Miyazaki cares to transmit through the movie. While it is true that Miyazaki imbued the 32

movie with Japanese traditional spiritual values, the use of the world Shinto is problematic in many ways. The Shinto religion has a controversial history, deeply connected and sometimes fused with

Buddhism, Confucianism, and Taoism, and it can be difficult to clearly distinguish what aspect

belongs to one or the other. Controversies regarding Shinto are still subject of debate among scholars. However, it is not necessary for this essay to open this particular Pandora's box, and I just

argue that to attribute some aspect of Spirited Away to Shinto is dangerous, because the very nature

of this religion is still far from being established on an academic level. Therefore, Boyd's article will be put to very good use for the set of Japanese beliefs and traditional elements that clearly permeate

the whole movie. However I will not refer to them as part of Shinto, but to a more general set of

spiritual beliefs shared by Japan as a community. Furthermore, after screening many interviews to the director himself, it is very unlikely that Miyazaki would impose his own religious positions to

its audience. 33

New artists play with folklore, they play with yōkai, they invent new ones and the new generation is growing up with this new visual pantheon of monsters born from the ashes of old beliefs. Traditions

are still passed on, in a different form and with different means worth being analyzed. What has become of the old fearsome snake? What is the new face of the rain giving dragon? In what way old

storytelling and new storytelling portrays them differently?

Snake and dragon lore has been transmitted through oral storytelling, from believer to believer, but now both the means and the condition for their transmission are fading. Knowing how old

storytelling functioned and the conditions for its survival is required in order to comprehend how

the new forms of transmission work and why they can survive. The second chapter will look into how snakes and dragons are perceived and what beliefs are to them associated through traditional

storytelling, while in the third one will look at which of these beliefs Hayao Miyazaki choose to

represent in his movie Spirited Away.

32 _{Boyd, James W. and Nishimura, Tetsuya (2016) "Shinto Perspectives in Miyazaki's Anime Film "Spirited}

Away"," Journal of Religion & Film: Vol. 8: Iss. 3, Article 4. p.8

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Chapter Three

Beliefs and Stories Concerning Snakes

3.1Hidden Beliefs and Taboos

Japan has a peculiar relationship with snakes. Snake cults and worships are very common around

the world, however, in Japan, it is possible to notice a great fear towards these animals. High fevers and various illnesses are believed to be caused by snakes. But what makes these reptiles such

complicated creatures to analyze is their association with dragons, a far more famous Eastern Asian

symbol. As De Visser says, dragons and snakes are "considered to belong to the same species". In 34

addition, in many tales and visual representation their images are not easy to distinguish because

they are portrayed in the same way. Images of great serpents and dragons are often visually

identical and white snakes are believed to have the potential to transform into dragons. It is simply impossible to create independent discourses about one or the other.

This chapter's aim is to explain this relationship in the clearest way possible, through the eyes of

folk beliefs and stories from Japanese (and possibly Chinese) traditions. Controversies and double standards that define the nature of snakes in Japan can be better exemplified through the analysis of

some of the most well-known tales of the country, for instance Urashima Taro and the legend of

Madam White Snake. Both stories changed a lot in terms of interpretation and themes throughout centuries, with every age adding something of their own. The historical changes of these stories can

be tracked because they have been written down in important classics texts of Japan like the Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matter) sand the Nihon Shoki (Chronicles of Japan).

In order to understand how modern Japanese artist reinvented these stories, and in which way they

are handed down to new generations, it is necessary to fully display their mythological origins. To

what extent the connection between dragons and snakes is still alive? In which way their double nature of yōkai and kami can be defined? It has already been mentioned by Sasaki and Fox that snakes beliefs do have real repercussions on the safety of these animals, clearly not at fault for being misunderstood by humans. Therefore, to just disregard supernatural beliefs connected with

snakes as silly superstitions is, in my opinion, also unproductive for the well being of these animals

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and their whole habitats. Hopefully, new generations will be able to find a compromise between

scientific facts and superstition, between modernity and tradition.

3.2 A Misunderstood Creature

At the beginning of Japanese history, snakes worship was very common among people and many

deities described in the Kojiki had snake like appearances. The importance of this cult decreased but it is not at all disappeared from Japan. So many communities, large and small, still have shrines 35

dedicated to deities believed to have the body of a snake. Snake dedicated shrines can be recognized

from the offers that people leave, usually cooked rice and raw eggs, of which they seem to be avid

consumers. One of the best examples of snake worship can be found in Nara, at the shrine on 36

Mount Miwa. This deity inhabiting the mountain is believed to take human form very often, in 37

order to bear children, but its true form is that of serpent. The serpent is the god protector of the mountain which is considered, as a whole, sacred ground, indicated by the presence of the shrine at

the bottom of it. Mount Miwa and its snake deity is one of the survivors of an ancient rooted snake 38

worship, a consequence of the association of snakes with water. Mount Miwa itself is still an 39

important religious place, it is infested by a variety of snake species and scholar gave the name of

"Mount Miwa type tales" to stories with supernatural marriages. They are believed to inhabit 40

rivers, lakes or ponds and to send rains or big storms as they pleases. 41

Such behaviour certainly looks weird in the light of what has already been said about them, namely

the fact that they are mostly feared by folks. Albino snakes are especially considered sacred and this belief is so strong that in the last century areas inhabited by them have been established as protected

areas and as natural monuments. Often, the border line between a great serpent, believed to protect 42

a certain territory, and a dragon is very hard to find. They are represented in the same way, and they have been attributed with similar powers, especially over water. It is forbidden to disrespect snakes:

no one wants to anger one of them and at the same time nobody is willing to speak about such

matter easily. This knowledge is a taboo, it is shared in the secrecy of a house, among close relatives and friends. As one of Opler's informants in the Us says, nobody talks about snakes 43

35 _{Sasaki, Fox,, Endangered traditional beliefs in Japan: influences on snake conservation. p. 476} 36 _{Ibid. p.476}

37 _{Daniels, F. J. "Snake and Dragon Lore of Japan." Folklore 71, no. 3 (1960): 145-64. p.156-157} 38 _{Ibid. p.156-157}

39 _{Ibid. p.156-157} 40 _Ibid_{. p.157} 41 _{Ibid. p.156-157.} 42 _{Ibid. p.477}

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because Japanese think that if a snake is mentioned than it will appear. It is believed that on a path 44

created by one snake others will follow, creating a very dangerous situation from which humans

could hardly escape unharmed. This fear is so strong that some of Opler's informants asked to 45

remain anonymous.

Lillywhite and Yamamoto attempted to formulate some theories behind this complicated

relationship, and they identified four of them. Firstly, in order to avoid to drown, when storms and floods occur, snakes are forced to come out of their holes in the ground, often in human houses,

who started to believe that there was a connection between them and such events. Secondly, 46

snakes change their skin, this has been interpreted as a sign of longevity and the potential of becoming immortal. Thirdly, snakes tend to live and build nests in holes into the ground, and this 47

led to the conclusion that they were able to travel between our realm and that of the dead. 48

Fourthly, and last, their habit of populating old buildings enhanced their association with the supernatural and ghostly activities. It is clear that purely natural behavioral features of this animal 49

have been misunderstood for "magical".

Another curious aspect of these animal's beliefs is their shape-shifting ability. Exactly like tanuki

and kitsune, also snakes are believed to be able to take human form, very often that of beautiful women. A woman can be either a snake itself, and disguises herself in this way to begin love affairs

with male humans, or a woman with snake like behaviors, for instance jealousy and coldness. 50

Among folk beliefs is also told that some people are born with either the power of controlling

snakes or entire families that are protected by them. The first examples are said to posses the 51

power of hypnotize them and to have a small depression in the lobe of their ear. This at least was

the case for a little girl mentioned by one of Opler's informant, who was famous in her village

because she was not afraid of them and played with them as she pleased, putting snakes around her arms or neck. She did have the depression in her earlobe, and therefore, concluded the informant, 52

this specific belief must have been somehow true. The second example is that of entire families 53

44 _{Ibid. p.249} 45 _{Ibid. p.249}

46 _{Lillywhite, Jamie, and Akira Y. Yamamoto. "Snakes, Serpents and Humans." In}_{Japanese ghosts and demons:} art of the supernatural, 139-53. New York: G. Braziller. p.140-141

47 _{Ibid. p.140-141} 48 _{Ibid. p.140-141} 49 _{Ibid. p.140-141}

50 _{Opler, "Japanese Folk beliefs concerning the snake", p.251} 51 _{Ibid. p.256-257}

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and lineages that are told to “enjoy” the favor of snakes. These protection is viewed more as burden

than an actual protection. Members of these families do have hard times in finding marriage

partners, because considered too dangerous. If a member of these families is hurt or wronged, the 54

snake takes revenge, it does it out of its own will and the person itself does not have any control

over it. 55

3.3 Written Accounts on Snakes

Stories with snakes as protagonists are many and can be found all over Japan. In this section are

reported tales found in written accounts, also from Japanese classics, that are still coherent however with tales still orally transmitted in the country today.

Keigo Seki in his "Types of Japanese Folktale" collected quite an impressive number of them and ordered them with their principal variations. His five criterias for the selection of such tales were very strict:

“1) Tales with definite forms and coherent plots that have been recorded word for word.

2) Tales whose informants, locations and dates are identifiable. 3) Tales that are representative versions of each tale type. 4) Tales that are widely distributed and told

very often. 5) Tales representing all parts of Japan” 56

Marriages, affairs and pregnancies are the favorite themes of these stories. Seki reports many stories

with a male snake and a female human spouse. The Serpent Bridegroom tells the story of a young

lady who falls in love with an unknown man who visits her every night. Wanting to know more 57

about her mysterious lover she follows him thanks so a threaded needle attached to its clothes. She

then reaches a pool in which she finds a wounded snake. That, she discovers, is the true form of 58

her lover, who tells her that the child that she is bearing will become a great man. The story has 59

many variants, sometimes the woman has a miscarriage or delivers prematurely a snake child: it seems that iris is the plant enemy to snakes and that it is used fix the bad deeds of snakes. In another

story we discover another of the believed weak points of snakes: iron. A man promises to give in

marriage one of his three daughters to whoever would have been able to water completely his dry

54 _{Ibid. p.257} 55 _{Ibid. p.257}

56 _{Seki, Keigo."Types of Japanese Folktales."}_{Asian Folklore Studies}_{25 (1966): 1-220. Introduction p.XVIII} 57 _{Ibid. p.69-88}

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rice-field. The only one answering the call is a young man, who is actually a snake. The first two 60 61

daughters refuse to answer to their duty, however, the third and most clever of the girls accepts. 62

She follows him to his pool and, with a trick, manages to throw metal needles in the water while he is in it. The Serpent dies and the girl return safe and sound to her family. 63 64

Both in China and Japan there is a widespread belief that says that snakes, and therefore dragons,

fear iron very much. It was a common practice in pre-modern China to throw iron into a water 65

body believed to be inhabited by a dragon, in order to make it come out and bring rain. In 66

addition, it can happen that couples truly desiring a baby, receives from the gods or find a snake

baby. After raising him like their own, the snake for some reasons (his scary looks or behaviors) is 67

left or escapes to the mountains. Most of the time it becomes the rain giver deity of that area, but 68

sometimes it also harms humans and is hunted down for that. Another story reported by Seki tells 69

about a snake saved by a man, and that returns in the shape of a beautiful woman in order to marry him. Afterwards, the snake bears a child and forbids husbands from assisting to the birth. The man

breaks his promise, witness her true form and is thereafter punished by his wife. She leaves him 70

with the newborn, to return to her pond, but she leaves to him one of her eyes able to pour milk for the baby. The eye is stolen by a Lord, and the man goes to the snake to ask for the other one. The 71

second eye too is stolen by the Lord, which causes the rage of the snake, who takes revenge by

flooding his domains and becomes the new ruler. As we will see in the next sections, while the 72

encounter with a snake can bring either great fortune or great misfortune, dragons encounters are

always a good omen. In every story, as it will be evident later in the essay, when man meets a dragons is considered blessed and afterwards he obtains great power and success in life.

In the tale The Magic Ear, one of the many stories collected by Keigo Seki, it is told of how a man received the gift of understanding animals after rescuing the only daughter of the great Dragon King under the sea. Afterwards, he begins to understand what animals says and discovers the real reason

60 _{Ibid. p.69-88} 61 _{Ibid. p.69-88} 62 _{Ibid. p.69-88} 63 _{Ibid. p.69-88} 64 _{Ibid. p.69-88}

65 _{De Visser,}_{Dragon in China and Japan.}_P.178 66 _{Ibid. P.178}

67 _{Ibid. p.178} 68 _{Ibid. p.178} 69 _{Ibid. p.178}

70 _{Seki,"Types of Japanese Folktales." p.69-88} 71 _{Ibid. p.69-88}

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behind a wealthy man's daughter illness:

"Human beings are nothing but fools" -so the crows were saying. "They have called all the

famous doctors there are, but none of them can heal the nobleman's daughter. The girl's disease is not one to be healed by medicines. When the roof of the nobleman's house was being

thatched, a snake was put in with the thatching grass by mistake. If someone would only get the

snake out and give it something to eat, the girl would get well again".73

Upon hearing such information, the man helps to resolve the situation. After rescuing and feeding the snake the girl miraculously regains her health and becomes the protagonist's wife. Beside

mentioning the legendary Dragon King and his palace underwater, in a tale that is most probably

one of the many variation of Urashima Taro's legend, the tale represent a clear example of a mistreated snake behaviour.This leads to an important consideration: snakes, unlike the rest of

yōkai, do not posses that fun vibe that other yōkai like foxes and racoon dogs do have. It is arguable that snakes can be considered fully yōkai in first place, even though Foster includes them in the category. If the difference between 74 yōkai and kami is reduced to the absence or presence of worship, then snakes have the potential to be regarded as full fledged kami.

One of the best examples of folktales with an evil snake is the Dōjōji legend. The story is inspired by theEternal Prisoner Under the Thunder Peak Pagoda, a popular Chinese tale that was

transmitted also to Japan and became known as the Dōjōji legend, believed to have taken place in

the Dōjōji temple in Hidakagawa. The names of the protagonists are Kiyohime, the woman that 75

falls in love with the young monk Anchin, after spending one night together. The man fails to 76

return her feelings, causing the anger of Kiyohime who starts to chase after him and turns herself

into a serpent in order to cross a river. Anchin takes refuge inside a temple bell but she manages to 77

find him anyway and burned him alive inside the bell. 78

Jasei no in, or A Serpent's Lust, is the title of a story written by Ueda Akinari in 1776, part of

Ugetsu monogatari, translated in English as Tales of Rain and Moonlight. The story is inspired by the Dōjōji legend and it has engraved itself in popular imagination, thanks also to movie and anime adaptations of the tales. Unlike 79 Urashima Taro's legend, which is a popular tale today mainly for

73 _Seki._{Folktales of Japan}_{. p.139-142}

74 _{Foster, The Book of}_yōkai_{: Mysterious Creatures of Japanese Folklore. p.87}

75 _{Ueda, Akinari, and Anthony H. Chambers.}_{Tales of Moonlight and Rain}_{. New York: Columbia University}

Press, 2007. p.1

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children, the Dōjōji legend is tragic and violent, and therefore less present in the imaginary of new generations. The legend evolved very differently in China and Japan. At the very beginning,

Madame White Snake, the snake lady protagonist of the tale, was in both countries a lustful demon that seduced and killed a men. However, while in China the character evolved into a positive one, 80

first by becoming the ideal wife and mother. She became loving and caring, and saves her family

and village from catastrophes. However, in Japan she remained a demon, representing every

negative feature that a woman can have. There is no sign whatsoever, in Japan, of the evolution of 81

Madame White Snake, or of the feminist turn that her character saw in China. Being a demon, and 82

not just a defenseless woman, puts Madame White Snake in a position of power, something that

made her a favorite among feminists, and simply overshadowed her male co protagonist. 83

3.4 A Dragon Hidden in the Water is Useless

In East Asia, dragons are considered water deities, and they are associated with a great number of

symbols and elements. In China and Japan, winter is the drought season, and dragons are believed

to awaken in spring, when the rain season starts. From this association comes the old Chinese saying "a dragon hidden in the water is useless". Many are the Chinese legends that report of 84

encounters between humans and dragons. Meeting a dragon always brings great fortune to the man

who witnessed his presence, even the man of lowest born afterwards becomes a great man able to serve well the Emperor, who grants him honors and wealth.

It has already been mentioned that dragons and snakes are believed to belong to the same species, and they have therefore similar powers and weaknesses, such as controlling the weather and

vulnerability to iron. De Visser mentions three ways to cause or stop rain, used in ancient Japanese 85

and Chinese societies, and they all involve some sort of ritual to lure or keep away a dragon. The 86

first method involved the sacrifice of white or black horses to bring rain, and red horses to stop it. 87

The second method, already mentioned earlier in the chapter, saw people plagued by the drought

throwing iron inside water bodies believed to be inhabited by dragons, these would come out at

80 _{Lai, Whalen. "From Folklore to Literate Theater: Unpacking "Madame White Snake"."}_{Asian Folklore Studies}

51, no. 1 (1992): 51. p.52

81 _{Ibid. p.53} 82 _{Ibid. p.53} 83 _{Ibid. p.53}

84 _Mackenzie,_{China and Japan}_{. p 56}

85 _{De Visser,}_{Dragon in China and Japan.}_P.178 86 _{Ibid. P.178}

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once, lift in the sky and cause a storm with their rage. These two methods seem to have older roots 88

than the third one, of Buddhist origin and apparently dominant in Japan: the Buddhist priest prays

and recites sutras constantly, until the nagas/dragons, moved by the suffering caused by the drought would help human kind at once. It is evident that snakes, in different countries and different local 89

shapes and perceptions, always maintained their role as water spirits or gods. The old annals of

Japan do mention many dragons as water-gods, or great serpents. The myth of creations also sees 90

the genesis of Kura-okami, described in the Manyōshū as the god of rain and snow, born from one

of the three pieces of the fire god body. In another passage of an ancient text, the Nihongi, it is 91

said how Izanami and Izanagi also gave birth to the gods of the sea, Watatsumi no Mikoto, that De Visser translates as "snake of the sea". De Visser mentions also the existence in the ancient texts 92

of Oho Watatsumi no Mikoto, "sea lord" or "sea snake". This deity is known also as Toyotama Hiko

no Mikoto, the Abundant Pearl Prince, and his extraordinarily beautiful daughter, Toyotama Hime, or Abundant Pearl Princess, mentioned for the first time in the Kojiki, and then again in the

Nihongi. The legendary Dragon King of the Sea, according to the legends, lives in a beautiful and 93

full of fortunes palace on the bottom of the ocean, called ryūgūjō, or sometimes in an island in the middle of it and not reachable by humans, a concept very similar to that of Tokoyo no kuni. 94

Urashima Taro's legend shows both of them among the main protagonists of the story. In the story a young man named Urashima Taro, is invited to visit the ryūgūjō after saving the Dragon King's

only daughter. When the time to return to land comes, the Abundant Pearl Princess sends him off 95

with a box and the promise to never open it. However, once on land the man realizes that in the 96

two worlds time passes differently, and that all of the people that he knew were long dead. He then 97

opens the box and vanishes in a smoke puff, because it contained his real age. The tale has many 98

variant and differences depending on each region or area of Japan but this version has been crystallized in the last century, and studied on textbooks.

The dragon is also one of the Four Benevolent Animals: Seiryū, the Azure Dragon, symbol of the

88 _{Ibid. P.178} 89 _{Ibid. P.178} 90 _{Ibid. P.135}

91 _{The Manyōshū is an ancient poetry collection from the Nara period.}

92 _{Nihongi, Chronicles of Japan, one of the most important texts in Japanese literature. Nara period.} 93 _{Ibid. P.139}

94 _{Tokoyo no kuni: legendary distant land across the ocean from Japanese mythology.} 95 _{Ibid. p.69-88}

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East, of the spring, fertility, youth and water. The other three animals are the Byakko, the White 99

Tiger of the West and Autumn, Suzaku, the Vermillion Bird of the South and Summer, and Gembu,

the Black Tortoise of the North and Winter. Representations of these animals are very popular in

East Asian art, as they are all auspicious symbols. As Holmes says, dragon are considered benign 100

creatures and generally of good nature. She also mentions the existence of five types of dragons, 101

those heaven sent, those that cause rain to fall, then land-dragons that rule water courses and bodies, dragons who are guarding treasures and sea dragon kings (four of them exist and rule each over one

of the four seas on earth). 102

3.5 Kami

or

Yōkai

?

Are snakes kami or yōkai? Ueda Akinari, author of A Serpent's Lust, was interested in supernatural related issues, and he dedicated a lot of his writings to a better understanding of the nature of kami. In Akinari's writings, however, there is not much distinction between kami and yōkai. Foxes and racoon dogs too are referred to as kami, instead of yōkai, like Foster does. All of these supernatural creatures fall, in his works, under the category of kami and felt as inappropriate the application of Confucianist and Buddhist theoretical frameworks onthem. Kami, in his opinion, simply do not conform to their structure. 103Kami and animal spirits both, in his opinion, do not conform to moral

principle, they simply do not posses the concept of good and bad like human beings do. 104

"By nature, such [fox] spirits do not distinguish between good and bad, or right and wrong.

They protect what is good for them and curse what is bad.... The kami are believed to be the

same.... They bless their faithful with happiness and curse the unfaithful". 105

For Akinari. it does not make sense to dispute about the good or ill nature of kami, because they cannot be understood with same parameters in which we understand humans. They can be generous

and benevolent, if they are well served and worshiped, and vengeful spirits if angered. This is 106

also the basic distinction between Shinto, or kami worship practices, and Buddhism and

99 _{Holmes, Yoshihiko.}_{Chronological evolution of the Urashima Taro story and its interpretation: a thesis} submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Japanese Studies. Master's thesis, Victoria University of Wellington. p.31-32

100 _{Seki, Types of Japanese Folktales. p.56-57} 101 _{Ibid. p.56-57}

102 _{Ibid. p.56-57}

103 _{Fessler, Susanna. "The Nature of the Kami. Ueda Akinari and Tandai Shoshin Roku."}_{Monumenta Nipponica}

51, no. 1 (1996): 1-15. doi:10.2307/2385314. p.1

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Confucianism. According to Buddhist and Confucianist doctrines, if a man follows the right

spiritual path he has the potential of becoming a divine being. However, kami belong to what we can call a different species. The difference between humans and kami can be seen as biological, we simply belong to different species and we cannot become one or the other, not even the most pious

and devout among us. 107

The discourse about supernatural beings never stopped. It is interesting to notice that, while for Akinari, back in the 16th century, the difference between kami and yōkai was either not relevant or not existent at all, for Foster it represents such a key point for their analysis. Both entities do not

posses a precise shape, they defy normal, we see them in the shape that makes are more comfortable with the mysterious and the unknown. If 108 yōkai, like Foster argues,are just not worshiped kami

then snakes do not belong to the first category. Snake worship does exist. Legends about snake

shaped deities, mythical rain dragons gods and great serpents with powers over water have been told and written down since ancient times, and they are the proof of a snake worship never ended

and still very alive today, like the case of Mount Miwa shows.

In conclusion, it is my opinion that snakes and dragons both belong to the realm of kami, they both can be good or bad, depending on how they are treated by humans. If a snake is mistreated then

misfortune will fall on the unlucky, or stupid, guilty human. However, if properly worshiped and

nurtured, snakes, especially in their dragon form, are capable of reward with great fortunes and treasures, not to mention their protection. This is the image that traditional storytelling and written

accounts of old events in Japan portray these creatures and how they were transmitted to people until the 20th century. How have things changed with the falling of old storytelling practices? What

do snakes and dragon look like in young Japanese minds? Who is responsible for the transmission

of old fairy tales and their protagonists? The answers to these questions will be the research aim of the next chapter.

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Chapter Four

Old and New Storytelling

4.1 Folklore and Traditional Storytelling Practices

Orally transmitted folktales can be found in every culture around the world and, as it was already stated in chapter one, they had the double function of educating young children and to relieve from

boredom at the same time. Folktales, as can be seen in the previous chapter, have been recorded in

written texts throughout history, and they generally match the oral versions still told in Japan. What is in danger are not the folktales, but the practice of oral transmission that created so local many

variants. Nowadays, a great amount of these oral traditions are disappearing, especially among

technologically advanced societies. In Japan, this process is deeply connected with the drastic changes started with the Meiji Revolution in 1868. After 250 years of almost total isolation, Japan 109

opened its borders to the rest of the world, and therefore also to Western countries. As Adams

explains, these events influenced the daily habits of Japanese people, and changed, gradually, the conditions in which folktales were transmitted. For example, folktales were told often during winter

indoors and mainly sedentary activities, when people used to produce daily necessities, or when it

was time to rest in the evening. They were a form of entertainment, used to pass time while 110

fulfilling such repetitive and boring duties. However, technological development came to Japan 111

too, and especially in urban areas, these moments diminished or disappeared altogether, and those

moments previously dedicated to the sharing of folktales were filled with other activities, like

studying. From 1893, education for men became compulsory and the time before spent in the 112

evening listening to grandparents stories was now spent between books and homework. Not long 113

after that education became compulsory for girls too. Folktales then began to appear in textbooks 114

in a crystallized version, but not all of them could obviously make the cut, and consequently, a great

quantity of the multitude of local variants gradually was eventually lost. This process worked way

109 _{Adams, "Folktale Telling and Storytellers in Japan". p.106} 110 _{Ibid. p.106}

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faster in cities, where children were raised far from the lifestyle of their grandparents, while in

countryside folktales survived longer. Another factor that accelerated such process was mass 115

communication. Televisions and radios had a strong power over older generations as well, and 116

decreased the need for entertainment through folktales. Adams argues that storytellers failed to 117

realize that such tales could be still passed on if the proper conditions were to be re created, and

instead joined the rest of family in front of the television. However, folktales are still passed on to 118

future generations. It is my assumption that storytelling simply changed its media.

The conditions that allowed oral transmission for so long are vanishing, but new form of

communication took over the world in the meantime. As Kogawa Tetsuo points out:'traditional oral cultures are dying under the domination of overpowering mass media'. Electronics devices and

internet connection can put in contact and 'reorganize' audiences in different categories, nation,

interests and so on. His article is from 1988, and shows data that confirm what Adams already 119

pointed out. In his words:

'In this changing media environment, people more and more spent time watching television. In 1960 people over the age of ten watched television for 56 minutes every weekday; in 1975 for 3

hours and 19 minutes. Inversely, sleeping hours decreased from 8 hours and 13 minutes to 7 hours and 52 minutes. In this way, television has become a strong apparatus to transform everything into popular images mass culture. As television has become like one's extended 'body', one does not necessarily recognize what is happening on television. At a level beyond

one's consciousness, happenings on television directly become a popular culture. In the earlier

stage, television was a medium between reality and its image.'120

If this phenomenon was already so evident at the end of the 1980s, the situation in the new

millennium became even more extreme, with devices that allow us to use internet connection

everywhere we are at any given time. Kogawa argues that, given the amount of people that enjoy manga and anime, more attention should be given their aesthetics, and, I add, to their themes and

the side effect that they generate. One of these interesting phenomenons is the tendency of 121

creating databases online. Shamoon claims that this tendency has pretty famous historical

115 _{Ibid. p.108-109} 116 _{Ibid. p.108-109} 117 _{Ibid. p.108-109} 118 _{Ibid. p.110}

119 _{Kogawa Tetsuo “New trends in Japanese popular culture.” p.55} 120 _{Ibid. p.56}

Storytelling Practices in the New Millennium