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EXPLORING INDUSTRIAL &

ORGANIZATIONAL

PSYCHOLOGY:

Work &

Organizational Behavior

Robert L. Dipboye

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Dr. Robert L. Dipboye received his undergraduate degree from Baylor University and his Ph. D. in Industrial and Organizational Psychology from Purdue University. He was Associate Professor in the Stokely School of Management at University of Tennessee and Professor of Psychology and Management at Rice University. In his 26 years at Rice he held the Herbert S. Autrey Chair in Social Sciences, was chair of the

department of psychology, and directed the program in Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Most recently he was professor of psychology and department chair at the University of Central Florida, where he is currently Professor Emeritus. Dr. Dipboye was on the editorial boards of several professional journals including the Academy of Management Review, Journal of Organizational Behavior, the Journal of Applied Psychology, and the Frontiers Series of the Society of Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP). He also served as as an Associate Editor of the Journal of Applied Psychology and as a Consulting Editor of the Journal of Organizational Behavior. He is a fellow of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology, the American Psychological Association, and the Association for Psychology Science. Dr. Dipboye has published several books and over 100 articles in the field of Industrial and

Organizational Psychology. He has also consulted with major corporations on problems of Human Resources Management and Organizational Behavior.

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PREFACE ... 20

CHAPTER 1: WHAT IS I/O PSYCHOLOGY? ... 27

INTRODUCTION ... 28

I/O AS A SPECIALTY WITHIN PSYCHOLOGY ... 28

WHAT DO I/OPSYCHOLOGISTS DO? ... 29

WHERE DO I/OPSYCHOLOGISTS WORK? ... 31

HOW MUCH DO I/OPSYCHOLOGISTS EARN? ... 32

THE SCIENTIST-PRACTITIONER MODEL ... 34

I/O IS A PROFESSION AS WELL AS A JOB ... 35

A body of specialized knowledge: expertise ... 36

A normative orientation to the service of others: ethics ... 36

Technical autonomy: self-governance in professional associations... 40

BECOMING AN I/OPSYCHOLOGIST ... 42

THE FUTURE LOOKS BRIGHT FOR I/OPSYCHOLOGY ... 44

SOME POINTS TO PONDER ... 46

CONCLUSIONS ... 46

CHAPTER 2: A HISTORY OF I/O PSYCHOLOGY ... 48

INTRODUCTION ... 49

THE EARLY YEARS (1880–1920) ... 51

What were the major forces shaping work during the early years? ... 51

Industrialization and mass production. ... 51

Massive waves of immigration ... 53

Rise of the corporation. ... 53

What were the dominant theories of how to organize and manage work? ... 55

The emergence of psychology as a separate discipline ... 60

The early applications of psychology to work ... 63

THE MIDDLE YEARS (1920–1945) ... 67

Economic boom and bust ... 68

The Human Relations movement and neo-classical theories of management ... 74

The neoclassical and other notable organizational theorists... 80

THE POST WWIIERA (1945–1965) ... 83

Rapidly accelerating change in a period of progress and turmoil ... 83

The rise of organizational psychology ... 87

THE MODERN ERA (1990– NOW) ... 100

Global competition ... 101

Computer technology and the internet ... 101

Terrorism ... 103

The population explosion, diminishing resources, and climate change ... 104

CONCLUSIONS ... 105

CHAPTER 3: I/O PSYCHOLOGY AS A SCIENCE ... 107

INTRODUCTION ... 108

DISTINGUISHING SCIENCE FROM NON-SCIENCE ... 108

Characteristics of non-scientific knowledge ... 109

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THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD ... 114

The goals of scientific research ... 116

Some basic terms ... 116

STATISTICS... 117 Distributions. ... 117 Descriptive statistics... 119 Inferential statistics. ... 130 MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES ... 134 Levels of measurement. ... 134 Reliability of measurement. ... 135 Validity of measures. ... 136 META-ANALYSIS ... 147

Basic steps involved in conducting a meta-analysis ... 147

Corrections for statistical artifacts in meta-analysis ... 148

DESIGNING RESEARCH FOR EXPLANATION ... 151

Hold constant or eliminate variables ... 151

Manipulate the variable ... 152

Measure the variable ... 152

Randomly assign research participants to conditions ... 152

Match on the variable ... 154

DIFFERENT TYPES OF RESEARCH ... 154

Experimental vs. nonexperimental ... 154

Laboratory vs. field research ... 157

Obtrusive vs. unobtrusive research ... 157

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE VALIDITY OF EXPLANATIONS ... 158

Threats to the internal validity of a research design ... 159

Threats to the construct validity of a research design ... 161

Threats to external validity of a research design ... 162

ETHICS IN I/OPSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH ... 166

ACADEMIC RESEARCH VS.PRACTICAL REALITIES ... 168

Points to ponder ... 169

CONCLUSIONS ... 170

CHAPTER 4: WORK MOTIVATON ... 171

Key behavioral indicators of motivation ... 173

Performance vs. motivation ... 174

The internal focus of motivation theory ... 174

The interaction of the environment with internal forces ... 174

Seven practical questions ... 175

WHAT ARE EMPLOYEES’GOALS? ... 176

Why goals improve performance: Mediators of goal effects ... 176

What goal characteristics influence motivation and performance? ... 177

What moderates goal effects? ... 180

WHAT ARE THE CONSEQUENCES OF EMPLOYEE BEHAVIOR? ... 184

Types of conditioning ... 185

Schedules of reinforcement ... 187

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Implications and current trends ... 192

Points to ponder: ... 193

WHAT ARE EMPLOYEES’EXPECTATIONS? ... 193

Basic components and predictions of VIE theory ... 194

Research testing VIE theory ... 200

Implications ... 202

WHAT DO EMPLOYEES NEED? ... 203

Murray’s taxonomy of needs ... 205

Maslow’s need hierarchy ... 208

Alderfer’s existence, relatedness, growth (ERG) theory ... 213

McClelland’s three need theory ... 213

Practical implications of need theories ... 218

Points to ponder: ... 219 WHAT IS FAIR? ... 219 Distributive fairness ... 221 Procedural fairness ... 231 Interactional fairness ... 234 Informational fairness ... 235

Inter-relationships among types of justice ... 237

DOES WORK ENGAGE THE SELF? ... 238

Finding meaning through self-conception and self-evaluation ... 238

Theories of self-enhancement and self-maintenance ... 239

Self-related constructs ... 240

Limitations on self-enhancement ... 245

ARE EMPLOYEES INTRINSICALLY MOTIVATED? ... 246

Herzberg’s two-factor theory ... 247

Self-determination theory ... 249

Job enrichment as a strategy for increasing intrinsic motivation ... 251

INTEGRATIVE APPROACHES TO WORK MOTIVATION ... 256

The motivational theories are reconcilable ... 256

Integrating with VIE theory ... 258

Work motivation as an unfolding process... 259

Control theory as an integrative framework ... 261

CONCLUSIONS ... 263

CHAPTER 5: ATTITUDES TOWARD WORK AND ORGANIZATIONS... 267

JOB SATISFACTION ... 270

How is job satisfaction measured? ... 270

Points to Ponder: ... 278

Work environment characteristics associated with job satisfaction ... 279

Personal characteristics associated with job satisfaction ... 281

Person-environment fit as an antecedent to job satisfaction ... 286

Points to ponder ... 287

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Points to ponder ... 295

Outcomes of job satisfaction/dissatisfaction ... 296

Points to ponder: ... 307

JOB INVOLVEMENT ... 307

Measurement of job involvement ... 307

Correlates of job involvement ... 308

ORGANIZATIONAL COMMITMENT ... 309

Three components of organizational commitment ... 309

Correlates of organizational commitment ... 310

Commitment as an exchange process ... 312

SATISFACTION,INVOLVEMENT AND COMMITMENT:SAME OR DIFFERENT CONSTRUCTS? ... 312

EMPLOYEE ENGAGEMENT:AN AGGREGATE ATTITUDINAL CONSTRUCT ... 313

CONCLUSIONS ... 315

CHAPTER 6: WORK STRESS ... 317

Myths about stress ... 319

Definition of stress. ... 320

ATRANSACTIONAL PROCESS MODEL OF STRESS ... 322

The physiology of stress ... 323

Fight or flight. ... 323

General adaptation syndrome. ... 323

The psychology of stress ... 328

Cognitive appraisal. ... 329

Person-Environment (PE) fit. ... 330

Conservation of resources. ... 330

Job Demands-Control-Support. ... 331

WHAT ARE POTENTIAL STRESSORS FOR WORKERS? ... 332

What occupations are most stressful? ... 332

Lack of support ... 333

Work overload and demands ... 335

Lack of control and autonomy ... 337

Work underload: monotony and lack of challenge ... 340

Aversive physical work environment ... 342

Shiftwork ... 343 Role stress ... 344 Interpersonal conflict ... 346 Organizational politics ... 348 Organizational injustice ... 349 Unfair discrimination ... 351

Downsizing and job insecurity ... 352

Nonwork stressors ... 356

STRAINS:WORK-RELATED CONSEQUENCES OF SUSTAINED STRESS... 360

Effects of stress on performance ... 361

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Effects of stress on work-related attitudes and OCBs ... 364

Effects of stress on burnout ... 365

Effects of stress on work place violence ... 367

Effects of stress on withdrawal behaviors... 369

WHO IS MOST LIKELY TO SUFFER FROM STRESS? ... 370

Demographic variables ... 371

Sex. ... 371

Ethnicity. ... 372

Age. ... 373

Discrimination against demographic groups. ... 373

Personality ... 375

The big five personality traits. ... 375

Locus of control. ... 375

Type A-B personality. ... 376

Hardiness. ... 377

Negative affectivity (NA). ... 378

Conceptual approaches to the role of personal characteristics in stress ... 378

Person-Environment fit. ... 378

The conservation of resources model (COR). ... 379

HOW CAN EMPLOYEES MANAGE STRESS? ... 380

Physical exercise ... 380

Relaxation/meditation techniques ... 382

Biofeedback ... 383

Psychotherapy ... 384

Personal coping styles ... 384

Do stress management interventions work? ... 386

Organizational interventions ... 387

CONCLUSIONS ... 388

CHAPTER 7: SOCIAL PROCESSES IN ORGANIZATIONS ... 392

A working model of emergent social process ... 394

Contextual factors influencing social process ... 395

Interpersonal factors ... 398

Personal factors ... 399

Formal vs. informal social processes ... 401

COMMUNICATION PROCESSES ... 402

A model of organizational communication ... 403

Points of vulnerability in the communication process ... 403

Picking a medium appropriate to the message ... 414

Gossip and rumor ... 415

SOCIAL EXCHANGE PROCESSES ... 418

COOPERATION,COMPETITION, AND CONFLICT PROCESSES ... 422

Contextual factors affecting cooperation, competition, and conflict ... 423

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The development of conflict ... 428

ORGANIZATIONAL CITIZENSHIP BEHAVIOR ... 431

COUNTER-PRODUCTIVE WORK BEHAVIOR (CWB) ... 434

SOCIAL POWER AND INFLUENCE PROCESSES ... 437

The French and Raven model of social power ... 437

Social influence tactics ... 439

Responses to influence attempts ... 442

POLITICAL BEHAVIOR ... 443

Political tactics ... 443

Situational antecedents of political behavior... 445

Perceptions of politics (POPS) ... 447

Personality traits associated with perceptions of politics ... 449

Culture as a moderator of POPS... 450

Political skill and will ... 451

CONCLUSIONS ... 452

CHAPTER 8: SOCIAL STRUCTURES IN ORGANIZATIONS ... 455

A model of imposed and emergent social structure ... 456

Formal vs. informal social structures ... 456

DIVISION OF LABOR ... 458

Formal horizontal and vertical differentiation of labor... 458

Social roles ... 459

DISTRIBUTION OF POWER AND STATUS ... 462

Alternative power distributions... 463

The universality of the pyramid ... 464

Why is the traditional pyramid so common? ... 465

Emergent distributions of power and status ... 466

Why do informal power distributions emerge? ... 466

RULES... 470

Formal rules ... 470

Social norms ... 471

CORE VALUES AS SOCIAL STRUCTURES ... 476

Formal communication of core values ... 476

Informal communication of core values via climate and culture ... 477

SHARED SOCIAL IDENTITY AS A SOCIAL STRUCTURE ... 481

Formal attempts to create a shared identity ... 482

Emergent identities in the organization ... 483

The emergence of a shared social identity ... 485

SOCIAL NETWORKS ... 491

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Dynamics influencing the emergence and maintenance of social networks ... 494

The social network as a source of social capital ... 502

SOCIALIZATION ... 513

Outcomes of socialization ... 514

Anticipatory socialization ... 514

The initial encounter ... 515

Socialization tactics ... 515

Meta-analyses of the effects of socialization tactics ... 518

Conformity, rebellion, creative individualism, and cooptation ... 518

THE INTERPLAY OF IMPOSED FORMAL STRUCTURES AND EMERGENT INFORMAL STRUCTURES ... 519

CONCLUSIONS ... 521

CHAPTER 9: GROUPS AND TEAMS IN ORGANIZATIONS ... 524

WHAT IS A GROUP? ... 526

Formal work groups ... 526

How does a team differ from a group? ... 528

HOW DO GROUPS CHANGE OVER TIME? ... 529

WHY ARE SOME GROUPS MORE EFFECTIVE THAN OTHERS? ... 531

Group inputs... 531

Group interaction processes ... 531

Emergent group structures ... 533

Proximal influences on group effectiveness ... 533

Group effectiveness ... 533

Critical task contingencies ... 533

GROUP INPUTS ... 535

How many members are needed? ... 535

Who are chosen as the members of the group? ... 536

The knowledge, skills, and abilities of group members. ... 536

Team KSAs. ... 537

Personalities of group members. ... 538

Attitudes about working in groups. ... 539

Diversity. ... 540

1. Faultlines. ... 542

2. Moderators of diversity and faultlines. ... 543

Group tasks ... 548

Conjunctive, disjunctive and additive tasks. ... 548

McGrath’s (1984) typology. ... 549

GROUP INTERPERSONAL PROCESSES ... 552

Who influences whom and how? ... 552

Do members share leadership? ... 555

Is there conflict among members and why? ... 557

Do members share information with each other? ... 559

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Do members coordinate and synchronize their activities? ... 561

Do members engage in prosocial behavior? ... 562

What is the affective tone in the group? ... 565

How motivated are members to work with their groups? ... 566

Do members reflect, learn, and adapt? ... 571

Do members engage in transactive memory? ... 573

Higher order process dimensions ... 574

EMERGENT GROUP STRUCTURES ... 574

What social roles emerge? ... 575

What social norms emerge? ... 577

What interpersonal relationships emerge? ... 581

How cohesive is the group?... 583

Effects of cohesion on group effectiveness... 585

Downsides to cohesion. ... 587

Do members identify with the group? ... 590

INTERVENTIONS TO IMPROVE GROUP PERFORMANCE ... 593

INTERVENTIONS THAT TARGET GROUP PROCESSES ... 593

Team training. ... 593

Guided reflexivity. ... 595

Team building. ... 596

Process consultation. ... 597

INTERVENTIONS THAT TARGET THE GROUP CONTEXT. ... 598

Group goal setting. ... 598

Group feedback. ... 599

Group incentives. ... 601

Group involvement in decision making. ... 602

Programs that combine incentives, feedback, goal setting, and involvement. ... 605

INTERVENTIONS IN THE FORM OF AIDS, TOOLS, AND TECHNOLOGIES ... 606

Structured group problem solving techniques. ... 606

Computer mediated communication and virtual teams. ... 609

CONCLUSIONS ... 614

CHAPTER 10: LEADERSHIP ... 619

The romance of leadership vs. a scientific approach ... 621

A working definition of leadership ... 622

Leadership as incremental compliance ... 623

Leader vs. manager or supervisor ... 623

Alternative approaches to understanding leadership ... 624

EFFECTIVE LEADERS MAKE THE MOST OF THE SITUATION:SITUATIONAL APPROACHES ... 627

Situational forces shape leader behavior ... 627

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Implications of situational theory for leader effectiveness ... 629

Summary ... 630

EFFECTIVE LEADERS POSSESS THE PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF LEADERS:THE TRAIT APPROACH ... 631

Personality and intelligence ... 631

The motivation to lead ... 633

Physical traits ... 635

Sex differences ... 636

Is leadership inherited? ... 637

Moderating effects of situation on relation of traits to leadership... 638

Summary ... 640

LEADERS DO THE RIGHT THINGS:THE BEHAVIORAL APPROACH ... 641

Leader behaviors fulfill both task and socio-emotional demands ... 643

The Ohio State leadership studies... 643

The Managerial Grid©_{... 644}

Correlations with satisfaction and performance. ... 646

Summary. ... 646

Effective leaders communicate effectively ... 648

Effective leaders use referent and expert power ... 649

Effective leaders manage conflict ... 652

Effective leaders are charismatic, inspirational, and transformational ... 654

The charismatic leader. ... 654

The inspirational leader. ... 655

Transformational leadership. ... 656

Effective leaders develop high quality relationships with followers (i.e., high LMX) ... 658

EFFECTIVE LEADERS MANAGE PERCEPTIONS:THE COGNITIVE APPROACH ... 662

Categorization in leadership perception ... 662

Structure of cognitive categories used in describing leaders. ... 663

Effects of performance cues on perceptions of leadership... 664

Effective leaders have confidence in their followers ... 664

Leaders manage impressions ... 667

EFFECTIVE LEADERS DIAGNOSE AND ADAPT TO THE SITUATION:THE CONTINGENCY APPROACH ... 668

Effective leaders change the situation to fit their traits (Fiedler) ... 668

Effective leaders modify their participativeness to fit the situation ... 671

Effective leaders help followers attain goals ... 677

Leader directiveness. ... 678

Leader supportiveness. ... 679

Leader participativeness. ... 679

Achievement oriented leadership. ... 680

Effective leaders consider the maturity of followers ... 680

CONCLUSIONS ... 683

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What is a job? ... 687

What does a job analysis measure? ... 691

WHY DO JOB ANALYSES? ... 694

Reducing role conflict and ambiguity ... 694

Design and evaluation of training ... 695

Performance appraisal and criterion development ... 695

Job design ... 695

Personnel selection ... 695

Wage and salary administration ... 696

Compliance with regulations and laws ... 696

HOW ARE JOB ANALYSES EVALUATED? ... 697

HOW IS A JOB ANALYSIS CONDUCTED? ... 699

Methods of collecting job information ... 699

Observation method of job analysis ... 699

Interview method of job analysis. ... 700

Questionnaires. ... 700

Using a combination of methods. ... 700

Who provides the information? ... 701

How much information is needed? ... 702

Specific methods of job analysis... 703

Behaviorally-oriented techniques. ... 704

Techniques focused on requirements. ... 709

Eclectic techniques. ... 716

JOB EVALUATION AND THE GENDER GAP IN COMPENSATION ... 721

Methods of job evaluation ... 722

Ranking... 722

Classification systems. ... 722

Point systems. ... 722

Evaluating internal equity in the wage structure ... 724

Comparable worth and the gender gap in wages ... 725

Are job evaluation procedures biased? ... 728

How do occupations become sex-typed? ... 729

CONCLUSIONS ... 730

CHAPTER 12: CRITERION DEVELOPMENT, PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL, AND FEEDBACK ... 733

WHAT CRITERIA ARE USED TO EVALUATE PERFORMANCE? ... 735

WHAT IS EVALUATED? ... 737

HOW IS PERFORMANCE MEASURED? ... 740

Evaluating performance appraisal measures ... 740

Objective measures ... 742

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Evaluating employees on graphic rating scales ... 744

Rating effects and biases. ... 745

Cognitive structures and processes in an evaluator’s ratings of an employee. ... 754

Organizational and social determinants of ratings. ... 758

Purpose of the rating. ... 758

Organizational culture/climate. ... 759

Accountability of the rater for the appraisal. ... 759

Politics of the organization... 760

Other contextual determinants of ratings. ... 760

Using rating scales to improve ratings. ... 761

Behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS) and behavioral expectation scales (BES). ... 761

Mixed standard scale (MSS). ... 763

Behavioral observation scale (BOS)... 764

Forced choice measures. ... 765

Weighted checklist measures. ... 767

Forcing comparisons to improve evaluations. ... 768

Summary of research on rating scales. ... 771

Training to improve performance appraisals. ... 772

WHO SHOULD JUDGE PERFORMANCE? ... 773

Supervisors? ... 773

Peers? ... 774

Self-Appraisals? ... 774

Subordinates? ... 775

Customers? ... 775

Who agrees with whom? ... 775

360 degree evaluation and feedback. ... 776

WHEN ARE PERFORMANCE EVALUATIONS CONDUCTED? ... 776

HOW IS FEEDBACK GIVEN TO EMPLOYEES ON THEIR PERFORMANCE APPRAISALS? ... 777

Feedback giving and seeking ... 778

Processing of feedback ... 779

Feedback in the formal appraisal session ... 780

CONCLUSIONS ... 783

CHAPTER 13: EMPLOYEE TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT ... 785

AN INSTRUCTIONAL SYSTEMS MODEL OF TRAINING ... 787

NEEDS ASSESSMENT ... 789

Organization training needs analysis ... 789

Task training needs analysis ... 790

Person training needs analysis ... 791

An example of a training needs assessment ... 792

Specification of Instructional Objectives ... 793

Gagne’s learning outcomes... 793

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*Cognitive strategies. ... 794

*Motor skills. ... 794

*Attitudes. ... 795

Stating instructional objectives ... 795

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT PHASE ... 796

Incorporating the findings of learning research ... 796

*Provide advance organizers. ... 797

*Practice and recite. ... 797

*Distribute practice. ... 798

*Learn the whole-task on complex and organized tasks. ... 798

*Set goals. ... 799

*Give positive reinforcement. ... 799

*Give knowledge of results (feedback). ... 800

*Provide models. ... 800

*Make learning a team effort. ... 800

Gagne’s model of instructional events ... 801

WAYS TO ENHANCE POSITIVE TRANSFER OF LEARNING TO WORKPLACE ... 802

Maintain what was learned. ... 802

Increase similarity of stimulus and response in training and the workplace ... 803

Create difficulties for trainees ... 804

Instruction in how to overcome barriers in the workplace. ... 807

Increase the motivation to learn. ... 808

Create a climate supportive of the training ... 809

Type of skill learned as a moderator of transfer. ... 809

ALTERNATIVE TRAINING METHODS ... 811

On-the-job training ... 811

Mentoring and coaching. ... 811

Internships. ... 812

Apprenticeships. ... 812

Job rotation and transfers. ... 813

The hidden costs of on-the-job training. ... 814

Integrating on-the-job and classroom training. ... 814

Off-the-job training methods ... 815

Lecture. ... 815 Programmed instruction. ... 816 Simulation. ... 818 Conference discussion. ... 818 Case method. ... 819 Role playing. ... 819 Behavior modeling. ... 820

Choosing among alternative instructional methods ... 821

IMPLEMENTATION OF TRAINING ... 822

Face-to-face instruction ... 822

Recorded presentations ... 823

Web based instruction ... 823

EVALUATING TRAINING PROGRAMS ... 825

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Research designs for evaluating training ... 828

Pseudo experiments... 829

True experiments. ... 829

Complications associated with experimenting in an organization. ... 830

Taking into account individual differences among trainees ... 831

Summative vs. formative evaluation of training ... 831

CONCLUSIONS ... 832

CHAPTER 14: PRINCIPLES OF EMPLOYEE SELECTION ... 834

STAFFING AND THE MATCHING STRATEGY ... 835

Some caveats ... 836

SELECTION ... 837

The scientific and intuitive approaches to selection ... 838

Two examples. ... 838

Features held in common by the two approaches. ... 838

Important differences. ... 839

I/O psychology's role. ... 842

Adaptation to special circumstances. ... 842

Evaluation of selection techniques ... 843

Reliability. ... 843

*Test-retest (stability) indexes... 844

*Equivalent (alternate) forms approach. ... 844

*Internal consistency (or internal reliability) indexes. ... 845

*Interrater (or interjudge) reliability. ... 845

Validity. ... 846

*Criterion-related validation. ... 847

**Validity generalization vs. situational specificity. ... 849

**Factors that lead to underestimation of criterion-related validity. ... 849

**Meta-analytic procedures in testing validity generalization. ... 851

*Content validation. ... 855

*Construct validation. ... 855

*Face validity. ... 856

*Points to ponder: ... 857

Fairness and legality. ... 858

*U. S. Civil rights legislation. ... 859

* U. S. Executive Order 11246 (1965). ... 860

* The EEOC Uniform Guidelines. ... 860

*U. S. Supreme Court decisions interpreting the Civil Rights Act of 1964. ... 861

**Griggs v. Duke Power (1971). ... 861

**Albermarle Paper Company v. Moody (1975). ... 861

*Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA). ... 862

*Americans with Disability Act (1990). ... 862

*U. S. Civil Rights Act of 1991. ... 862

*Disparate treatment vs. disparate impact discrimination... 863

*The Cleary (1968) model of test fairness. ... 863

*Values and fairness. ... 868

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Utility. ... 869

*Using the Taylor-Russell tables to calculate utility... 870

*Brogden-Cronbach-Gleser utility formula. ... 874

Using predictor measures to make selection decisions ... 877

The top-down procedure. ... 877

The Angoff procedure in setting cut scores. ... 878

Banding of cut scores. ... 879

Using multiple predictor measures. ... 883

*Compensatory strategy of combining predictors. ... 884

*Noncompensatory strategies of combining predictors. ... 885

*Clinical vs mechanical combination of predictors. ... 885

PLACEMENT AND CLASSIFICATION ... 886

RECRUITMENT ... 887

Factors that affect applicant attraction and choice. ... 888

Realistic job previews ... 889

Moral/ethical vs. scientific questions ... 891

CONCLUSIONS ... 892

CHAPTER 15: CONSTRUCTS AND METHODS IN EMPLOYEE SELECTION ... 895

Constructs used in selection ... 896

Methods used in assessing applicants ... 897

Source: objective testing, self-report, and subjective judgments. ... 897

Structure of selection methods. ... 897

Maximal vs typical performance tests. ... 898

PREDICTORS BASED ON STABLE WORKER TRAITS ... 899

Worker abilities ... 899

Specific cognitive abilities. ... 900

General cognitive ability (also called general intelligence, general mental ability). ... 903

*Controversy surrounding the construct of cognitive ability... 904

*The controversy over the fairness of cognitive ability testing. ... 905

*The author’s take on the issues. ... 906

Physical and psychomotor abilities. ... 907

Occupational interests ... 910

Work values ... 911

Personality traits ... 912

Alternative models of personality ... 912

The Big Five personality traits. ... 914

Alternative types of personality tests. ... 914

Reasons for relatively low validities. ... 916

Knowledge and Skills Acquired Through Education and Experience ... 919

The O*NET description... 920

Experience, education, and tenure. ... 920

Knowledge as a predictor. ... 922

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PREDICTORS WHERE UNCERTAINTY SURROUNDS THE CONSTRUCTS ... 925

Interviews ... 925

Unstructured interviews. ... 926

Structured interviews (behavioral interview). ... 926

Meta-analyses of interview validities. ... 929

Biographical information ... 930

Weighted application blank (WAB). ... 930

Biographical inventory blank (BIB). ... 930

The empirical vs rational approach to constructing BIBs and WABs. ... 932

Assessment centers ... 934

What is an assessment center? ... 934

Criterion-related validity of assessment centers. ... 935

Construct validity issues. ... 935

* Do assessment center ratings contaminate criteria or vice versa? ... 936

* Do assessment center ratings reflect common stereotypes of the successful employee? ... 937

* Are assessment center evaluations self-fulfilling prophecies? ... 937

* Are assessment center evaluations affected by the employee’s past performance? ... 937

* Are assessment centers tests of intelligence? ... 937

References ... 938

Grades ... 939

Emotional intelligence ... 940

Three models of emotional intelligence. ... 941

* The mixed model. ... 941

* The ability model. ... 941

*The personality model. ... 943

Criticisms of emotional intelligence. ... 943

Meta-analyses of criterion-related validities for emotional intelligence. ... 944

Situational judgment tests ... 945

Polygraph and integrity testing ... 948

Individual assessments ... 949

COMPARISONS OF PREDICTORS ON VALIDITY,ADVERSE IMPACT, AND APPLICANT REACTIONS ... 951

CONCLUSIONS ... 956

CHAPTER 16: EPILOGUE ... 958

THREE LEVELS OF GENERALITY IN PRACTICAL PRINCIPLES ... 959

Concrete take aways ... 959

Fit the person to the situation ... 960

Leave room for growth ... 960

Set goals and then monitor and reward progress ... 961

Continually learn and grow ... 961

Justice for all ... 962

Cultivate teamwork ... 962

Cultivate high quality relationships: The human relations movement redux ... 962

Empower ... 963

Engage the self ... 963

Manage perceptions ... 964

Midrange principles ... 964

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Build human capital ... 965

Build social capital ... 966

Diagnose the situation and the contingencies ... 966

Integrate the formal and the informal ... 966

More is not always better ... 967

Fundamental principles: ... 967

Ethics trump efficacy ... 967

Take a scientific perspective…measure, theorize, and empirically test ... 968

1. Meta-analysis for better and worse. ... 969

2. Keeping it simple, the danger in the proliferation of constructs. ... 969

3. Taking effect sizes too seriously or not seriously enough. ... 969

4. The need for multiple methods. ... 970

CONCLUSIONS ... 970

REFERENCES ... 972

FIGURE, TABLE, AND IMAGE CREDITS ... 1117

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PREFACE

Exploring Industrial and Organizational Psychology provides a comprehensive review of the topics typically covered in courses on Industrial and Organizational (I/O) Psychology (most often used in the U. S., Canada, England, and Australia) and Work and

Organizational Psychology (used in Germany, Netherlands, and other European countries). The text is appropriate for a broad audience including students at the

undergraduate and graduate levels as well as those readers looking for an introduction to the topic. Because the text is an in depth coverage of the field, some readers may find the material challenging. There was a concerted effort to present the theory, research, and application as it is rather than presenting a grab bag of techniques and current fads. Strengths and weaknesses are discussed and when possible the actual results are presented in the form of effect sizes. Maintaining scientific integrity required in many cases a level of detail that is probably unusual for an introductory text. In short, if the reader is looking for simple primer, this is probably not the best choice. This text was written with several core attributes in mind, some of which are distinctive and distinguish it from other I/O psychology textbooks.

First, as implied in the title, the scientific nature of the field is emphasized. As in any science, there are controversies, conflicting results, and theoretical disputes. This is not the book for the reader seeking the final word on questions of human behavior in

organizations. This is the book for those readers who seek to gain insight into a field that is continuing to evolve and who appreciate the competition of ideas crucial to scientific progress. I hope that the reader will share in the excitement associated with the efforts of I/O psychologists and other organizational scientists to generate an understanding of why people behave as they do in organizations and the implications for organizational

effectiveness. The text does cover practical applications, especially in that section covering personnel topics. However, an underlying theme is that good practice follows from solid science.

Second, in reviewing the science, quantitative meta-analyses are used to show the cumulative results of research on the topics covered in this book. It is often the case that texts provide only qualitative reviews of research findings. As a consequence, the reader may mistakenly conclude that the relations among variables are stronger or weaker than is actually the case. Meta-analyses provide the reader with a realistic picture of the state of research findings and are useful in identifying directions for future research.

Third, the text provides the student with a basic understanding of the topics and

intentionally avoids overly detailed presentations of psychometric issues and statistics. Consequently, students should be able to comprehend the material without much prior background in psychology or statistics. Although I have avoided overloading the reader with too much detail, the reader will also find that I thoroughly review the literature on the topics, with each chapter containing both classic and current citations.

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coverage of personnel and organizational topics (the so-called I and O of I/O Psychology). The reader is exposed to a full range of organizational topics such as leadership, power, role theory, groups in organizations, conflict, and communication, as well as the traditional personnel topics of job analysis, selection, performance appraisal, staffing, and training.

Fifth, an effort is made to show the relevance of the research, theory, and applications to current events. Major changes are occurring in society that will fundamentally change careers and the way organizations manage human resources. Corporate restructuring, globalization of business, and diversity of the workforce are only a few of the continuing changes that are reshaping worklife. Throughout the text I use examples of how these changes are affecting organizations and the implications of these changes for the nature of work and the management of people at work.

Finally, the text attempts to provide an integrative review of the field. I/O psychology texts typically present organizational and personnel topics as if they are entirely separate areas of research. While I have maintained the split in the text between the “I” and the “O”, I cross reference throughout the text and frequently refer to the implications of research in O for topics in I and vice versa. Also, the organizational topics are covered prior to the personnel topics to emphasize that the latter always occur in the context of the organization.

The topics covered in this textbook are typical of those included in other I/O textbooks. There is no coverage of consumer psychology, unions, or engineering psychology. These are important topics but have become at best peripheral to the discipline of I/O

psychology. They deserve a more focused and separate treatment. Also, there is no chapter dedicated to cross-cultural issues. The most impressive development in the field of I/O psychology over the last three decades is the conduct of research by those outside the United States. At one time, I/O was dominated by work in North America and England. A perusal of the professional journals reveals the explosion of research in China, Japan, Germany, Netherlands, and other countries. Where appropriate, attention is given to the national and cultural differences that moderate the results of research. The dynamics of human behavior at work and in organizations appear consistent enough across cultures to justify the universalistic approach of this text.

The first section of the text contains three chapters that are intended to provide a foundation for the second and third sections. The first chapter defines the field of I/O psychology and describe the activities and career paths of those who are in this field. Special attention is given in this chapter to how I/O psychology is part of the larger field of psychology but yet distinct social, clinical, cognitive and the other subdisciplines. The second chapter outlines the history and development of I/O psychology and related fields. Here there is an attempt to identify the individual scientists and practitioners who

contributed to this history and the societal events that provided the background for the emergence of scientific applications of psychology to work and organizations. The third chapter is perhaps the most important in the text. Each of the subsequent chapters reviews

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TEXT COPYRIGHT ROBERT L. DIPBOYE 2016 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 22 the body of knowledge that has accumulated for various topics, while emphasizing that what is known about each topic is evolving. Scientific research continues to contribute to each topic and what is known about each topic will change as new findings emerge; but the method of scientific research remains constant. The third chapter covers the elements of the scientific method and the use of scientific methodology by researchers in I/O psychology.

The second section of this text covers topics in Organizational Psychology (the O in the I/O), including work motivation, attitudes, groups, social structure, social processes, leadership, and stress. Much of this literature comes from the research of social scientists who view organizations as complex social systems. By starting with organizational psychology, the "big picture" of how organizations function is presented prior to moving on, in the second half of the text to the more applied issues that are the focus of personnel or industrial psychology (the I in I/O). For instance, the discussion of work motivation and social processes will set the stage for later discussions of performance appraisal and feedback. Despite this structure, each chapter stands alone and does not require the student to read any previous chapters. The only possible exception is the examination of research methods which probably should be assigned prior to the chapters in the second and third sections.

The basic component of the organization is the individual employee. It is appropriate then to begin this section with a consideration of work motivation and attitudes. Much of the interest in these topics has come from the potential role that unmotivated and

dissatisfied employees may play in the economic competitiveness of an organization and an entire nation. For instance, productivity has declined in the U. S. over the last few decades. Is the declining motivation of the work force partly responsible? Do employees feel that their important needs are being met in their work, and what are effects of the frustration and satisfaction of needs on work behavior? Do employees expect that they will be rewarded for working hard and making other contributions to the organization and how do these expectations influence motivation? Do employees feel that they have been fairly treated and how do feelings of equity or inequity translate into job performance? Chapter 3 explores each of these questions and the process by which needs, expectations, and equity influence the effort that employees invest in their work.

The answers to these questions have important implications for how organizations go about managing their employees. Traditional management practices often assume that employees are passive and lack the ability to contribute creative ideas. The human relations approach has promoted the opposite view that all employees want challenging work and the opportunity to develop their skills. Research on motivation has empirically examined these assumptions and has provided a more realistic and complex view than provided in either the traditional or human relations approaches. Much of this research has focused on content issues such as what employees want, whereas other studies have addressed the process of motivation. Included in the chapter is a discussion of recent attempts to pull together the various theories of motivation and the practical implications of these efforts.

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TEXT COPYRIGHT ROBERT L. DIPBOYE 2016 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 23 Motivation leads directly to the topic of attitudes toward work and the organization in Chapter 4. Some critics of modern management practices have claimed that today's workforce has become increasingly alienated and "turned off" by dehumanizing aspects of their jobs. There is a chapter on the work-related attitudes of job satisfaction,

organizational commitment, and job involvement that examines alternative measures of these work-related attitudes, and the findings of research with these instruments. As shown in this chapter, the findings of research have not supported some widely held beliefs, such as the assumption that job satisfaction leads directly to good performance. Nevertheless, worker attitudes are crucial to understanding and predicting other important behaviors in the job, such as turnover.

I/O psychology is concerned with the well-being of the employee in addition to the performance of the organization and chapter 6 delves into the stress that employees experience as they attempt to fulfill the demands of their work roles. Work stress is considered to be epidemic among employees in many occupations but is it really as bad as the popular press makes it out to be? Chapter 6 will examine the personal and

situational factors that can determine the physiological and psychological reactions of employees to unusual demands (sometimes called stressors). In addition to examining the antecedents and consequences of stress, this chapter also evaluates research on coping strategies and the applications of this work to helping employees manage stress in the workplace.

In contrast to the chapters on attitudes and motivation, which are concerned with

behavior of individual employees, chapters 7, 8, and 9 are concerned with social behavior in the workplace. The importance of this topic becomes apparent when you consider that an organization is essentially a group of groups. Much of the activity in an organization consists of people in the process of communicating, influencing, competing, fighting, and helping. Social structures, such as roles and norms, emerge to add predictability to these processes. Much of the social behavior that can be observed in an organization comes as the result of the formal departments and other subunits that management has put together to get the work done. Just as important, however, are the informal relationships that emerge and sometimes conflict with formal social arrangements. Whether formal or informal in nature, groups often fail to achieve their potential. This chapter concludes with an examination of some of the interventions that are being used to improve group effectiveness in organizations.

Leadership involves all of the topics in the course and is perhaps the most controversial of the social psychological aspects of organizations. Although those who hold the formal positions of leadership are usually held responsible for the success of the organization, some organizational theorists have questioned whether leaders are really as important as most people seem to believe (see). Is leadership mainly in the mind of the beholder such that anyone who manages the right impressions can become a leader? Is leadership an outdated concept reflecting mainly the needs of followers to believe that someone is in charge? If leadership is important to the success of the organization, what can be done to improve the effectiveness of leaders? Is it primarily a matter of selecting the people with the right traits? Can I train people to show the right behaviors regardless of their traits?

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TEXT COPYRIGHT ROBERT L. DIPBOYE 2016 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 24 Do great leaders transform rather than simply manage their followers? In exploring the research that has addressed these questions, I will show how the simplistic views of what makes an effective leader have been replaced by more complex contingency models. Essentially, these models state that the effectiveness of leadership depends on whether the traits and behaviors of the leader are appropriate to the situation. Different situations call for radically different types of leaders.

The third section of the text covers topics that are usually lumped under the title of personnel or industrial (the I in I/O) psychology. Included in this section are work analysis, employee selection, training, and performance appraisal. In contrast to the more theoretical slant of organizational psychologists, personnel psychologists tend to be more practically oriented, with much of the research devoted to developing techniques that can be used to improve the fit between employees and the organization.

Providing a "good fit" is in part an attraction problem in that you want to entice the most qualified people to seek employment in your organization. It is a selection problem in that once you interest people in applying for positions, you want to be able to choose the best qualified people. It is a placement problem in that once hired, you want to put people where they belong. It is a training problem in that once hired and placed, you want to instruct your employees so that they can perform the work properly. Work analysis is the foundation for all these activities. Chapter 11 covers the topic of work analysis. In other textbooks, this topic is usually part of the section on the “I” in I/O psychology. All the subsequent topics build on basic questions about work. What is a position, a job, a career, and occupation? What are the basic dimensions along which work can be described and compared? What are methods of analyzing work?

Another important step in providing a good fit is determining the standards of

performance that employees are expected to attain in their work. Chapter 12 deals with alternative measures of employee performance and their uses in an organization. Measures of performance can be used in a variety of human resource management activities, including the rewarding, punishing, promoting, firing, and developing of employees. They also are used as criteria in research evaluating human resource

management interventions. Several options are available to employers seeking to appraise performance. Performance appraisals can be objective or subjective, can be conducted by supervisors, peers, subordinates, customers, or the employees themselves, and can focus on results, process, or traits of the employees. As shown in the chapter, much of the performance appraisal that occurs in organizations relies on subjective ratings. The large amount of research on subjective rating scales has provided insight into the pros and cons of specific scales such as Behavioral Anchored Rating Scales (BARS). A point that emphasized, however, is that more attention needs to be given to the process of judging performance as opposed to developing the right scale. A particularly important

application of performance appraisals is in providing feedback to employees. The chapter concludes with a consideration of some of the methods of providing feedback that appear to have great potential for improving performance effectiveness.

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TEXT COPYRIGHT ROBERT L. DIPBOYE 2016 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 25 No matter how good staffing procedures might be in a company, the employees that a company attracts and selects will still have some "rough edges' that need to be smoothed to provide a good fit to the work. The next chapter is concerned with training, a personnel function that is aimed at instilling the knowledge, skills, abilities, and attitudes needed to perform the work. As important as training is to the organization, it is often haphazard and wasteful in the way it is implemented. Chapter 13 is organized around a systems model that is presented as an ideal approach to training. An essential point of this model is that training is a subsystem within the organization and should be evaluated on the basis of how Ill it fulfills the needs of the larger organization. According to this model, training programs should be designed to fulfill objectives that are derived from a careful assessments of needs and then evaluated against how well they fulfill these needs and modified accordingly. A variety of on-the-job and off-the-job training techniques currently exist, and each has its advantages and disadvantages. The chapter reviews the pro's and cons of these various techniques, along with interventions to improve

acquisition and transfer of what is learned. Although the training literature is not as well developed as the work on staffing, this is changing. The chapter on training will cover some of the exciting new developments that are likely to have dramatic effects on the practice of training in the future.

Staffing, which is the focus of chapters 14 and 15, is the chief activity of many I/O psychologists. A variety of selection techniques have been developed over this century that have proven quite valuable in screening prospective employees and predicting their future performance. These include measures of mental and physical abilities, biodata, personality questionnaires, work samples, assessment centers, structured interviews, and others. A major point in this chapter is that organizations should conduct research to evaluate the sensitivity, reliability, and validity of selection techniques. In actually using a selection instrument in making decisions about potential employees, other factors need to be taken into account, including how many people are currently succeeding, how many applicants you can reject out of those who apply, the cost of the procedure, and the fairness of the decisions. Much of this chapter will concentrate on selection, but in closing I will also give some attention to employee placement and recruitment.

The final chapter provides an overview of some major conclusions to be drawn from the previous chapters. As is always the case with any scientific endeavor, there are no final answers. Everything is a work in progress. I do not measure the success of this book against the number of definitive answers it provides to crucial questions such as how we motivate workers. Rather, I consider the standard of success to be the extent that readers are challenged, intrigued, and even provoked to seek their own answers. I sincerely hope that the reader shares the excitement associated with this relatively new field of

psychology and the search for answers to questions surrounding human behavior at work. This text builds on four previous books. William (Bill) C. Howell wrote a short volume entitled Essentials of I/O Psychology that was first published in the 1970s, followed by two revised editions that I co-authored. In the 1990s, I became first author of a new textbook, Understanding I/O Psychology: An Integrated Approach with Carla S. Smith and William C. Howell as second and third authors. Unfortunately, before the text could

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TEXT COPYRIGHT ROBERT L. DIPBOYE 2016 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 26 be revised, Carlla became seriously ill and passed away. I considered a revision but without Carlla, neither Bill nor I had the heart to launch the revision. So the text remained dormant until Bill’s untimely death in 2013, when I decided to try my hand at a new text. The product of these efforts is Exploring Industrial and Organizational Psychology. Although this is a new text, the contributions of both Carlla and Bill are apparent throughout. To the extent that this text proves intellectually stimulating, entertaining, or in some other way beneficial, they should share in the recognition. To the extent that the text falls short, I assume total responsibility and they deserve none of the blame.

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Industrial and Organizational (I/O) Psychology (also called Work and Organizational Psychology in Europe or simply Organizational Psychology) is the scientific study of how individuals and groups behave in the performance of work activities and in the context of organizations. It is also the application of this research to improving the effectiveness and the well being of people and the organizations in which they work. As implied in this definition, Industrial and organizational (I/O) psychology is a specialized field within the larger discipline of psychology. It is part science, contributing to the general knowledge base of psychology, and part application, using that knowledge to solve real-world problems. The business of I/O psychology is NOT simply business. I/O psychology is concerned with a variety of types of work including service,

manufacturing, professional, intellectual, physical, paid and unpaid. I/O psychology is concerned with a variety of organizations including, but not limited to, business, governmental, military, religious, educational, union, and not-for-profit organizations. I/O psychology is concerned not only with how to increase the productivity and efficiency of workers in the performance of their tasks and the effectiveness of the

organizations to which they belong, but also the health and well-being of individuals who perform work activities and society in general.

Psychology is not the only social science discipline that is concerned with these issues. Other social sciences including anthropology, sociology, political science,

communications, and economics have made important contributions. Also, other

specialties within psychology are concerned to some extent with the topic, most notably social psychology, personality, and psychometrics. The term Organizational Science is often used to refer to the interdisciplinary research and theory concerned with

understanding the behavior of organizations and the people in these organizations. I/O psychology is one of several social sciences and psychological specialties contributing to the multidisciplinary effort. Despite the interdisciplinary nature of the field, I/O

psychology is the dominant specialty that has taken a psychological approach to

understanding human behavior at work and in organizations and is the focus of this text. I/O as a Specialty within Psychology

It is one thing to write a concise definition of I/O psychology and quite another to convey in concrete terms what those words actually mean. We have given you the definition; now we will try to make it come alive. A technical “field" such as I/O psychology really consists of several things. It is a core body of knowledge, a set of tools used to expand and apply that knowledge, a setting or context in which that expansion and application take place, a collection of people who identify with the field, and a variety of institutions that hold all these components together (e.g., professional organizations, journals,

meetings, training programs).

This chapter first examines the professionals who identify themselves as I/O

psychologists. What do they do? Where do they work? How much do they earn? The chapter then considers how I/O as a subdiscipline fits into the larger discipline of

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psychology and other related fields outside of psychology. A final consideration is the defining characteristics of I/O psychology as a profession: the ethical principles and standards that I/O psychologists espouse, the content of the training in I/O psychology, and the professional associations that represent I/O psychologists.

What Do I/O Psychologists Do?

If you were to follow some I/0 psychologists around to learn what they do for a living, you would find them engaged in a wide variety of activities and working in a wide variety of organizations, as illustrated in table 1.1.

MANAGER, Organizational Development

DIRECTOR, Management, Education, & Leader Development CAREER COACH CONSULTANT in Organizational Development Organizational Effectiveness Talent Management Employee Relations

Evaluation and Assessment Testing Programs

Learning and Performance Selection Systems

Leadership Development Training and Development

PRESIDENT Consulting Group, University, Corporation SENIOR RESEARCH ASSOCIATE

BUSINESS PSYCHOLOGY ASSOCIATE DEAN

SENIOR PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGY PERSONNEL PSYCHOLOGIST

PERSONNEL RESEARCH PSYCHOLOGIST

ORGANIZATIONAL EFFECTIVENESS MANAGER CONSULTING HR PROFESSIONAL

HUMAN RESOURCES DIRECTOR

VICE PRESIDENT, GLOBAL LEARNING DIRECTOR – TALENT PLANNING ASSESSMENT MANAGER

ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT MANAGER SENIOR PERSONNEL ANALYST

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In their research and practical applications, I/O psychologists tend to specialize in one of two general areas often referred to as the “I” and the “O” in I/O psychology. They differ chiefly in the kinds of psychological content and techniques they use as well as in their general approach to organizational problems. Those taking the “I” approach tend to emphasize measurement and individual differences. They use quantitative methods to help organizations make the best use of their people by getting precise measures of both human and work characteristics and then applying those measures in human resource management. You will find them engaged in the design (and management) of recruiting, selection and training, the design and evaluation of compensation systems, and the analysis, description and evaluation of jobs. In contrast, those taking the “O” approach tend to rely on broad psychological theories in diagnosing and trying to correct

organizational problems. Theories of social behavior and human motivation figure prominently in this strategy. For example, a common theme in “O” practice is that non-management employees ought to have some influence in decisions that affect them because people will work harder and stay more committed to goals that they understand and help set. Organizational psychologists help managers interact more effectively with the individuals and groups they manage, conduct attitude surveys of the workforce, design and evaluate procedures for communicating and motivating employees, implement and evaluate organizational development (OD) interventions such as team building, and help individuals cope with stress. Although there is a tendency for I/O psychologists to sort themselves into one or the other camp (the I and the O), it is in many ways a false dichotomy. Interventions that involve I-related activities almost always require attention to the larger organizational context. Likewise, O-related activities inevitably involve measurement and other I-related activities. A well-trained I/O psychologist is willing to crossover.

Approximately 60 - 70% of I/O psychologists work as practitioners with the remainder working mostly in academic settings as researchers and teachers. A SIOP survey provided more detail on the specific activities that distinguish practitioners and non-practitioners (Silzer, Cober, Erickson & Robinson, 2008). The members of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology were surveyed and 1005 respondents replied, a 36% response rate. Respondents were asked the percentage of time they spent as a practitioner of I/O, as educators, and as researchers/scientists. Sixty-one percent indicated that 70% or more of their time was spent in practice and were defined as full-time practitioners. Approximately 10% identified themselves as non-practitioners. Of those who were non-practitioners, the mean percentage of time spent in science/research was 43.5 and the mean percentage of time in education was 39%. Of those who were practitioners, the mean percentage of time in science/research was 4.2% and the mean percentage in education was 1.2%. The respondents were given practice activities and asked how important each was to their work as a practitioner. The percentage of practitioners and nonpractitioners stating that each activity was important or very important is summarized in figure 1.1. The six most important activities for full time practitioners were

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• Building relationships

• Consulting with and advising clients

• Managing work projects and administrative activities • Implementing and delivering programs and / or tools • Making presentations

• Developing and designing systems, methods and/or programs The least important activities among practitioners were:

• Writing for a scientific journal

• Teaching courses or training programs • Writing reports, articles, chapters

• Conducting primary research and data analysis

Figure 1.1: Activities Performed by I/O Psychologists Where Do I/O Psychologists Work?

Some I/O psychologists work full-time within one organization in performing these tasks. Others would perform some of the same functions but as consultants to a variety of

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 consulting and advising clients

Building relationships Managing work projects and…

Implenting and delivering… Making presentations Developing and designing… Coaching others and providing… Developing strategy and policy

Leading and managing others conducting selection and… writing business proposals Leading change management…

Conducting primary research… Writing reports, articles and… Teaching courses or training… Managing a business Writing for a scientific journal

Percentage selecting activity as very important or important to success

A ctiv ity p e rfor m e d in p o si tion Non-practitioners Full time practitioners