ContentslistsavailableatScienceDirect
International
Journal
of
Information
Management
j o u r n a l ho me p ag e:w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / lo c a t e / i j i n f o m g t
Lean
tools
and
methods
to
support
efficient
knowledge
creation
Satish
Tyagi
a,∗,
Xianming
Cai
b,
Kai
Yang
a,
Terrence
Chambers
caDepartmentofIndustrialandSystemsEngineering,WayneStateUniversity,MI48202,USA bSiemensEnergyInc.,Charlotte,NC28271,USA
cDepartmentofMechanicalEngineering,UniversityofLouisianaatLafayette,LA70504,USA
a
r
t
i
c
l
e
i
n
f
o
Articlehistory:
Availableonline12January2015 Keywords: Dynamicknowledge SECImode ‘ba’ Knowledgeasset Leanthinking
a
b
s
t
r
a
c
t
Continuousinnovationisakeyingredientinmaintainingacompetitiveadvantageinthecurrentdynamic anddemandingmarketplace.Itrequiresanorganizationtoregularly updateandcreateknowledge forthecurrentgeneration,andreuseitlaterforthenextgenerationofaproduct.Inthisregard,an integrateddynamicknowledgemodelistargetedtostructurallydefineapracticalknowledgecreation processintheproductdevelopmentdomain.Thismodelprimarilyconsistsofthreedistinctelements; SECI(socialization–externalization–combination–internalization)modes,‘ba’,andknowledgeassets.The modelinvolvestacitknowledgeandexplicitknowledgeinterplayin‘ba’togeneratenewknowledge dur-ingthefourSECImodesandupdatetheknowledgeassets.Itisbelievedthatleantoolsandmethodscan alsopromotelearningandknowledgecreation.Therefore,asetoftenleantoolsandmethodsis pro-posedinordertosupportandimprovetheefficiencyoftheknowledgecreationprocess.Theapproach firstestablishesaframeworktocreateknowledgeintheproductdevelopmentenvironment,andthen systematicallydemonstrateshowthesetenleantoolsandmethodsconceptuallyfitintoandplaya sig-nificantroleinthatprocess.Followingthis,eachofthemisanalyzedandappropriatelypositionedina SECImodedependingonbestfit.Themeritsofeachtool/methodarediscussedfromtheperspectiveof selectingtheindividualmode.Themanagerialimplicationisthatcorrectandquickknowledgecreation canresultinfasterdevelopmentandimprovedqualityofproducts.
©2014ElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved.
1. Introduction
Anorganizationmustcompetevigorouslytothriveinthe cur-rentdynamicanddemandingmarketplace.Thisrequiresregular enhancementsinthecriticalattributestodevelopasuperior prod-uctatacheapercost(Cai&Tyagi,2014).Continuousinnovation and the knowledge enabling such innovation play an impor-tantrole in achievingtheaforesaid goals(Esterhuizen,Schutte, & Du Toit, 2012). Knowledge Bridge Consulting reported in a survey that organizations consider knowledge management as an innovation booster to adequately address market niches. A knowledgemanagementsysteminstitutionalizesknowledgeinto databases or repositories. In this context, the vast knowledge managementliteratureprimarilyfocusesonhowtocapture,sort, store,locate,orretrieveknowledgetoachieveinternal competi-tiveadvantage(Alavi&Leidner,2001;Ardichvili,2008;Cortada &Woods,1999;Date&Sinha,2013;Davenport&Prusak,1998; Liebowitz,2009;Nevo &Chan,2007).Thecapability toarchive
∗ Correspondingauthor.Tel.:+13134523493. E-mailaddress:[email protected](S.Tyagi).
lessons-learnedandbestpracticesina knowledgemanagement systemis a pre-requisite,but doesnot suffice in achievingthe aforesaidorganizationalgoals.Thisisowingtothefactthat knowl-edge in a computerizedknowledge management systemis not refreshedregularlyinwesterncompanies.Typicallychangesare onlyrelatedtoadoptinganadvancedinformationtechnology(IT) tool.ITtoolspredominantlystrivetomanageexplicitknowledge andoverlookstheneedforcreating,updating,andutilizingnew knowledge,throughstrongpractices,tools,ormethods(Morgan& Liker,2006).Thissituationforcesproductdevelopmentengineers torelyonandexploitthesameoldobsoleteandinadequate knowl-edge,whichresultsinincompetentproducts.Therefore,afocuson capturingknowledgethatalreadyexiststhroughanewknowledge managementschemecanbeanimpedimentratherthan advance-menttowardsinnovation(Johannessen&Olsen,2010).
Indeed,itcannotbedeniedthat increasedinternalefficiency isprobablyassociatedwiththeinitiativespertainingtocapturing, storing,accessing,andtransferringexistingknowledge.Butboth academicsandpractitionersconsiderexternalgrowthtobethe out-comeofdynamicknowledge(Madhavan&Grover,1998;Popadiuk &Choo,2006).Thishasresultedinthedevelopmentandadoption ofvariousknowledgecreationmodelsinpractice.Thesemodels http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2014.12.007
Fig.1. Schematicrepresentationofknowledgecreationinrealworld.
providedetailsonhowtocreate,transfer,andreuseknowledgeof products,processes,andcustomers.Thispapermainlyfocuseson anintegrateddynamicknowledgemodel,whichiscomprisedof: theSECImodes,the‘ba’(sharedcontext),andtheknowledgeassets. Themodelpredominantlyillustrateshowtofacilitateknowledge creationand manage the wayit is shared. Knowledge creation occurscontinuously;forexample,knowledgepossessedby design-ers aboutdesigns in theform of explicit(reports ordrawings) andtacitknowledge(experienceorknow-how)helpsincreating knowledgewhenthesedesignerscomeincontactwithother part-nerssuchascontractorsorpolicymakers.Theirinterplayresults inanewknowledge,whichisexploitedtodevelopanimproved design.Fig.1schematicallyrepresentstheknowledgecreation dur-ingtheproductdevelopmentlife-cycleinpracticalsettings.
Implementationoflean toolsand methodsinadvertently ini-tiates and supports knowledge creation activities. A product developmentteamshouldexploitthisknowledgetoshorten devel-opmentcyclesandreducethelargecostsofunplannedloop-backs. Butpragmaticstudieswherecustomizedleantoolsandmethods implementedinproductdevelopmentfortheaforesaidpurposeare lacking.Thislackofstudiesmaybeduetothereasonablesuccessof acompanyjustbyimprovingoperationalsystemsand understand-ingofleanasonlyatooltoeliminatewaste(Tyagi,Choudhary,Cai, &Yang,2015).Consideringleanasamethodonlytoidentifyand eliminatewastescreatesagapbetweenthewaysknowledge cre-ationpracticesareperformedintherealworld.Thispaperisan attempttobridgethisgap.BarringtheresearchworkofKennedy, Harmon, and Minnock (2008), Morgan and Liker (2006), and Lindlöf,Söderberg,andPersson(2012),whichfocusedon imple-mentingleantoolsforknowledgesharingandlearninginaproduct developmentenvironment,studiesthatintegrateleanthinkingin dynamicknowledgeresearcharestillabsentintheliterature.The expectedcontributionsofthispaperaretwo-fold.Thisstudysheds lightonhowtheproductdevelopmentdomainofanorganization creates,maintains,andreusesdynamicknowledgeusingthe inte-gratedmodel.Fromthisaspect,thefirstcontributionistoexplicitly presenttheadvancedmodelofknowledgecreationforaproduct developmentdomainandtoestablishitssuperiority.Second,the goalistoestablisharelationshipbetweentheintegratedmodeland leanthinking,andthentoanalyzetheproposedtentools/methods withaviewto supportand improve theefficiencyofa knowl-edgecreationprocess.Hence,thisstudylooksbeyondtraditional
knowledgemanagementbyfocusingspecificallyonknowledge cre-ationinaproductdevelopmentenvironment.
Theremainderofthispaperisorganizedasfollows:Thenext sectionreviewstherelevantliteraturerelatedtoknowledge man-agementandleanintheproductdevelopment.Section3detailsthe integrateddynamicknowledgemodel.Asummaryoflean prod-uctdevelopmentisprovidedinSection4.Section5highlightsthe researchmethodologyofimplementingleantoolsandmethodsin theunderlyingmodel.Section6detailstheimplementation analy-siswiththeexpectedbenefitsfromamanagerialperspective,and finally,Section7summarizestheentirepaperandprovidesthe directionforfutureresearch.
2. Literaturereview
Elusivenessinspecifyingthedefinitionofknowledgepresents considerablechallengesinconductingresearch(Schultze&Stabell, 2004).TheworkofKane,Ragsdell,andOppenheim(2006) empha-sized this and offereda prominent but conflictingdefinitionof knowledge.Simplyput,theyexpressthatknowledgeiswhatone alreadyknows,andknowledgemanagementisthepracticeof mak-ingthatknowledgeinstantaneouslyavailableinausableformatto createvalue.Afterdefining“knowledge,”amorefundamentalneed istounderstandhowsuccessfulorganizationscreateknowledge thatmakesinnovationspossible.Knowledgecreationisdefinedas theprocessofcontinuouslyupdatingorincreasingtheknowledge baseofwhatoneknowsnow,ratherthanwhatonedidn’tknow before,andkeepingitaccessibleandusable.Thebasicdifference betweenknowledgemanagementandknowledgecreationisthat theformerhelpsinfillingthegapstoobtainrawdataorinformation butthelatteractuallyassistsinproblemsolving.Moreover, inter-actionsamonginternalandexternalresourcescanbeleveragedto generateknowledgefromexisting knowledgeunlikeotherinert resources(Leonard&Sensiper,1998).Yet,researchpapers draw-ingattentiontoopportunitiesandlimitationsspecificallyrelated toknowledgecreationarecomparativelyfew(Yang,Fang,&Lin, 2010).Alaviand Leidner (2001)and Liu (2012) askedessential andinterestingresearchquestionsrelatedtotheconditionsthat facilitateknowledge creation,incentives that encourage knowl-edgecontribution,andsupportthattriggerseffectiveknowledge transferamongorganizationalunits.
Towardsthisend,theliteraturedescribesnumerous state-of-the-artdynamicknowledgemodelssuchasNonaka(1994),Boisot (1999),Nonaka, Toyama,and Konno(2000),Nissen(2006), and Martin-de-Castro,Lopez-Saez,andNovas-Lopez(2008).TheSECI modelproposedbyNonaka(1994)isconsideredthemost influ-entialand is universally accepted.This model entails activities tocreateknowledge,anddisseminateitwithinanorganization. Afterwards,Boisot(1999)exploitedthe“Theory-of-Information” todevelopthe‘I-Space’conceptualframework,whichconsistsof threephases:codification,abstraction,anddiffusion.Thismodelis notcomprehensivelyapplicableinpracticalsettings,andremains anabstractand complementarytool suitable forunderstanding knowledgedynamics.Further,theconceptofknowledgeflowsin thedimensionsoftimeandspaceinspiredNissen’smodelof knowl-edgedynamics(Nissen,2006).Thedifferencebetweenknowing andunderstandingisthemaindrivingforceforknowledgeflow andcorrespondstotheemitterandreceiverinphysics.However, Nissen(2006)failedtodiscusscoreconstituentslikethe knowl-edgegradientandtheprocessofknowledgeflow.Martin-de-Castro etal.(2008)proposedanEpistemological–Ontological(EO)-SECI knowledgecreationmodel,whichisanextendedversionoftheSECI modelofNonaka(1994).Thismodelismostusefulwhenitisused todemonstrate knowledge dynamics in a knowledge intensive environment.Drawingonpriorwork,Nonakaetal.(2000)further extendedthebasicSECImodelbyunifyingtwomoreelements:‘ba’ andknowledgeassets,withSECI,where‘ba’isaphysical,virtual, ormentalspaceofsharedaspectswhereknowledgeisgenerated. Amongall,theintegrateddynamicknowledgemodelproposedby Nonakaetal.(2000)isthemostadvancedandhencehasbeen tar-getedinthisresearch.DetailsofthismodelareprovidedinSection 3.
Next, the applicability of lean tools and methods that can improve the efficiency of a knowledge creation process in the integrateddynamicknowledgemodelproposedbyNonakaetal. (2000)isinvestigatedinthisresearch.AuthorssuchasOppenheim (2004)andLocher(2008)offeredleanproductdevelopment(LPD) as a method to identify and eliminate wastes similar to lean manufacturing.Onthecontrary,LPDhasalsobeenexplainedas a method of capturing, transferring, and using/reusing knowl-edge (Kennedy et al., 2008; Ward, 2007). Hines, Francis, and Found (2006) provided a framework to understand the evo-lution of lean from conceptual and implementationaspects of organizational learning. Kennedy et al. (2008) concentrated on the importance of knowledge by separating product flow and knowledge flow. The former derives short term benefits by delivering products ready to be produced and sold, whereas thelater aimstobuildknowledgeabouttechnology, customers, and processes for long term gains. A few works encountered in the literaturehave alsoanalyzed thebasic SECI model in a product development environment. Hoegl and Schulze (2005) presentedasetofnon-leanpracticestosupportknowledge cre-ationwithoutparticularlyconsideringtheSECImodel.Madhavan and Grover (1998) and Schulze and Hoegl (2006) compared the SECI modes with product development phases to advo-cateits importance in the performance improvement analysis. Bratianu and Orzea (2010) and Br˘atianu (2012) critically ana-lyzedtheSECImodelbyapplyingentropylawstounderstandthe conversionprocess and then presented characteristics of other modelstocomparewithit. Andreeva andIkhilchik(2011) pre-sented a theoretical model to analyze the applicability of the SECI model in a Russian culture context. They basically dis-cussed themodel and challenged the mainstreamassumptions of universal applicability. Easa (2012) discussed the methodo-logical aspects to examine the applicability of the SECI model inknowledgecreationanditseffects oninnovationin Egyptian banks.FrankandEcheveste(2012)proposedknowledgetransfer
amongdevelopmentteamsasamethodtoidentifyimprovement opportunitieswithoutconsideringSECImodel.Lindlöfetal.(2012) studiedLPDfromSECIrelevancewithina productdevelopment environment.Further,MurphyandSalomone(2013)usedsocial mediatofacilitateknowledgetransferincomplexengineering pro-cesses.Despiteallaforesaidfocuses,theliteraturereviewdidnot revealanyparticularstudythatputleanthinkinginthecontextof knowledgecreationresearch.Thepastliteratureprimarilytargeted aknowledgetransferprocess asapartofaknowledgecreation process.
The authorswere motivated predominately by theresearch workofHoeglandSchulze(2005)andLindlöfetal.(2012).Hoegl andSchulze(2005)proposedasetofnon-lean toolstosupport knowledgecreationwithoutfocusingonhowknowledgecreation happensintheSECImodel.Further,Lindlöfetal.(2012)primarily focusedonknowledgetransferonlyandanalyzedlimitedLPDtools inthecontextofthebasicSECImodel.FrankandEcheveste(2012) andMurphyandSalomone(2013)alsodiscussedknowledge trans-ferwithintheproductdevelopmentdomainfordifferentobjectives withoutconsideringanyparticularprocess.
Thisresearchattemptstoaddresstheaforesaidgapsthatare encountered in theliterature. Thisarticle extends theresearch workofLindlöfetal.(2012)anddiscussesanadvancedformof theSECImodelfromknowledgecreationperspectivesand ana-lyzesanumberofleantools/methodstoimprovetheefficiencyofa knowledgecreationprocess.Nostudyintheliterature,tothebest ofourknowledge,targetedtheapplicationofvariousleantoolsand methodstoimprovetheefficiencyofanintegrateddynamic knowl-edgemodel.Theunderlyingpropositionbehindthisis:thequality ofproductsdeliveredbyafirmisdirectlyproportionaltotheefficiency ofknowledgecreation.Consequently,thisarticlegoesbeyondalarge andgrowingliteratureonknowledgemanagementtoaddressthe challenges of knowledge creation in supportingproduct devel-opment.This study proposes a comprehensive listof lean and non-leantoolsandmethodsinanimplementationframework.This researchfocusesontheprocessesthatemployeesperform dur-ingtheirdailyactivities,and considersthem fromaknowledge creationperspective.Thepresentmodeloffersageneral implemen-tationapproach,whichcanbeextendedtoothersectorssuchas servicesandmarketing.Anintegrateddynamicknowledgemodel toillustratepracticalknowledgecreationisdetailedinthenext section.
3. Integrateddynamicknowledgemodel
Existingknowledgewithinanorganizationmaybeexploitedin dealingwithproblemsbyexploring,defining,anddevelopingtheir solutions.During this problemsolvingexercise,teamsnot only takeactionstosolvethem,buttheyalsogaindynamicknowledge (Fig.2).Bothenvironmentand organizationinteractswitheach otherandabsorbstherequiredchangesthroughknowledge cre-ation.Hereknowledgeisbeingcreated(insteadofjustprocessing theinformation) through a nexus of interaction betweenteam members,problemsolvingactions,and tasksperformed. There-fore,knowledgecreationfollowsaspiralshapedpathbyoscillating betweensharply contrasted conceptssuch asorder and chaos, microandmacro,partandwhole,mindandbody,tacitandexplicit, self and other,and internal and external. Nonakaet al. (2000) presented an argument that such dialectical thinking plays an importantrole in transcendingand synthesizingcontradictions, whichultimatelyleadstowardsdynamicknowledge.An organiza-tioncanpossessastockofknowledge,suchastechnology,which maybecomeirrelevantinthefuture.Gainednewknowledgeand itsapplicationisthemajorresourceforanorganization’ssurvival. Therefore,thedynamicnatureofknowledgeistheprominentforce forrealizingthestrengthofanorganization.
Fig.2.LinearrepresentationofknowledgecreationbetweentwoindividualsAandB.S,E,C,andIaresocialization,externalization,combination,andinternalizationmodes, respectively.
3.1. SECImodes
AccordingtoNonakaetal.(2000),knowledgeisdividedinto twotypes:explicitknowledgeandtacitknowledge.Explicit knowl-edge canbepresented in theform ofa code, in language,and in writtenreports using data,scientific formulas, and manuals. Therefore,it canbecommunicated,processed,transmitted,and storedrelativelyeasily.Ontheotherhand,tacitknowledgerefersto knowledge,whichisonlyknownbyanindividualandisdifficultto communicatetotherestoftheorganization.Itispersonal knowl-edgeembodiedinactions,attitudes,commitments,emotions,and behaviour,andisdifficulttocodifysufficientlytocommunicatein a‘language.’ Itcanonly belearned bysharingexperiences, and byobservationandimitation(Hall&Andriani,2002).Factsand theories—i.e.‘knowing-about,’—fallunderthecategoryofexplicit knowledge,whereasskillstoperformanytaskorjob, ‘knowing-how,’areintherealmoftacitknowledge.Itisverydifficultornearly impossibleforanyonetolearnanddevelop‘know-how’skillsjust byreadingorbywatchingaudio/videomedia.Theindividualhasto indulgeinahands-onexperienceinordertogaintacitknowledge. Amongthetwo,tacitknowledgeismoreimportantowingtoits “know-how”contributiontowardscontinuousinnovation.
Althoughtacitknowledgeisasourceofcompetitiveadvantage, itquicklylosesitsmeaningwithoutexplicitknowledge.They com-plementeachotherandtheabsenceofoneunderminesthepower oftheother.Nonakaetal.(2000)statedthattheir(tacitandexplicit) interplayisrequiredfordynamicknowledge.Thefour-stagespiral modelabbreviatedasSECImodesisusedtodepictfourseparate modes:socialization,externalization,combination,and internal-ization.Thebeginningpointofthisspiralissocialization,wherethe exchangeoftacitknowledgeattheindividuallevelisused, with-outspecifyinganyparticularlanguage,tocreateknowledge.For example,childrenimitatethebehaviouroftheirparentsandlearn fromit.Thisisfollowedbyanexternalizationmodewheretacit knowledgeistransformedintoexplicitknowledgetocreate knowl-edge.Writtenreportscomingfromlessonslearnedandimpressions fromexperiencesareexamplesofexternalization.Incombination mode,dynamicknowledgeisgainedbypoolingisolatedand exist-ingpiecesofexplicitknowledgeintoaholisticsystemstructure. Thefinalmodeofspiralisinternalization,whereindividualsabsorb thisnewexplicitknowledge.Explicitknowledgeisapplied multi-pletimes,enriching thetacit knowledgebasebyincludingitin
habitsand dailyroutines.The knowledgecreationcycle contin-uesalongthespiraland jumpsfromtheindividuallevel tothe organizationallevelwhentacitknowledgeisexchangedagain.The SECImodesmust besupportedbytwo otherelements-‘ba’and knowledgeassets-torealizeknowledgecreationasshowninFig.3 (Nonakaetal.,2000).
3.2. ‘ba’
Knowledge creation or sharing cannot occur in a vacuum, instead depends on the method of participation and the indi-vidualswhoparticipate.TheJapanesephilosopherKitaroNishida introduced the ‘ba’ concept and Shimizu later refined it. The Japaneseword‘ba’referstoaspecifictime–spacenexus,and con-ceptuallyunifiesphysicalspace,virtualspace,andmentalspace suchasanofficespace,e-mail,andsharedideals.‘ba’meansthe place,andincurrentjargonitisthezonethatactivelysupports simultaneousandspontaneousinteractioninpartsorinwholefor knowledgecreation.Italsoprovidesasharedcontextforthe mean-ingfulexistenceofknowledgeandbridgesthegapwithinformation (Nonakaetal.,2000).Thecontextchangesthemeaningof knowl-edge,whensharedorinterpretedforapurpose.Thesharedcontext orplacecanbetangible,intangible,oracombinationofbothto createandutilizetheknowledge.Commitmenttospendtimeand energyoneventsaswellasinactivitiesandinteractionsin‘ba’is veryimportantforknowledgecreation.
Interactionlevel(individualorgroup)andmediatype (face-to-faceorvirtual)resultinfourtypesof‘ba’:originating,dialoguing, systemizing, andexercising(Nonakaetal.,2000).Inoriginating ‘ba’,individualsshareexperiencesandfeelingsface-to-face. Dia-loguing‘ba’ishelpfulinpromotingface-to-faceinteractionsamong groupparticipants.Systemizing‘ba’offersacombinationofexplicit knowledgeinvirtualspacethroughagroupinteraction.The mem-bersparticipateandengageinvarious‘ba’todevelopasharedsense of purposebyinteractingwitheach other,and transcendone’s limitedandsubjectiveperspectivetocreateknowledge(Nonaka etal.,2000).Theindividual’sinteractioninvirtualspacefallsunder thecategoryofexercising‘ba.’‘ba’laysafoundationoffourSECI modesforinformal,simultaneous,anddialecticaldialoguesamong individualsand/oragroupinphysicalandvirtualspace,asshown inFig.3.
Fig.3.Integrateddynamicknowledgemodelinaspiralform(Nonakaetal.,2000).
3.3. Knowledgeassets
Theknowledgeassetsdependheavilyonthestrategic orienta-tionofafirm andthecharacteristicsof‘ba.’Theyareintangible firm-specificresourcessuchasinputsoroutputsoftheknowledge creationprocessthatcontributeinyieldingvalue.Existing know-howskills,patents,andtechnologiesareinthecategoryofalready acquiredknowledgeassets.Theyhavereceivedalotofattention duetotheirtangibleattributesandrelativeeaseinmeasurement. However,knowledgecreationisanorganizationalcapabilityanda sourceofinnovationthatneedsattention(Nonakaetal.,2000).A specificwayofdoingthingsisreflectedinoneofthemostimportant knowledgeassetstermed“kata.”Itconsistsofthreesimplesteps: shu(learn),ha(break),andri(create),whichisadynamicthinking patternintendedtocreateaself-renewalprocess.Thethinking pat-ternofthefirmisacontinuousprocesschangingobsoletesources ofknowledgetonewonesfor a successfulfuture.Such knowl-edgeassetscannotbeevaluatedandmanagedeffectively,owing tothelackofeffectivesystemsandtools.Itisnearlyimpossibleto buyorselltheorganizationalknowledgeassets,sotheymustbe builtwithin.Ahighlevelsnapshotofpresentlyownedall knowl-edgeassetswillnotbeenoughformanagingthemproperlyinthe future.Therefore,Nonakaetal.(2000)dividedknowledgeassets intofourtypes:experiential,conceptual,systemic,androutine,in ordertounderstandhowknowledgeassetsarecreated,acquired, andexploited.Thenextsectionhighlightstheroleofleanthinking inproductdevelopment.
4. Leanthinkinginproductdevelopment
TheToyotaProductionSystembuiltonleanthinkingisthemost successful disruptive innovation after Ford’s River Rogue plant (Ohno,1988).Theterm“leanthinking”wasfirstcoinedbyWomack, Jones,and Roos(1990)in theirfamousbook“TheMachineThat Changedthe World.” Later, Womackand Jones(2003)proposed
Table1
Inherentdifferencebetweenmanufacturingandengineeringintermsoflean prin-ciples(McManus,2005).
LeanPrinciple Manufacturing/ production
Engineering
Value Visibleateachstep,
definedgoal
Hardertosee,emergentgoals
Valuestream Partsandmaterial Informationandknowledge
Flow Iterationsarewaste Plannediterationsmustbe
efficient
Pull Drivenbytakt-time Drivenbyneedsofenterprise
Perfection Processrepeatable
withouterrors
Processenablesenterprise improvement
thefivelean principles,whichare(1) specifyvalue,(2) identify thevaluestreamand eliminatewaste,(3)makethevalueflow, (4) let thecustomer pull (value), and (5) pursueperfection. In essence,leanness mainlydepends ononecritical starting point called“value”thatcanbedefinedonlybythecustomers.Hence, leantoolsandmethodsprimarilyfocusonexploringwaysto iden-tifyandeliminatethesevendeadlywastesthataddnovaluefora customeroranorganization(Cai,Tyagi,&Yang,2011;Liker,2004). Theirimplementation,particularlywithinmanufacturing opera-tionshasturnedouttobeanenduringdomainofearlierresearch (Khalil&Stockton,2010).McManus(2005)statedthatatested the-orythatputsleanthinkingintotheheartofaholisticsystemandhas theabilitytoextendacrossotherelementsofanenterprise,such asproductdevelopment,isstillrarelymentionedintheliterature. Thisisowingtotheinherentdifferencesbetweenmanufacturing andproductdevelopment.Therefore,itisworthwhiletocompare thetwotonoticethedistinctions(seeTable1).Forexample,inthe former,loopbacksareassociatedwithwastesandconsideredtobe adiminishingcontribution;howeverinthelatter,loopbackscould beassociatedwithgainingimportantdynamicknowledge.Hence, directimplementationofleanprinciplesfrommanufacturingto
by a number of authors. Morgan and Liker (2006) and Ward (2007)provideddifferentperspectivestocomparemanufacturing andproductdevelopmentandstressedthatleantoolsand meth-odshave theability tobemodified appropriatelytowork well inthelatter.For example,inmanufacturingthe“pull”principle focusesoneliminatingoverproductionof material.Thisis done bymaintainingabalanceindemandfromdownstreamactivities tosupplyofupstreamactivitiesusingsignalsaddingavaluefor theend-customer.Similarlyinproductdevelopment,knowledge ispulled/createdtogettherightinformationtotherightperson attherighttime.Mostleantoolsandmethodsinherentlysupport knowledgecreationinoneormultipleSECImodes.Generally, orga-nizationstendtoneglectthelong-termbenefitsastheytargetonly suchshort-termbenefitsofbringingproductstothemarketfaster (Kennedyetal.,2008).MorganandLiker(2006)mentionedseveral leantoolsandmethodsforstandardizationandvisual communica-tionthatcanalsoassisteffectiveandpowerfulknowledgecreation. Organizationsarerequiredtoadaptthosetoolsandmethodsto fittheirpeopleandspecificculture.Moreover,toolsandmethods thatsupportknowledgecreationarenotnecessarilylean,sothis researchalsointroducessomenon-leantoolsandattemptsto inte-gratetheminthedailywork.Ithelpsemployeestoaccepttheir implementationwithhigherefficiencyandenthusiasm.Thenext sectiondescribesthemethodologyusedinthisresearch.
5. Researchmethodology
TherearesevendifferentperspectivesinunderstandingLPD: performanceanalysis,decision-making,process-modelling, strat-egydevelopment,supplierpartnership,leanmanufacturing,and knowledgenetworks (MartinezLeon &Farris,2011).In knowl-edge networks, generally, the SECI model (Nonaka, 1994) has been exploited to develop knowledge-related research frame-works.However,importantpointslikeinput/outputofaSECImode orphysical/virtualspacewheretheknowledgeiscreatedorshared havebeenneglected.Inordertotacklethis,anintegrateddynamic knowledgemodelproposedbyNonakaetal.(2000)thatis com-prisedofthreeelements:SECImodes,‘ba’andknowledgeassets, istargeted.Thismodelisadoptedsinceitisthemostadvanced modelthatclearlyexemplifieshowknowledgeiscreatedin prac-ticalsettings.Thisarticlediscussestheimplementationoftenlean toolsandmethods intheintegratedmodeltoenhancethe effi-ciencyofknowledgecreationinaproductdevelopmentdomain.In theliterature,researchersandpractitionershaveidentified, ana-lyzedanddocumentedalargenumberofleantools,methods,and techniquesbasedontheToyotaProductionSystem.Forauthors,it isimportanttounderstandhowtheycanspecificallyaddressthe needsofknowledgecreation.Thekeyisinpickingtherightmix andintegratingthemintothestrategytodeliverthemostvalue; otherwisetheywillendupresultinginalotofwaste.Expertslike Ward(2007),MorganandLiker(2006),Kennedyetal.(2008)and otherrelevantresearchpapersintheliteratureagreedupon21LPD enablers.Allofthemcanbeconsideredastheingredientsofthe LPDframework.Amongthe21agreed-uponLPDenablers, how-ever,thispaperproposesasetof10leantoolsandmethods,which fitforimplementationintheintegrateddynamicknowledgemodel. Theseitemswereselectedbased ona consensusofresearchers andpractitionersknownfortheirexpertiseandexperienceinthe productdevelopmentdomain.Thesetoolsandmethods are:(1) apprenticeship,(2)employeecross-training,(3)thechiefengineer, (4)set-basedconcurrentengineering,(5)trade-offcurves,(6)visual tools,(7)checksheets,(8)scrum,(9)PDCA,and(10)the5whys.
priateSECImodeforeachleantool/methodalongwithpotential ‘ba’andknowledgeassetsisexplainedlaterinthe implementa-tionanalysissection.Concentratingondeployingalargenumber ofleanconceptscanresultinnegativefeedbackfromemployeesin termsofutilization.Thisisduetothefactthatemployeeshaveto possess(orlearn)anadequateunderstandingofeachconceptanda largenumberofleantoolscandrawlessinterestandlackofusage, whichcanleadtotheirbanishmentinthefuture.Sotheoptimal numberofleantools/methodsshouldbeenforcedtorealizethe maximumbenefits.Oncethosetools/methodsareimplemented, gradualandcontinuousimprovementsshouldoccurinthem.Atthe sametimeanorganizationshouldexplore,develop,andencourage moretools/methods.In thenextsection,eachofthemisbriefly introducedtokeepupwiththeobjectiveofthispaper.
6. Implementationanalysis
Twobranchesofresearcharetheoreticalanalysisand empir-icalanalysis,and theorderin which theyarelinkedwitheach otherdefinestworesearchstrategytypes.Thedeductivestrategy thatfocuseson“theory–then–research,”andtheinductivestrategy thatfollows“research–then–theory,”havebeenrecognizedinthe literatureasappropriate(Yin,2009).Thispaperemploysa deduc-tivestrategyinanalysingleantools/methodstosupportefficient knowledgecreationandbridgetheresearchgap.Anoverviewof theanalysisisasfollows.ForSocialization,apprenticeship, infor-malmeetings,andemployeecross-trainingarediscussed.Under Externalization,thechiefengineer,set-basedconcurrent engineer-ing,andtrade-offcurvesareanalyzed.ForCombination,twovisual tools(A3reportsandspaghettidiagrams)areexplored.For Inter-nalization,twovisualtools(A3reportsandvirtualobeya)andthe useofchecksheetsarediscussed.Finally,threetools:Scrum,PDCA, andthe5whys,areshowntosupportknowledgecreationinall modes.
6.1. Socializationmode
AccordingtoOshri,Kotlarsky,andWillcocks(2007),the social-izationmodeoffersanopportunityforexperiencesharingtocreate tacitknowledgeandimprovecollaborationthroughoutaproject life-cycle.Itencouragesindividualstospendtimetogetherinjoint hands-onexperiences,informalmeetings,andworkinthesame environmenttoexchangepersonalorspecializedknowledge(Li, Huang,&Tsai,2009).Socializationrequiresthetrust,respect,and mutualunderstandingamongresourcesduringthecourseof com-munication.Thishelpsincombiningacomprehensiveformoftacit knowledgetoenrich‘sympathizedknowledge,’suchasan intellec-tualmodelandtechnologicalexpertise(Nonaka&Takeuchi,1995). Therequired‘ba’forthesocializationmodeisface-to-face inter-actionlocations,videoconferencingtools,andvirtualrealitytools. Thesharedcontextoflearningfromapprenticeandcoachingfrom theleaderisanotherrequired‘ba’forsuccessfulknowledge cre-ation.Theknowledgeassetsforsocializationmodeareknow-how andskillspossessedbyindividualemployeesregardingthecurrent products,processes,customers,suppliersetc.
6.1.1. Apprenticeship
Apprenticeship goes against the orthodox approach that believesin‘commandandcontrol’(Evered&Selman,1989).The traditionalwayofmicromanagementdoesnotofferanambiance conducivetogainingtacitknowledge,andthusdoesnothelpeither thecoachortheapprentice.Onthecontrary,leanthinking encour-agesaleadertopatientlycoachtheapprenticewholearnsbydoing
underhis/herdirectsupervision.Thisisduetothefactthat men-tors(leaders)naturallypossessavastamountofexperienceinthe formoftacitknowledge,andareexpertsintheirdomain(Verma, Tyagi,&Yang, 2014).Apprenticeshiprequiresastrongdesireto communicateandinteractwithothersbyengaginginday-to-day hands-onactivities.Adoptionofthisapproachcaninfluencehowa companyallowsindividualstoshareexperiences,intuitions, obser-vations,andimitations.Forexample,inToyotaanewemployeeis assignedtoaleaderwhoworkswiththejunioremployeeasa men-torforstricttraininganddevelopment.Newemployeesareadvised todotheirjobsundertheguidanceofaleadertofocuson meth-odsratherthanresultsandlearnthem(Morgan&Liker,2006).In thegameofcricket,theAustralianCricketBoardmanagementhas assignedindividualcurrentcricketerswithformerexpertplayers basedontalentandabilities.Ithelpsanindividualplayertohone skillsunderproperguidance.Thisisanotherexampleof apprentice-shipandexemplifiestheinterpersonalcreationoftacitknowledge throughsocialization.
6.1.2. Informalsocialactivities
Encouragingsocialactivitiesoutsidetheworkplacefordirect and face-to-face communication empowers teams to gain new insights. Leonard and Sensiper (1998) stated that comfortable communicationoftacit knowledgeis onlypossibleifthere is a mutualtrustandunderstanding.Theyarenurturedbyfacilitation ofsocialinteractionand networking.Organizationsshould initi-ateandencourageinformalinternaleventsprovidinganextended interactionforemployeestoshareideasandperspectives.Social interactionsamongindividualsleadtomoreaccurate interpreta-tions,ascomparedtowhenindividualsdecipherinformationalone (Alavi&Leidner,2001;Tyagi,Yang,Tyagi,&Dwivedi,2011;Tyagi, Yang,Tyagi,&Verma,2012).Establishingsuchdialoguescanpave thewayforimprovedperformanceofthedevelopmentprojects. 6.1.3. Employeecross-training
Mostorganizations have already recognized that employees aretheirmostimportantassets.Investmenttoaugmentthe capa-bilitiesof an assetis important, and leadership must promote, encourage,andactuallybecomeinvolvedinthis.Trainingand edu-cationtobringdeliberatechangesistheprimarydrivingforcefor dynamicknowledgethatbenefitsbothemployerandemployee. Suchtraininghelpsateammembertoperformawide rangeof activitiesenhancingflexibilityandgreaterideageneration capa-bilities.Employeeswithgreaterflexibilityandcapabilitycanopen anewhorizonforanorganizationtoofferqualityproductsand services.Ontheotherhand,foremployeescross-trainingprovides anopportunitytogaindynamicknowledgeandskills,increasing theirvalue,positivelyimpactingtheirconfidence.Italsohelpsthe employeestoattainenrichmentandenlargementintermsoftheir jobs.
Otherpotentialmethodsthatcanlikelyimproveknowledge cre-ationduringthesocializationmodeareinvolvingcross-functional teamsinjointprojects,arrangingmeetings,seminars,and train-ingworkshops,lunchandlearnsessionswithotherdepartments, invitingqualifiedmembersand externalexpertstospeakabout theirbeliefs,values,andculture,andprovidingacommonplacefor lunchbreaksorotheractivities,technicalspeeddating,monthly cascademeetingsetc.
6.2. Externalizationmode
Researchersarestilltryingtoidentifythekeyinfluencers,which canmitigatethedifficultiesofthesocializationmode.Thisshifts thefocustowardsexternalization,wherebestpracticesandlessons learnedaredocumentedtoavoidhighuncertaintyinfuture inno-vation (Gold, Malhotra, & Segars, 2001). Knowledge is created
when existing knowledge is changed from the tacit to explicit form(Choi&Lee,2002).Duringthismode,theknow-how knowl-edgeisexposedintheformofconcepts,hypotheses,metaphors, analogies,andmodelsforexplaininginmoretangibleandgeneric formsthroughdemonstration,comparison,andexperimentation (Salmador&Bueno,2007).Anorganizationpushesexternalization tocreateconceptualknowledgeand convertabstractideasinto aconcreteformofinformationthroughtextandsymbols.Ahigh commitmentandparticipationofinternalqualifiedmembersand externalexpertsinthetrainingprogrammesandseminarswith lit-tleexternalcontrol(littlepressurefromshareholders)arerequired forsuccessfulcompletionofexternalization.Opendialogueamong employeesand senior leadershipwho areseekinghonest feed-backisastrongmotivationforreducingambiguities.Thepotential ‘ba’forexternalizationareinterviewrooms,Microsoft productiv-itytoolssuchasWordandPowerPoint,toolstocaptureprocesses, expertsystems,discussionplatformssuchasmeetingrooms,and reflectivepeer-to-peernetworks.Theknowledgeassetsareimages, languagesand symbolsofproductconcepts,designs,and brand equity.
6.2.1. Chiefengineer
TheChiefEngineer(CE)isoneofthemostimportantlean meth-ods.Thispositionactsasa“heavyweightprojectmanager”who exertsthetotalresponsibilityformultipledevelopmentprojects totimelydrivethem witha viewtoachieve aggressivetargets (Morgan&Liker,2006).Inadditiontothedevelopmentprojects, theCEputsforthstrenuouseffortstounderstandcustomervalues andneedsduringthesocializationmode(Ward,2007).Morganand Liker(2006)alsoemphasizedthattheCEissomeonewhopromotes knowledgeexternalization.Oncetheneedsofthecustomerare understood,theCEcommunicatesthemthroughconceptpapers andothercommunicationapproachestootherteammembers.In suchpapers,theCEexternalizesthetacitknowledgeintheform ofexplicitknowledge;thus,allowingotherstoobtainandgraspit andactuponit.
6.2.2. Set-basedconcurrentengineering(SBCE)
SBCEencouragesdesignerstoconsiderabroadrangeof poten-tial alternative concepts in the beginning, instead of a single solution as in point-based engineering. Cross-functional teams includingmarketanalysis,design,development,testing,and man-ufacturing contribute by providing information in parallel to help develop alternative design concepts Shah, Soni,and Patel (2013).Subsequently,conceptsconvergebydeletingweakdesign attributesuntilasuperiorsolutionisfound.Theobjectiveisto elim-inatewasteearlyintheproductdesignprocesssothattheneed forcostlydesignandengineeringchangesattheback-endis min-imized.Fundamentally,startingwithasetofdesignalternatives insteadofasingledesignassistsinavoidingiterationsandlarge amountsofrework.SBCEhelpstheexternalizationmodeby captur-ingknowledgesuchasdesignrulesfromengineersandsystematic evaluationofthedevelopmentprocess.Dynamicknowledgecanbe storedormanipulatedandcanbetransferredtoothersforfuture reuse.InordertoinvestigateSBCE,Liker(2004)pointedoutthe exampleofthedevelopmentofanewsuspensionforthePriuscar atToyota.Toyotaheldacompetitionandgotaround20potential suspensiondesignstoevaluateandtestsimultaneously,insteadof usingtrialanderrortomodifyasingledesign,tominimizethetotal costofdevelopment.
6.2.3. Trade-offcurves
Trade-offcurves,consideredtobeacornerstoneofthe external-izationmode,aresimplegraphicalrepresentationstodemonstrate thechangeofperformanceofoutput(X)againstoneormore param-eters(Y).Theexampleincludesestimationofkeyparameterssuch
explicitknowledgegeneratedduringtestsandcanbeusedinfuture endeavours. Succincttrade-offcurves facilitate codification and generalizationofknowledgeofqualityissuesinordertoavoidthem inthefuture.Toyotaheavilyreliesonextensiveprototyping dur-ingproductdevelopmenttosuccessfullydevelopandreleasenew modelsofacarinrecord-breakingtime.Toyotaspendsa consider-ableamountoftimeandefforttodevelopthetrade-offcurvesfrom theanalysisof prototypingdata.Suchtestdataanalysis knowl-edgeinformoftrade-offcurvesprovidestheongoingknowledge forfutureprojects,and,thus,reducesredundancy.Theemployees externalizethetacitknowledgethrougha trade-offcurvewhen knowledgeisarticulatedintheformofdocumentsorexperience reports.Thisknowledgegeneratedthroughthetrade-offcurvesis quiteusefulincreatingstandardsandmakingintelligentdecisions. Othermethodstofosterexternalizationareconducting expe-rienceworkshops,expertinterviews,andexperiencereports.The objectiveofexperienceworkshopsistotakearetrospectiveviewto shareimportantaspectsandtakeawaylearnedlessons,exchange ofexperiences,andtojudgetheproject’ssuccess(orlackof suc-cess)forsubsequentprojects.Anoutsideprojectfacilitatorshould asktheimportantquestionsrelatedtotheobjectiveoftheproject, achievements,successes/failure,andhowtousethisknowledgein thefuture.Activitiesthatreportthebeliefs,values,experiences,and cultureofinternalandexternalexpertsareespeciallyencouraged. However,eliciting,codifying,andtransformingtheSubjectMatter Expert’s(SMEs)knowledgeintoasharableformatisa painstak-ingtaskowingtodynamicattributesandthesubjectivenatureof knowledge.
6.3. Combinationmode
TimespentbySMEsonprojectorientedtasksismorevaluable than writing reports (Tyagi, Yang, & Verma, 2013). In addi-tion, tight schedules make knowledge creation difficult in the externalizationmodesomanualknowledgecompilationorother appropriatemethodsareimportant.Inordertomaintainexpertise ortechnologicalknowledgeforalongerperiodattheenterprise level, another knowledge creation mode seems essential. Col-lected reports issued by the internal and external agents (e.g., customers,competitors,partners,orgovernmentrepresentatives) areintegrated,classified,reclassified,andsynthesizedwith var-ious existing explicitnotions possessed by employees, toform a clusteroforganized knowledgeresultingin ‘systemic explicit knowledge’.Inthis modeexplicitknowledgementionedinfiles, databases, networks, and reports is classifiedand transformed intointricateandorganizedexplicitknowledgetoidentify inno-vativeproductsortechnologiesmostlikelyapplicabletobeput intopractice.Thepotential‘ba’forthecombinationmodewould includetoolsforsystematizingknowledge,toolsforcollaborative computing,webforums,bestpracticesdatabases,listsfor discus-sion,andtheintranet.Theknowledgeassetsaresystemizedand packeddocumentation,manuals,specifications,database,patents andlicenses.
6.3.1. Visualtools
Visualtoolboardsareapowerfulwaytocreateknowledge dur-ingthecombinationmode.A3reportsandspaghettidiagramsare twomainexamplesofvisualtoolsconsideredinthisresearch.An A3reportisasinglepieceofA3sizepaperthatcontainsgraphs andvisualrepresentationsinsteadoflargeamountsoftext. Engi-neerssynthesize,distill,andvisualizetheknowledgetoputalarge amountofbothtacitandexplicitknowledgeintocompressedform (Sobek&Smalley,2008).TheA3reportepitomizestheoldadage,
thus,belongstothecombinationmode.
Aspaghettidiagramisatoolthatindicatesthevalueaddedand non-valueaddedworkflowsusingacontinuouslineinavisualflow chartformat.Traditionally,thelinesarehanddrawnandfollow theobservedworkflow.Theselinesmaynotbetotheexactscale oftheactualprocess.Thisisbecausetheintentionofthetoolis todepicttheflow of workormaterial inorder toidentifyand eliminateanynon-value-addedmovements.Improvedknowledge creationincombination modeis supportedbycreative applica-tionsofcomputerizedcommunicationnetworksand largescale databases(Nonaka&Takeuchi,1995).Theseactivitiesshouldbe integratedwiththedeploymentofgoodandprovenpracticesor procedures;updatingoffiles,databasesandwebsites;inclusionof relevantpublishedresearch;andnewpolicydevelopmentreports. Itbecomesapowerfultoolwhenitisusedwith5Sinitiatives(5S referstoaworkplaceorganizationalmethodologybasedon:sort, systematize,shine,standardize,andsustain).Thecollected infor-mationshouldbereferencedwhendevelopingrules,reportsfor decision-making.
Otherpracticesthatcanbehelpfulincombinationmodeare projectbriefings,knowledgebrokers,databases,andselectionof best practices. Project briefings can aidby involvingthe expe-rienced team toprovide knowledge and documents containing issues/resultsfrompreviousprojects.Thenewrequirementscan becombinedwiththisknowledgebythecurrentteam.Generally, bestpracticescanbeconsideredasexplicitknowledgeiftheyare noted.Theyareprovenapproachestohandlerepeatingproblemsor processeseffectively,andthedocumentedinformationshouldbe regardedasthemajorsourceofcommunications.Hence,functional specificationsofnewprojectscoupledwithexplicateexperiences ordocumentsfrompriorprojectsresultsinconcreteknowledge creationduringtheSECIcombinationmode.
6.4. Internalizationmode
In defining the internalization mode, Vaccaro, Veloso, and Brusoni(2009)statethatdynamic knowledgeoccurswhen col-lective explicitknowledgeis transformed intotacit knowledge, updating the mental representations of individual organization members.Thisisgenerallyachievedbothbyaccessingthe orga-nization database and intranet to obtain required information, andbyanalysingdeliverablesoftrainingprogrammes,workshops, seminars,andconferences.Suchtuned-up,combined,and struc-turedexplicitknowledgeleadstowardsaction-orientedknowledge intended to be disseminated for pragmatic use. Analysis and explanation of relevant reports issued by suppliers, competi-tors,partners,orgovernmentrepresentativescanbeusedduring the knowledge internalization mode. This mode witnesses a functionaland realisticoutcomefor organizationalperformance improvementand,thus,becomesanimportantstageintheSECI. Researchersalsoacknowledgedthatifdeliberateknowledge cre-ationandtransferamongpartnersbecomescostlyandtediousdue toknowledgestickiness,thenitcanhavenegativeimpactstowards internalization(Li&Hsieh,2009).Thepotential‘ba’forthe internal-izationmodeincludescollaborativeknowledgenetworks,neural networks,andnotesdatabases.Theknowledgeassetsarethe orga-nizationalculture,organizationalroutines,andtheknow-howof dailyoperationsembeddedinactionsandpractices.
6.4.1. A3reports
A3reportsalsosupportinternalizationbyfacilitating transfor-mationofexplicitknowledgeintotacitwhenusedasa toolfor solvingproblems.TheissuescanbediscussedeasilyifA3reports
Table2
Listofleantool/methodsupportingtheknowledgegeneratedinSECImodes.
Tool/method S E C I ‘ba’ Knowledgeassets
1.Apprenticeship X Face-to-faceinteractionlocations,video
conferencingtools,andvirtualrealitytools
Know-howandskillspossessedbyindividual employeesregardingcurrentproduct,process, customer,supplieretc.
2.Employeecross-training X
3.Chiefengineer X Interviewrooms,toolstocaptureprocess,
expertsystems,discussionplatformssuchas meetingrooms,andreflectivepeertopeer networks
Images,languagesandsymbolsofproduct concepts,designsandbrandequity
4.Set-basedconcurrentengineering X
5.Trade-offcurves X
6.Visualtools Toolsforsystematicknowledge,toolsfor
collaborativecomputing,webforums,best practicesdatabase,listfordiscussion,intranet
Systemizedandpackeddocumentation, manuals,specifications,database,patentsand licenses
6.1A3 X X X
6.2Spaghettidiagram X
6.3i-Obeya X Collaborativeknowledgenetworks,neural
networksandnotesdatabase
Organizationalculture,organizationalroutines, know-howofdailyoperationsembeddedin actionsandpractices.
7.Checksheets X
8.Scrum X X X X IndividualorCombinationofabovestated‘ba’,
dependingonthemode.
Individualorcombinationofabovestated assets,dependingonthemode.
9.PDCA X X X X
10.5Why’s X X X X
arehungonthewallof“Obeyarooms,” orwhereverthe meet-ingsoccur. This can beused to explain thecontent of related reports or documents to shape the organizational culture and point-of-viewbasedontheavailabledataandinformationVerma, Shukla,Tyagi,andMishra(2014).Itprovidesaplatformfor effec-tiveandtimelycommunicationtoreducewaitingtimefordecision making.A3reportscanactasamediumtodemonstratemodels and/orconceptsusingastandardreporttemplateforknowledge externalization.Expertinterviewsareconductedtoarticulatetacit knowledgepiecesintheformofwrittendocuments,whichmainly containthestaffpoint-of-viewsonprojectsandstrategies.These reportscontaintheresultsofnegotiationwithcustomers,partners, andothersbasedoncumulatedexperience,andfindingsof meet-ings,seminars,workshops,conferences,andtrainingprogrammes. 6.4.2. Virtualobeya
There is a scarcity of visual control systems for integrated planningandschedulingofworkthataretransparentenoughfor making real-time decisions. It gets worse when geographically distributedteamsareinvolved.“Obeya”isaplanningand com-municationtool,whichroughlymeans“bigroom”inEnglish.Each teamworksinaphysicalObeyaroomandregularlycollaborates withothermulti-disciplinaryteams.Teams‘see’theprocessand knowwhereandwhenactionsneedtobecompleted,andwhere problemsmayarise.Virtualobeyausesadigitalboardforenhanced collaborativeworkthatvirtuallydisplayscurrentstatusatremote locationstofocus onproblemsolving and coordinatingactions (Blankenburg,Kristensen,Aasland,&Sivertsen,2013). Responsi-blerepresentativesofvariousfunctionalspecialtiesmaintainthe roomtosupporteffectiveandtimelycommunicationacross mul-tiplelocationsatthesametime.Thisinteractiveinvolvementof geographicallydispersedcross-functionalteamseffectively con-trolsand managesa projectas compared to SMEsat only one location.Virtualobeyaservesmultiplepurposesincludingrealtime knowledgecreationwithcoordinatedefforts,on-the-spotfastand accuratedecision makingby involvingthe rightplayersat one place.Thisenableseasierdelegationthroughfullvisualizationof theworktobeperformed,clearerrolesandresponsibilities,anda senseofteamintegration.
6.4.3. Checksheets
Checksheetsareusedtoputtheavailableknowledgeonasheet ofpaperinthestandardizedformtoprovideabetterreviewbasis for decision-making (Kennedy et al., 2008). Checksheets are a mediumtoputexplicitknowledgeina writtenformfor future reuse.Toyotaregularlyusesthemtoreviewalldesigndecisions andensureaminimumqualitylevel. Theyactasa reminderto
rememberimportantthingsandareregularlyupdatedandused. They are beneficial in improving the documentation of infor-mation, design decisions, and knowledge reuse. They facilitate documentationandvisualizationtoincreasetheknowledgebase andknowledgesharing,thusknowledgeinternalizationoccurs. 6.5. ToolsthatsupportsknowledgecreationinfourSECImodes 6.5.1. Scrum
Thissub-sectionprovidesadiscussiononhowknowledgeis cre-atedthrough“Scrum,”andtheimportanceofenabling‘ba’.Ascrum teamconsistsofatleastthreeroles:aproductowner,who repre-sentsthevoiceofthecustomer;across-functionaldevelopment team,whichactuallycreatesshippableincrementsofthefinal prod-uct,andthescrummaster,whokeepsthescrumprocessmoving and who removes impediments that are preventing the devel-opmentteamfromdeliveringtheirproducts.Scrumenablesfast feedback,sinceteamsexecutestepsinsmallercyclesfor continu-ousimprovements.Thescrumteaminteractsiterativelytobecome hyper-productiveandstabilizetheenvironmentwheretheteam works.Thisenvironmentisthescrumteam’s‘ba’,whichmustbe createdandtransformedcontinuouslywithaviewtoachievethe mostfromit(Sutherland,Schoonheim,Kumar,Pandey,&Vishal, 2009).Ascrummastershouldfacilitatethescrumprocess.It is thedutyofthescrummastertoprovidetheplatformtocreate andmaintaintheflowofknowledge in‘ba’.AllSECImodesare presentinscrum.Thedailyscrummeetingsupportstheoccurrence ofsocializationandcombinationmodes,giventhedynamics cre-atedbyhavingthescrumteamalwaysworkingtogethertosolve problems.Additionallythetechnicalpartofthepost-scrumreview alsosupportsbothmodes.Theoriginatingandcyber‘ba’arethe scrumteam’slocation.Therequireddocumentationdepends on whattheteamorscrummasterselectthatsupports externaliza-tion.Theteamandindividualmembersgainknowledgeinshort cyclesofsprintandscrumceremoniestosupportinternalization andultimatelyresultindevelopment.
6.5.2. Plan–Do–Check–Actcycle
Thefourstepsofcontinuousimprovement:Plan,Do,Check,and Act,canbeviewedas thecounterparts ofthefourSECImodes. ThePlanstepcorrespondstosocializationsincethereisan interac-tiontoclearlyexplorethecustomer’sobjectivesandthemethods required to achieve those objectives. The Do step is similarto externalizationwhenanimprovementteamtestssolutionstothe problemathandanddynamicknowledgeisgeneratedinformsof reports,tools,andmanuals.Trade-offdiagramsandset-based con-currentengineeringtoolsaregenerallyusedtoconductthetesting
actionsandimplementingsuggestionsforimprovements,resulting ininternalizationofexplicitknowledge.
6.5.3. 5Whys
The5Why’sisasystematicapproachtogettotherootcause ofa problem. Inthis approach, questionsareasked generally5 timestogetdowntothebottomoftheprobleminunderstanding cause/effectrelationships.Itshouldbethepracticeofemployees toaskquestionsinordertodeterminetheultimaterootcauseof adefectorproblem.Thisisoneofthemostpowerfulandsimple methodstoaccessthetacitknowledgeembodiedintheemployees’ minds,andtogenerateexplicitknowledgeinthedocumentsand reports.Hence,itcanbeusedtosupportknowledgecreationinall SECImodes.Asummaryofthetenleantoolsandmethods,which supportSECImodes,alongwithcorresponding‘ba’andknowledge assets,isprovidedinTable2.
7. Conclusionandfutureresearch
Dynamicknowledgepavesthewayforinnovationand,thus, contributestothegrowthofanorganization.Inordertodescribe a practical knowledge creation process, an integrated dynamic knowledgemodel madeupofSECI modes,‘ba’,and knowledge assetshasbeentargeted.Withaviewtowardsimprovingthe effi-ciencyoftheknowledgecreationprocessinthismodel,asetoften leantoolsandmethodsispresentedinthispaper.Efficient knowl-edgecreationnotonlydecreasesthemagnitudeofknowledgegaps, andassistsfutureprojectstostartfromahigherlevelof knowl-edgebutalsohelpsinmakingtherightdecisionsquicklyforfaster andimprovedqualityproducts.Italsoassistsinreducingcostly reworkatthebackendoftheprocessbycreatingknowledgeat therighttimeandrightplace.Itisalsostressedthatsimply imple-mentingleantoolsandmethodsisnottheidealsolutionfortheir sustainmentandeffectiveutilization,ratherastrongleanmindset thatfitsintotheorganizationalcultureisimportant.Additionally, successfulimplementationrequiresorganization-widechangesto systems,practices,andbehaviours.Oneofthefindingsofthis anal-ysisis that Scrum, PDCA,and the5 Whys can fit and support knowledgecreationinmorethanoneSECImodes.
Inessence,thearticleinvestigatedhowleantoolsandmethods canfacilitateefficientknowledgecreationfortheorganizational learning. The development of an evaluation model to estimate theimprovementsinproductdevelopmentperformanceresulting fromknowledgecreationorrankingofSECImodesonaspecific productdevelopmentphaseisatopicoffutureresearch.
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Yin,R.(2009).Casestudyresearchdesignandmethods.London,UK:SAGELtd. SatishTyagireceivedtheB.S.andM.S.degreesfromNIFFT,Ranchi,Indiaand Uni-versityofLouisianaatLafayette,USAin2008and2010,respectively.Heiscurrently pursuingPhDinDepartmentofIndustrialandSystemsEngineeringatWayneState University.HehasresearchedareassuchasIntegratedProductDevelopment,Lean Implementation,andInformationModeling.Hispapershaveappearedinjournals suchasIEEE-SMCPart-C,EngineeringApplicationsofArtificialIntelligence,IJPR, IJPE,IJAMTetc.
Dr.XianmingCaireceivedPh.D.degreeinIndustrialandSystemsEngineeringfrom WayneStateUniversity,Detroit,USAin2010.HeiscurrentlyworkingwithSiemens EnergyInc.asaProjectEngineer.HisresearchpaperhasappearedinInt.J.of SixSigmaandCompetitiveAdvantage.Hisareasofinterestforresearchinclude integratedproductdevelopment(IPD),lean six-sigmaimplementation,process engineering,systemsengineeringandstatisticalanalysis.Hispapershaveappeared injournalssuchasInt.JournalSixSigmaandCompetitiveAdvantage,Improving ComplexSystemsToday,InternationalJournalofProductionEconomics,etc. Dr.KaiYangreceivedtheM.S.andPh.D.degreesinIndustrialandOperations Engi-neeringfromUniversityofMichigan,AnnArbor,USAin1985and1990,respectively. HeiscurrentlyaprofessorinDepartmentofIndustrialandSystemsEngineering, WayneStateUniversity,Detroit,MI.Hisareasofinterestforresearchinclude qual-ityengineering,reliabilityengineering,leanproductdevelopment/leanknowledge management,surgeryoperationmodelingandoptimization,reusablemedical sup-plymanagement.Heisalsoanauthorofmorethansixscholarlypublishedbooks onsix-sigma,andqualitymanagement.Hispapersappearedinjournalssuchas IEEEtransactiononreliability,IIETransactions,EngineeringApplicationsofArtificial Intelligence,IJPR,QualityEngineering,etc.Heisalsocurrentlyactingasthedirector ofCenterofHealthcareSystemEngineeringResearchatWayneStateUniversity. Dr.TerrenceChamberswasawardedtheMSandPh.D.degreesinMechanical EngineeringfromBrighamYoungUniversity,Provo,Utah,USAin1986and1994, respectively.Currently,HeservesasAssociateDeanofEngineeringatthe Univer-sityofLouisianaatLafayette,LAUSA.Priortothatappointmenthetaughtinthe MechanicalEngineeringDepartmentfor12years,andservedforoneyearasthe InterimDepartmentHead.Hisresearchinterestsincludeengineeringdesignand optimization,artificialintelligence,numericalmethods,virtualreality,and alterna-tiveenergy.Heistheauthorofnumeroustechnicalandpedagogicalpapers,andhas beenawardedroughlythreemilliondollarsinexternallyfundedresearchgrants. HeisaregisteredProfessionalEngineerinthestateofLouisiana.
