Industrial Safety
and Health for
Infrastructure Services
Handbook of Safety and Health for the Service Industry
Industrial Safety and Health for Goods and Materials Services
Industrial Safety and Health for Infrastructure Services
Industrial Safety and Health for Administrative Services
Industrial Safety and Health for People-Oriented Services
SAFETY AND HEALTH FOR THE SERVICE INDUSTRY
Industrial Safety
and Health for
Infrastructure Services
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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© 2009 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Reese, Charles D.
Industrial safety and health for infrastructure services / Charles D. Reese. p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4200-5380-7 (alk. paper)
1. Service industries--United States--Safety measures. 2. Service industries--Employees--Health and hygiene--United States. 3. Municipal services--United States--Employees. I. Title.
HD7269.S452U6743 2009
658.3’82--dc22 2008013267
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at http://www.taylorandfrancis.com and the CRC Press Web site at http://www.crcpress.com
Contents
Preface... xxiii
Author ... xxv
Chapter 1 Introduction to the Service Industry ... 1
1.1 NAICS... 2
1.2 Employment in the Service Industry ... 2
1.3 Safety ... 3
1.4 Why Trauma Prevention? ... 5
1.5 Accidents or Incidents ... 5
1.6 Comprehensive Accident Prevention... 6
1.7 Fatality and Injury Profile for the Service Industry... 7
1.8 Occupational Illnesses in the Service Industry ... 10
References ... 11 Chapter 2 Transportation ... 13 2.1 Transportation ... 14 2.1.1 Truck Transportation... 14 2.1.2 Air Transportation... 17 2.1.3 Rail Transportation ... 18
2.2 Profile of Transportation Workers’ Deaths, Injuries, and Illnesses... 19
2.2.1 Deaths ... 19
2.2.2 Injuries ... 19
2.2.3 Illnesses ... 19
2.3 Hazards Faced by the Transportation Sector ... 19
2.4 Occupations... 22
2.4.1 Truck Transportation... 22
2.4.2 Air Transportation... 23
2.4.3 Rail Transportation ... 25
2.5 Applicable OSHA Regulations ... 25
References ... 29
Chapter 3 Utilities Sector ... 31
3.1 Electric Power Generation, Transmission, and Distribution ... 32
3.2 Natural Gas Distribution ... 33
3.3 Water, Sewage, and Other Systems... 33
3.4 Profile of Utility Workers’ Deaths, Injuries, and Illnesses... 35
3.4.1 Deaths ... 35
3.4.2 Injuries ... 35
3.4.3 Illnesses ... 36
3.5 Hazards Faced by Utility Workers ... 36
3.6 Occupations... 39
3.7 Applicable OSHA Regulations ... 41
Chapter 4 Administrative and Support and Waste Management and Remediation Services ... 45
4.1 ASWMR Services ... 46
4.2 Profile of Administrative and Support and Waste Management and Remediation Services... 47
4.2.1 Deaths ... 47
4.2.2 Injuries ... 47
4.2.3 Illnesses ... 48
4.3 Hazards Faced by ASWMR Workers... 48
4.4 Occupations... 49
4.5 Applicable OSHA Regulations ... 51
Chapter 5 OSHA Regulations ... 53
5.1 Federal Laws ... 54
5.2 OSHACT... 54
5.3 Content of the OSHACT... 54
5.4 Regulatory Process... 57
5.5 Federal Register ... 60
5.6 Code of Federal Regulations ... 61
5.7 Regulation Paragraph Numbering System... 62
Chapter 6 Occupational Safety and Health Programs... 67
6.1 Development of a Safety and Health Program ... 68
6.1.1 Rules ... 68
6.1.2 Communications ... 68
6.1.3 Training... 70
6.1.4 Accident Investigation ... 72
6.1.5 Evaluation ... 74
6.2 Explaining the Requirements and Elements of OSHA Guidelines for a Safety and Health Program ... 74
6.2.1 Management Commitment and Leadership ... 75
6.2.2 Assignment of Responsibility ... 76
6.2.4 Training and Education... 78
6.2.5 Recordkeeping and Hazard Analysis... 79
6.2.6 First Aid and Medical Assistance ... 79
6.2.7 Emergency and Firefighting Procedures... 80
6.3 Model Safety and Health Program ... 80
6.3.1 Management Safety and Health Policy Statements ... 80
6.3.1.1 Example of Statement for All Employees ... 80
6.3.1.2 Example of a Statement for a Large Company ... 81
6.3.1.3 List of the Company Objectives and Safety and Health Goals... 81
6.4 Other Required Written Programs ... 84
Chapter 7 Safety Hazards ... 87
7.1 Hazard Prevention and Controls ... 87
7.2 Engineering Controls ... 88
7.3 Awareness Devices ... 88
7.4 Work Practices ... 89
7.5 Administrative Controls ... 89
7.5.1 Management Controls ... 89
7.6 Personal Protective Equipment ... 90
7.6.1 Hazard Assessment ... 90
7.6.2 Establishing a PPE Program ... 91
7.7 Ranking Hazard Controls... 92
7.8 Other Tools That Can Be Used for Hazard Control... 92
7.8.1 Accident=Incident Reporting... 92
7.8.2 Hazard Audits ... 94
7.8.3 Safe Operating Procedure ... 94
7.8.4 Job Safety Assessment... 95
7.9 Hazard Control Summary ... 95
Chapter 8 Health Hazards... 97
8.1 Health Hazards... 97
8.2 Cold Stress ... 98
8.2.1 Health Effects... 99
8.2.2 Cold and the Workplace ... 101
8.2.3 Protective Steps... 102
8.2.4 Symptoms of Cold Stress ... 103
8.3 Heat Stress ... 104
8.3.1 Heat Transfer ... 104
8.3.2 Health-Related Disorders ... 104
8.3.3 Working in Hot Environments ... 106
8.3.4 Heat Index... 106
8.4 Noise-Induced Hearing Loss... 110
8.4.1 Noise Exposure ... 110
8.4.2 Controlling Noise Levels ... 111
8.4.3 Hearing Conservation ... 112
8.5 Vibration ... 116
8.6 Workplace Stress... 117
Chapter 9 Hazardous Chemicals and Waste Management ... 119
9.1 Hazardous Chemicals... 119
9.2 Hazardous Waste ... 121
9.3 Hazardous Waste Operations (1926.65 or 1910.120) ... 122
9.3.1 Hazardous Waste Site Requirements ... 122
9.3.2 Written Safety and Health Program... 123
9.3.3 Site Safety and Health Plan ... 124
9.3.4 Site Evaluation ... 125
9.3.5 Site Control ... 126
9.4 Training ... 128
9.5 Medical Surveillance... 130
9.6 Hazard Controls ... 132
9.6.1 Personal Protective Equipment ... 132
9.6.2 Monitoring ... 133
9.7 Handling and Transporting Hazardous Materials ... 134
9.7.1 Handling Drums and Containers ... 134
9.7.2 Drum or Container Staging... 136
9.7.3 Lab Packs... 136
9.7.4 Decontamination ... 136
9.8 Emergency Response Plan... 137
9.9 Sanitation ... 138
9.10 New Technologies ... 138
9.11 RCRA... 138
9.12 Emergency Response ... 138
9.12.1 Emergency Response Training ... 142
9.13 Summary ... 143
Chapter 10 Confined Spaces ... 145
10.1 Confined Spaces... 145
10.2 Confined Space Identification... 146
10.3 PRCS Identification ... 146
10.4 PRCS Entry Program ... 148
10.5 Confined Space Entry Permit System... 149
10.5.1 Confined Space Entry Permit ... 150
10.6 Common Confined Space Hazards ... 150
10.6.1 Hazardous Atmospheres ... 150
10.6.2 Oxygen-Deficient Atmospheres... 150
10.6.4 Flammable Atmospheres... 151
10.6.5 Toxic Atmospheres ... 152
10.7 Confined Space Atmospheric Testing... 152
10.7.1 Pre-Entry Testing ... 152
10.7.1.1 Oxygen Level Test ... 153
10.7.1.2 Flammability Test ... 153
10.7.1.3 Toxicity Test ... 154
10.7.2 Periodic=Continuous Testing ... 154
10.8 Controlling Atmospheric Hazards ... 154
10.8.1 Ventilation... 154
10.8.2 Cleaning ... 155
10.9 Physical Hazards ... 156
10.9.1 General=Physical Hazards... 156
10.9.2 Controlling General=Physical Hazards ... 157
10.10 Confined Space Entry Team ... 158
10.10.1 Entrant Duties ... 159
10.10.2 Attendant Duties ... 159
10.10.3 Entry Supervisor Duties... 160
10.11 Emergency and Rescue Procedures ... 160
10.11.1 Rescue Training ... 161
10.12 Summary ... 161
Chapter 11 Electrical Hazards ... 163
11.1 Electricity ... 163
11.2 Electrocutions... 164
11.3 Shock versus Electrocution... 164
11.4 Shock Burns... 166
11.5 Freeze on from Shock... 167
11.5.1 Static Electricity Shock... 167
11.6 Controlling Electrical Hazards... 167
11.6.1 Insulation... 168
11.6.2 Guarding ... 168
11.6.3 Circuit Protection Devices ... 170
11.6.4 Safe Work Practices... 170
11.6.5 Worker-Initiated Safety... 171
11.6.6 Lockout=Tagout ... 172
11.6.7 Overhead Power Lines... 172
11.6.8 Electrical Personal Protective Equipment... 173
11.6.9 Tool Maintenance ... 173
11.7 Training ... 174
11.8 Safety and Health Program ... 175
11.9 Applicable Regulations ... 175
11.10 Summary ... 175
11.10.1 Electrical Precautions... 176
Chapter 12 Ergonomics=Lifting ... 179
12.1 CTDs ... 180
12.1.1 Preventing CTDs... 184
12.2 Infrastructure Tasks and Ergonomic Risks ... 185
12.3 Tools and Their Design ... 186
12.3.1 Hand Tool Design to Reduce CTDs... 186
12.4 Conducting Ergonomics Assessments ... 189
12.5 Ergonomics Regulations ... 189
12.6 Ergonomics Programs ... 189
12.7 Manual Material Handling ... 190
12.8 Back Injury Prevention ... 191
12.8.1 Preventive Actions ... 194
12.8.2 Good Health and a Healthy Back... 196
12.8.3 Back Injury Management... 197
12.8.4 Training... 198
12.9 Lifting and Material-Handling Aids ... 199
12.10 Planning Manual Material Handling... 200
12.11 Summary ... 200
Chapter 13 Excavations=Trenches... 201
13.1 Excavations=Trenches ... 201
13.2 Proper Planning... 203
13.2.1 Underground Utilities ... 203
13.3 Informing Workers... 204
13.4 Making Excavations Safe ... 204
13.4.1 Selection of Protective Systems... 204
13.4.2 Other Precautions... 206
13.4.3 Installing or Removing Protective Systems... 206
13.4.4 Safe Materials and Equipment for Protective Systems ... 207
13.5 Additional Hazards and Protections ... 207
13.5.1 Water-Related Hazards ... 208
13.5.2 Hazardous Atmospheres ... 208
13.5.3 Means of Access and Egress ... 208
13.6 Special Purpose PPE ... 209
13.7 Conducting Inspections... 209
13.8 Summary ... 210
13.8.1 General Trenching and Excavation Rules ... 211
Chapter 14 Falls... 213
14.1 Fall Protection ... 214
14.2 Responsibility to Have Fall Protection ... 214
14.3 Fall Protection Systems... 216
14.3.1 Guardrail Systems ... 217
14.3.3 Personal Fall Arresting System... 220
14.3.4 Warning Lines... 223
14.3.5 Safety Monitoring System ... 225
14.4 Fall Protection Plan... 225
14.5 Training ... 226
14.6 Other Elevated Fall Hazards ... 227
14.6.1 Falls from Buckets ... 227
14.6.2 Aerial Lifts and Falls ... 227
14.6.3 Scissor Lifts and Elevated Work Platforms... 227
14.6.4 Fall from Trucks or Other Equipment ... 228
14.7 Summary ... 229
Chapter 15 Flammable and Combustible Liquids... 233
15.1 Combustible Liquids ... 233
15.2 Flammable Liquids ... 234
15.3 Containers and Storage ... 234
15.3.1 Container and Portable Tank Storage ... 234
15.3.2 Design, Construction, and Capacity of Containers ... 236
15.3.3 Design, Construction, and Capacity of Storage Cabinets ... 236
15.3.4 Design and Construction of Inside Storage Rooms ... 236
15.3.5 Rating and Capacity... 237
15.3.6 Wiring ... 237
15.3.7 Ventilation... 237
15.3.8 Storage ... 237
15.4 Storage Inside Buildings ... 238
15.4.1 Egress ... 238
15.4.2 Office Occupancies ... 238
15.4.3 General Purpose Public Warehouses ... 238
15.4.4 Warehouses or Storage Buildings... 238
15.5 Storage Outside Buildings ... 238
15.5.1 Fire Control... 239
15.5.2 Industrial Plants ... 239
15.5.3 Incidental Storage or Use of Flammable or Combustible Liquids ... 239
15.5.4 Containers ... 240
15.5.5 Handling Liquids at the Point of Final Use... 240
15.6 Flammable and Combustible Liquids in the Service Industry ... 241
15.6.1 Flammable and Combustible Liquids Checklist... 241
15.7 Summary of OSHA Regulations for Flammable and Combustible Liquids ... 242
15.7.1 Flammable and Combustible Liquids (29 CFR 1910.106) ... 242
Chapter 16 Lockout=Tagout ... 245
16.1 Lockout=Tagout ... 245
16.2 Energy Control Program ... 247
16.3 Lockout=Tagout Devices ... 248
16.4 Periodic Inspections ... 248
16.5 Training and Communications... 250
16.6 Energy Isolation ... 251
16.6.1 Established Procedure ... 251
16.6.2 Lockout or Tagout Device Application ... 252
16.6.3 Stored Energy ... 252
16.7 Release from Lockout or Tagout ... 252
16.8 Testing or Positioning ... 253
16.9 Personnel-Related Issues... 253
16.9.1 Outside Personnel ... 253
16.9.2 Group Lockout or Tagout ... 253
16.9.3 Shift or Personnel Changes... 254
16.10 Applicable Regulations ... 254
16.11 Lockout=Tagout Safety Checklist... 255
16.12 Summary ... 258
Chapter 17 Machine Guarding ... 259
17.1 Machine Guarding ... 259
17.1.1 Types of Mechanical Components ... 261
17.1.2 Types of Mechanical Motions ... 261
17.1.3 Times When Hazards Are Most Frequent ... 262
17.2 Machine Guarding Assessment... 262
17.3 Safeguarding Machines and Equipment ... 265
17.4 Guards ... 265
17.4.1 Basic Safeguarding Methods ... 266
17.4.2 Definition of a Guard... 266
17.4.3 Types of Guards... 266
17.5 Safeguarding Devices ... 267
17.6 Other Potential Safeguards ... 270
17.6.1 Foot Controls ... 271
17.6.2 Control Machines with Clutches ... 271
17.6.3 Do I Need to Safeguard Machinery? ... 272
17.6.4 Administrative Issues and Safeguarding... 272
17.7 Amputations ... 273
17.7.1 Machinery Associated with Amputations... 273
Chapter 18 Personal Protective Equipment and Controls ... 277
18.1 Controlling Hazards ... 277
18.2 Engineering Controls ... 278
18.3 Administrative Controls ... 278
18.4 Personal Protective Equipment ... 279
18.5 Establishing a PPE Program ... 279
18.6 Hazard Assessment ... 280
18.7 Eye and Face Protection ... 280
18.7.1 Face Shields ... 281
18.7.2 Eyewear Maintenance ... 282
18.8 Head Protection... 283
18.8.1 Protective Head Wear ... 284
18.8.2 Care of Hardhats ... 284
18.9 Foot and Leg Protection ... 285
18.9.1 Electrical Foot Protection ... 286
18.10 Hand and Arm Protection ... 287
18.10.1 Metal Mesh, Leather, or Canvas Gloves ... 288
18.10.2 Fabric and Coated Fabric Gloves ... 289
18.10.3 Chemical- and Liquid-Resistant Gloves ... 289
18.11 Body Protection ... 290
18.12 Hearing Protection ... 291
18.12.1 Noise Exposure Levels ... 291
18.12.2 Ear Protection... 293
18.13 Respiratory Protection... 293
18.13.1 Respirator Training ... 294
18.13.2 Basic Respiratory Protection Safety Procedures ... 295
18.13.3 Respirator User Policies... 297
18.13.4 Selection of Respirators ... 297
18.13.5 Identification of Filters and Cartridges ... 298
18.13.6 Respirator Filter and Canister Replacement ... 298
18.13.7 Filter and Cartridge Change Schedule... 298
18.13.8 Respiratory Protection Schedule... 299
18.13.9 Physical and Medical Qualifications... 300
18.13.10 Additional Medical Evaluations ... 301
18.13.11 Respirator Fit Testing ... 301
18.13.11.1 Types of Fit Tests ... 302
18.13.12 Respirator Operation and Use... 302
18.13.13 Continuing Effectiveness of Respirators ... 303
18.13.14 Procedures for IDLH Atmospheres ... 303
18.13.15 Cleaning and Disinfecting ... 304
18.13.16 Respirator Inspection ... 304
18.13.17 Respirator Storage... 305
18.13.18 Respirator Repairs... 305
Chapter 19 Power Tools ... 307
19.1 Preventing Power Tool Accidents ... 309
19.1.1 Steps Used to Control Power Tool Accidents ... 309
19.1.2 Carrying Tools ... 310
19.1.3 Use of Personal Protective Equipment ... 310
19.1.4 Guards ... 310
19.1.5 Safety Switches ... 311
19.1.6 Ergonomics and Power Tools... 311
19.1.7 Old Tools ... 313
19.2 Power Tools and Their Energy Source... 314
19.2.1 Electric Tools ... 314
19.2.2 Hydraulic Power Tools ... 314
19.2.3 Liquid Fuel Tools ... 314
19.2.4 Pneumatic Tools... 315
19.2.5 Powder-Actuated Tools... 316
19.3 Specific Power Tool Safety ... 318
19.3.1 Abrasive Wheel Tools ... 319
19.3.2 Drill Press Safety ... 320
19.3.3 Forging Machines ... 320
19.3.4 Grinder Safety ... 321
19.3.5 Hydraulic Jacks ... 321
19.3.6 Jointer and Shaper Safety ... 322
19.3.7 Lathe Safety ... 322
19.3.8 Nail=Air Gun Safety (Pneumatic Fastening Tools) ... 323
19.3.9 Planer Safety ... 323
19.3.10 Portable Grinders ... 324
19.3.11 Sander Safety ... 324
19.3.12 Saw Safety ... 324
19.3.13 Woodworking Machinery ... 325
19.4 Use of Power Tools by the Service Industry... 326
19.5 Summary of OSHA Applicable Regulations ... 326
19.5.1 Abrasive Wheel Equipment Grinders (29 CFR 1910.212, .215, and .243)... 326
19.5.2 Belt Sanding Machines (29 CFR 1910.213) ... 327
19.5.3 Hydraulic Power Tools (29 CFR 1910.217) ... 327
19.5.4 Pneumatic Tools (29 CFR 1910.243)... 327
19.5.5 Portable (Power-Operated) Tools and Equipment (29 CFR 1910.243) ... 328
19.5.6 Powder-Actuated Tools (29 CFR 1910.243)... 328
19.5.7 Saws, Portable Circular (29 CFR 1910.243) ... 329
19.5.8 Woodworking Machinery (29 CFR 1910.213) ... 329
19.6 Power Tool Checklist... 331
Chapter 20 Pressure Vessels... 335
20.1 Preventing Accidents or Incidents ... 336
20.2 Safety Assessment... 339
20.2.1 Design and Construction... 339
20.2.2 Vessel Identification and Documentation ... 340
20.2.3 Pressure Testing and Labeling... 341
20.2.4 Service History... 341
20.2.5 In-Service Inspections... 341
20.2.6 Specific Applications ... 341
20.3 Evaluation of Information... 342
20.4 Nondestructive Examination Methods... 342
20.4.1 Visual Examination... 342
20.4.2 Liquid Penetrant Test... 343
20.4.3 Magnetic Particle Test ... 343
20.4.4 Radiography ... 343
20.4.5 Ultrasonic Testing ... 344
20.4.6 Detection Probabilities and Flaw Sizing... 344
20.5 Recent Cracking Experience in Pressure Vessels... 345
20.5.1 Deaerator Service ... 345
20.5.2 Amine Service... 346
20.5.3 Wet Hydrogen Sulfide ... 347
20.5.4 Ammonia Service... 347
20.5.5 Pulp Digester Service... 347
20.5.6 Summary of Service Cracking Experience... 348
20.6 General Operational Issues ... 349
20.6.1 Pressure Equipment Operation ... 349
20.6.2 Maintenance ... 349
20.6.3 Storage and Disposition ... 349
20.6.4 Basic Rules for Operation... 349
20.6.5 Inspection and Retesting... 350
20.7 Pressure Vessels in the Service Industry ... 350
20.8 Summary of Regulations ... 350
20.8.1 Structure and Scope of Section VIII... 351
20.8.2 Failure Modes for Pressure Vessels... 352
20.8.3 Requirements ... 352
20.8.4 Test and Inspection ... 353
20.9 Checklist for Pressure Vessels ... 354
20.10 Summary ... 355
Chapter 21 Truck Safety ... 357
21.1 Truckers ... 357
21.1.1 Trucker Illnesses and Injuries ... 357
21.1.2 Common Trucker Injuries... 358
21.2 Trucking Regulations... 358
21.2.1 Other Agency Overview ... 358
21.2.2 Federal Highway Administration... 359
21.2.3 Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration... 359
21.3 Fleet Safety Program... 359
21.4 Written Fleet Safety Program ... 360
21.5 Vehicle=Equipment Maintenance... 361
21.6 Truck Drivers ... 362
21.6.1 Records to Maintain... 362
21.6.2 Operator Recruitment and Selection... 363
21.6.3 Operator Training... 364
21.7 Operator Safety ... 365
21.7.1 Company’s Driver Manual... 365
21.7.2 Pre-Operation Inspection ... 365
21.8 Safe Driving Guidance... 366
21.8.1 Common Driving Mistakes... 366
21.8.2 Recognizing Safe Driving... 367
21.8.3 Planning Schedules, Loads, and Routes ... 367
21.9 Preventing Accidents ... 367
21.10 Preventive Maintenance Programs... 368
21.11 Components of PMP... 368 21.11.1 Preventive Maintenance ... 370 21.11.2 Management’s Role ... 370 21.11.3 PMP Program... 370 21.11.4 Drivers’ Inspections ... 371 21.11.5 Maintenance ... 372 21.11.6 Management Responsibility... 372 21.12 Applicable Regulations ... 372
21.12.1 Regulatory Guidance for Federal Motor Carrier Safety Regulations ... 373 21.13 Summary ... 374 Chapter 22 Scaffolds ... 377 22.1 Scaffolds... 377 22.2 General Requirements... 377 22.2.1 Platforms ... 378 22.2.2 Scaffold Components... 379 22.2.3 Supporting Scaffolds... 379 22.3 Suspension Scaffolds ... 380 22.4 Accessing Scaffolds ... 383 22.4.1 Stairrails ... 384
22.4.2 Stairways and Ramps... 384
22.4.3 Integrated Scaffold Access ... 384
22.4.4 Access during Erecting or Dismantling ... 385
22.6 Fall Protection ... 387
22.6.1 Personal Fall Arrest System... 388
22.6.2 Guardrail Systems ... 389
22.7 Falling Object Protection ... 390
22.8 Training Requirements... 391
22.9 Commonly Used Types of Scaffolds... 392
22.9.1 Tubular and Coupler Scaffolds ... 392
22.9.2 Fabricated Frame Scaffolds ... 392
22.9.3 Mobile Scaffolds ... 393
22.9.4 Pump Jack Scaffolds... 394
22.9.5 Ladder Jack Scaffolds ... 395
22.9.6 Boatswains’ Chair ... 395
22.9.7 Two-Point Adjustable Suspension Scaffolds (Swing Stages) ... 396
22.9.8 Specific Types of Scaffolds ... 397
Chapter 23 Walking–Working Surfaces... 399
23.1 Walking–Working Surfaces... 399
23.2 General Requirements... 399
23.2.1 Housekeeping... 399
23.2.2 Aisles and Passageways... 400
23.2.3 Covers and Guardrails ... 400
23.2.4 Floor Loading Protection ... 400
23.3 Guarding Floor and Wall Openings and Holes ... 401
23.3.1 Protection for Floor Openings ... 402
23.3.2 Protection of Open-Sided Floors, Platforms, and Runways... 402
23.3.3 Stairway Railings and Guards ... 402
23.4 Fixed Industrial Stairs ... 404
23.4.1 Handrails and Stair Rails ... 405
23.4.2 Treads... 405
23.4.3 Safety Precautions... 405
23.5 Portable Ladders ... 405
23.6 Fixed Ladders... 407
23.7 Safety Requirements for Scaffolding... 408
23.8 Manually Propelled Mobile Ladder Stands and Scaffolds (Towers) ... 409
23.9 Other Working Surfaces ... 410
23.10 Applicable OSHA Regulations ... 410
23.11 Summary ... 411
Chapter 24 Welding and Cutting ... 413
24.1 Welding... 413
24.1.1 Arc Welding... 413
24.2 Gas Cylinders... 415
24.2.1 Identification ... 417
24.2.2 Securing Gas Cylinders ... 417
24.2.3 Gas Cylinder Precautions... 417
24.2.4 Use of Gas Cylinders... 419
24.2.5 Leaking Cylinders ... 419
24.2.6 Disposing of Cylinders ... 420
24.2.7 Welding Gases ... 420
24.2.8 Storing Fuel Gases ... 421
24.2.8.1 Use of Fuel Gases for Welding and Cutting ... 421
24.2.8.2 Acetylene Storage ... 422
24.2.8.3 Oxygen Storage... 422
24.2.8.4 Fuel Gas Storage ... 422
24.2.8.5 Usage of Oxygen ... 423 24.2.8.6 Usage of Acetylene ... 423 24.3 Welding Hazards... 423 24.3.1 Fumes ... 423 24.3.2 Eye Injuries ... 425 24.3.3 Burns ... 427 24.3.4 Fire ... 427 24.3.5 Noise ... 428
24.4 Prevention and Control of Welding Hazards... 428
24.4.1 General or Dilution Ventilation ... 428
24.4.2 Local Exhaust Ventilation ... 428
24.4.3 Confined Spaces... 428
24.4.4 Electricity ... 430
24.4.5 Fumes ... 430
24.4.6 Personal Protective Equipment ... 431
24.4.7 Training... 432
24.5 OSHA Welding Regulations... 433
24.6 Welding Checklist... 435
24.7 Summary ... 436
Chapter 25 Other Hazards ... 441
25.1 Aerial Lifts (1926.556) ... 441
25.2 Air Receivers (29 CFR 1910.169)... 442
25.3 Compressors and Compressed Air (29 CFR 1910.242) ... 443
25.4 Fire Protection and Prevention (1926.150)... 443
25.4.1 Fire Prevention—Storage (CFR 1926.151) ... 446
25.5 Loading Docks ... 447
25.6 Power Transmission and Distribution (1926.950)... 448
25.6.1 Tools and Protective Equipment (1926.951) ... 448
25.6.2 Mechanical Equipment (1926.952)... 449
25.6.3 Material Handling (1926.953) ... 449
25.6.5 Overhead Lines (1926.955) ... 450
25.6.5.1 Metal Tower Construction ... 450
25.6.5.2 Stringing and Removing De-Energized Conductors ... 452
25.6.5.3 Stringing Adjacent to Energized Lines ... 452
25.6.5.4 Live-Line Barehand Work ... 452
25.6.6 Underground Lines (1926.956) ... 453
25.6.7 Construction in Energized Substations (1926.957) ... 454
25.6.8 External Load Helicopters (1926.958)... 454
25.6.9 Lineman’s Body Belts, Safety Straps, and Lanyards (1926.959) ... 454
25.7 Radiation, Ionizing (1926.53) ... 454
25.8 Rigging (1926.251) ... 455
25.8.1 Rigging Equipment for Material Handling (1926.251) ... 455
25.8.2 Welded Alloy Steel Chains (1926.251)... 456
25.8.3 Wire Ropes (1926.251)... 457
25.8.4 Synthetic Rope (1926.251) ... 458
25.8.5 Web Slings (1926.251) ... 459
25.8.6 Shackles and Hooks (1926.251) ... 460
25.9 Signs, Signals, and Barricades... 460
25.9.1 Accident Prevention Signs=Tags ... 460
25.10 Tire Inflation ... 461
Chapter 26 Summary... 463
26.1 Chemicals... 463
26.2 Confined Spaces... 464
26.3 Driver and Vehicle Safety... 465
26.4 Electrical ... 466
26.5 Emergency Response and Planning... 468
26.6 Ergonomics ... 469
26.6.1 Manual Material Handling... 469
26.6.2 Physical Energy Demands ... 469
26.6.3 Other Musculoskeletal Demands ... 470
26.6.4 Computer Workstation... 470 26.6.5 Environment... 470 26.6.6 General Workplace ... 470 26.6.7 Tools ... 471 26.6.8 Gloves ... 471 26.6.9 Administration ... 471 26.7 Excavations=Trenches ... 471 26.8 Fall Protection ... 472
26.9 Fire Protection and Prevention ... 474
26.11 Hand and Portable Powered Tools ... 477
26.11.1 Hand Tools and Equipment ... 477
26.11.2 Portable (Power-Operated) Tools and Equipment... 478
26.11.3 Powder-Actuated Tools... 478
26.11.4 Walk-Behind and Power Mowers... 479
26.11.5 Jacks ... 479
26.12 Hazardous Chemical Exposure ... 479
26.13 Hazard Communication ... 481
26.14 Hazardous Waste Operations and Emergency Response (Hazwoper) ... 482
26.15 Health Hazards... 483
26.16 Lifting Safety ... 483
26.17 Lockout=Tagout Procedures... 484
26.18 Machine Guarding and Safety ... 485
26.19 Means of Exit... 486
26.20 Medical Services and First Aid ... 487
26.21 Personal Protective Equipment ... 487
26.22 Pressure Vessels ... 488
26.23 Scaffolding ... 489
26.23.1 Suspended Scaffolds ... 490
26.23.2 Aerial Lifts ... 490
26.24 Walking–Working Surfaces... 490
26.24.1 Walkways... 491
26.24.2 Floor and Wall Openings... 491
26.24.3 Stairs and Stairways... 492
26.24.4 Elevated Surfaces ... 492
26.25 Welding and Cutting... 493
26.25.1 Gas Welding and Cutting ... 493
26.25.2 Arc Welding... 494
26.25.3 Fire Prevention... 494
26.25.4 Ventilation and Protection in Welding, Cutting, and Heating ... 494
Appendix A Common Exposures or Accident Types ... 495
A.1 Accident Types ... 495
A.1.1 Struck-Against Types of Accidents ... 495
A.1.2 Struck-By Types of Accidents... 495
A.1.3 Contact-By and Contact-With Types of Accidents ... 496
A.1.4 Caught-In and Caught-On Types of Accidents ... 496
A.1.5 Caught-Between Types-Of Accidents ... 496
A.1.6 Fall-to-Same-Level and Fall-to-Below Types of Accidents... 496
A.1.7 Overexertion and Exposure Types of Accidents ... 497
Appendix B The 50 Most Common Chemicals Found on Hazardous Waste Sites by Frequency of Occurrence ... 499
Appendix C Sample Confined Space Entry Permit... 501 Appendix D Welding Fumes and Gases and Their Hazards ... 503
D.1 Chemical Agents ... 503 D.1.1 Acetylene... 503 D.1.2 Aluminum... 503 D.1.3 Antimony... 503 D.1.4 Arsenic ... 503 D.1.5 Asbestos ... 503 D.1.6 Beryllium... 504 D.1.7 Cadmium ... 504 D.1.8 Carbon Monoxide ... 504 D.1.9 Chromium... 504 D.1.10 Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Solvents ... 504 D.1.11 Cobalt ... 504 D.1.12 Fluorides... 505 D.1.13 Iron Oxide ... 505 D.1.14 Lead... 505 D.1.15 Magnesium ... 505 D.1.16 Manganese... 505 D.1.17 Mercury ... 505 D.1.18 Molybdenum ... 506 D.1.19 Nickel ... 506 D.1.20 Nitrogen Oxides ... 506 D.1.21 Ozone ... 506 D.1.22 Phosgene... 506 D.1.23 Phosphine ... 506 D.1.24 Vanadium ... 506 D.1.25 Zinc... 506
Appendix E Checklists for Use in Addressing Ergonomic,
Material Handling, and Lifting Tasks ... 507
Design Principles for Carrying Tasks... 507 Design Principles for Pushing and Pulling Tasks ... 507 Design Principles for Lifting and Lowering Tasks ... 508 General Workstation Design Principles... 509 Design Principles for Repetitive Hand and Wrist Tasks ... 509 Materials-Handling Checklist ... 510
Bibliography... 513
Preface
Industrial Safety and Health for Infrastructure Services deals with the utilities, transportation, and waste management and remediation sectors. These three sectors provide the essential support and foundation for all of the other service industries. The energy, movement, and disposal of the by-products of the service industry are essential to production and life.
These three sectors provide for the delivery of electricity, natural gas, and water, and the removal of sewage and waste. The transportation sector provides for the physical movement and delivery of goods, commodities, and mail as well as the transportation of passengers on air, boats, rail, taxis, and buses.
The infrastructure services’ workforce is subject to many of the hazards that construction workers face, such as hazardous chemicals, confined spaces, handling electrical equipment, trenches, falls,flammable liquids and gases, machines, motor vehicles, heavy equipment, power tools, pressure vessels, scaffoldings, work surfaces, and welding.
Some health-related issues are prevalent with these workers and the use of personal protective equipment is critical for many of the tasks they perform. Training these workers on safety and health issues is also of the essence in developing a safe and healthy workplace.
Although the aforementioned hazards are not the only hazards faced by the workers in these sectors, they are the most common ones. Because of the diversity in the utilities, transportation, and waste management and remediation sectors, other job-specific hazards may result.
This workforce is susceptible to several hazards because of the constant instal-lation; maintenance; and repair of machines, equipment, vehicles, and transmission lines. These hazards can be managed by applying the principles of identification, intervention, and prevention, all of which are proven techniques of occupational safety and health.
In today’s work environment, workers must be trained for emergencies and security must be provided for both workers and patrons. By adhering to acceptable safe work practices and occupational safety and health regulations, the safety and health of the workforce can be ensured while running a productive business. This book serves as a guide in achieving this objective.
Charles D. Reese, PhD
Author
For 30 years, Charles D. Reese, PhD, has been involved with occupational safety and health as an educator, manager, and consultant. In his early career, Dr. Reese was an industrial hygienist at the National Mine Health and Safety Academy. He later became manager for the nation’s occupational trauma research initiative at the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health’s Division of Safety Research. Dr. Reese has played an integral role in trying to ensure workplace safety and health. As the managing director for the Laborers’ Health and Safety Fund of North America, he was responsible for the welfare of the 650,000 members of the laborers’ union in the United States and Canada.
Dr. Reese has developed many occupational safety and health training programs, which range from radioactive waste remediation to confined space entry. He has also written numerous articles, pamphlets, and books on related issues.
Dr. Reese, professor emeritus, was a member of the graduate and undergradu-ate faculty at the University of Connecticut, where he taught courses on Occupa-tional Safety and Health Administration regulations, safety and health management, accident-prevention techniques, industrial hygiene, and ergonomics. As professor of environmental=occupational safety and health, he was instrumental in coordinating the safety and health efforts at the University of Connecticut. He is often invited to consult with industry on safety and health issues and is asked for expert consultation in legal cases.
Dr. Reese is also the principal author of the Handbook of OSHA Construction Safety and Health (Second Edition); Material Handling Systems: Designing for Safety and Health; Annotated Dictionary of Construction Safety and Health; Occupational Health and Safety Management: A Practical Approach; and Office Building Safety and Health and Accident=Incident Prevention Techniques.
1
Introduction to the
Service Industry
The service industry consists of many different places of work, called establish-ments. Establishments are physical locations in which people work, such as a branch office of a bank, a gasoline station, a school, a department store, or an electricity generation facility. Establishments can range from large retail operations with corporate office complexes employing thousands of workers to small community stores, restaurants, professional offices, and service businesses employing only a few workers. Establishments should not be confused with companies or corporations that are legal entities. Thus, a company or corporation may have a single establishment or more than one establishment.
Establishments that use and provide the same services are organized together into industries. Industries are in turn organized together into industry sectors. These are further organized into subsectors. Each of the industry groups requires workers with varying skills and employs unique service techniques. An example of this is found in utilities, which employs workers in establishments that provides electricity, natural gas, and water. The service industry is broken down into the following supersectors:
Trade
Retail trade (44 and 45) Wholesale trade (42)
Electricity generation by wind or other means is a part of the utilities sector in infrastructure services.
Transportation and utilities Transportation (48) Warehousing (49) Utilities (22) Information services (51) Financial activities
Financial and insurance sector (52)
Real estate and rental and leasing sector (53) Professional and business services
Professional, scientific, and technical services (54) Management of companies and enterprises (55)
Administrative and support and waste management and remediation (56) Education and health services
Educational services sector (61)
Health care and social assistance sector (62) Leisure and hospitality
Arts, entertainment, and recreation sector (71) Accommodation and food sector (72)
Other services (81)
The service industry is the fastest growing industrial sector in the United States and has seen growth in the international arena. The service industry accounts for approximately 70% of the total economic activity in the United States according to the U.S. Bureau of Census. This non-goods-producing industry, which includes retail trade, wholesale trade, and other service-related industries as previously men-tioned, has a very diverse grouping.
1.1 NAICS
With the passage of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), it became apparent that the long employed standard industrial classification (SIC) was no longer very useful when dealing with industries found in Canada and Mexico. Consequently, the Bureau of Labor Statistics has developed a new system entitled the North American Industrial Classification System (NAICS).
NAICS uses a six-digit hierarchical coding system to classify all economic activity into 20 industry sectors. Five sectors are mainly goods-producing sectors and 15 are entirely services-producing sectors.
1.2 EMPLOYMENT IN THE SERVICE INDUSTRY
To have some idea of the numbers of employees addressed when speaking of the service industry, the worker population in each of the service industry sector is provided. The fast growing service industry as well as the number and variety of
occupations within each sector provides a window into the safety and health hazards that need to be addressed within each sector of the service industry’s workforce (Table 1.1).
1.3 SAFETY
One of the most telling indicators of working condition is an industry’s injury and illness rates. Overexertion, being struck by an object, and falls on the same level are among the most common incidents causing work-related injuries.
The service industry is a large umbrella that encompasses many types of businesses, each of which has its own safety and health issues. Some of the service industries’ businesses are more hazardous than others. This book does not address each sector independently, but provides the tools and information needed to address the hazards and safety and health issues within each sector of the service industry.
The service industry is made up of a large number of widely dissimilar industry sectors. Each sector has its own unique functions that result in each sector having its own set of unique hazards that the individual workforces must face and that their employers must address.
TABLE 1.1
Employment in the Service Industry (2004)
Service Industry Sectors Employment
Percentage of Service Industry (84,896,300) Percentage of All Private Industries (107,551,800) Wholesale trade 5,642,500 6.6 5.2 Retail trade 15,060,700 17.7 14.0 Warehousing 555,800 0.65 0.52 Transportation 3,450,400 4.1 3.2 Utilities 583,900 0.69 0.54
Administrative and support and waste management and remediation
7,829,400 9.2 7.3
Information 3,099,600 3.7 2.9
Finance and insurance 5,813,300 6.8 5.4
Real estate 2,077,500 2.4 1.9
Management of companies and enterprises 1,696,500 2.0 1.6
Professional, scientific, and technical services 6,768,900 8.0 6.3
Education services 2,079,200 2.4 1.9
Health and social services 14,005,700 16.5 13.0
Art, entertainment, and recreation 1,852,900 2.2 1.7
Accommodation and food services 10,614,700 12.5 9.9
Other services 3,785,200 4.5 3.5
Source: From Bureau of Labor Statistics. United States Department of Labor. Available at http:==www.
The functioning of each sector results in different types of energy being released, and therefore the differences in the types of accidents, incidents, injuries, and illnesses that occur. Thus, the hazards and energy sources dictate the specific Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations that each sector is compelled to be in compliance with.
For these reasons, it is not possible to describe or address the service industry in the same manner as construction, shipyard, or office building industries, where workforces perform similar tasks and thus face similar hazards.
Each hazard is discussed based upon the type of energy released, and its ability to cause specific accidents or incidents. In each section that describes hazards, the best practices for intervention and prevention of the release of the specific energy are emphasized. This approach will allow for the identification and prevention of hazards, and for framing regulations by any service industry sector. It will allow for a similar approach to address areas where the service industry sectors are alike and can be addressed as a collective industry rather than as individual sectors, for example, the same sectors will need to address areas such as compliance with OSHA regulations, conducting training, and effective management of safety and health.
The intent of this book is to provide a source for the identification and prevention of most of the injuries and illnesses occurring in the service industry. Also, it summarizes applicable safety standards that impact the service industry as well as address how to work with and around OSHA to comply with its regulations. The book covers safety hazards involved with confined spaces, electrical equipment, falls, fork-lifts, highway vehicles, preventive maintenance activities, handling chemicals, radi-ation, welding, etc. The content describes the safety hazard as applied to the type of energy released or to the unique event that occurs from exposure to the hazard.
The question that we should be asking, ‘‘is the kind of safety being practiced prevent the destruction that we see in the American workforce?’’ Maybe we ought to ask how we define safety for a start. Here are some definitions of safety that may be useful:
1. Doing things in a manner so that no one will get hurt and so the equipment and product will not get damaged
2. Implementation of good engineering design, personnel training, and the common sense to avoid bodily harm or material damage
3. Systematic planning and execution of all tasks so as to produce safe products and services with relative safety to people and property
4. Protection of persons and equipment from hazards that exceed normal risk 5. Application of techniques and controls to minimize the hazards involved in a particular event or operation, considering both potential personal injury and property damage
6. Employing processes to prevent accidents both by conditioning the envi-ronment as well as conditioning the person toward safe behavior
7. Function with minimum risk to personal well-being and to property 8. Controlling exposure to hazards that could cause personal injury and
property damage
9. Controlling people, machines, and the environment that could cause per-sonal injury or property damage
10. Performing your daily tasks in the manner that they should be done, or when you do not know, seek the necessary knowledge
11. Elimination of foreseen hazards and the necessary training to prevent accidents or to provide limited acceptable risk to personnel and facilities
Do any of these definitions match the safety guidelines practiced in workplaces where you have responsibility? If so, have you had any deaths or injuries to any of your workforce? When injuries and illnesses are not occurring anymore then the ultimate goals have been reached. Now comes the task of maintaining what has been gained.
As one can see, safety can be defined in many different ways. Nearly all of these definitions include property damage as well as personal injury. It shows that the thinking is in the right direction and that safety consists of a total loss-control activity. The book’s content contains only one facet of a comprehensive safety effort, which is a never ending journey.
1.4 WHY TRAUMA PREVENTION?
There are very real advantages when addressing trauma prevention, which do not exist when addressing illness prevention. The advantages are
. Trauma occurs in real time with no latency period (an immediate sequence of events).
. Accident=incident outcomes are readily observable (only have to recon-struct a few minutes to a few hours).
. Root or basic causes are more clearly identified. . It is easy to detect cause and effect relationships. . Traumas are not difficult to diagnose.
. Trauma is highly preventable.
1.5 ACCIDENTS OR INCIDENTS
The debate over the use of the term ‘‘accidents’’ versus ‘‘incidents’’ has been long and continual. Although these terms are used virtually interchangeably in the context of this book, you should be aware of the distinction between the two. Accidents are usually defined as an unexpected, unplanned, or uncontrollable event or mishap. This undesired event results in personal injury and property damage or both and may also lead to equipment failure. An incident is all of the above as well as the adverse effects on production.
This definition for an accident underlies the basic foundation of this book. The philosophy behind this book is that we can control these types of events or mishaps by addressing the existence of hazards and taking steps to remove or mitigate them as part of the safety effort. This is why we spend time identifying hazards and determining risk. Thus, the striving for a safe workplace, where the associated risks are judged to be acceptable, is the goal of safety. This will result in freedom from
those circumstances that can cause injury or death to workers, and damage to or loss of equipment or property.
The essence of this book’s approach is that we can control those factors, which are the causing agents of accidents. Hazard prevention described in this book is addressed both from practical and regulatory approaches.
1.6 COMPREHENSIVE ACCIDENT PREVENTION
Accident prevention is very complex because of interactions that transpire within the workplace. These interactions are between
. Workers . Management . Equipment=machines . Environment
The interaction between workers, management, equipment=machinery, and the workplace environment have enough complexity themselves as they try to blend together in the physical workplace environment. However, this physical environment is not the only environment that has an impact upon the accident prevention effort in companies. The social environment is also an interactive factor that encompasses our lives at work and beyond. Government entities that establish rules and regulations leave their mark upon the workplace. But others in the social arena such as unions, family, peer pressure, friends, and associates also exert pressure on the workplace environment The extent of the interactions that must be attended to for having a successful accident prevention effort is paramount.
Many workplaces have high accident incidence rates because they are hazardous. Hazards are dangerous situations or conditions that can lead to accidents. The more hazards present, the greater the chance of accidents. Unless safety procedures are followed, there will be a direct relationship between the number of hazards in the workplace and the number of accidents that will occur there.
In most industries, people work together with machines in an environment that causes employees to face hazards that can lead to injury, disability, or even death. To prevent industrial accidents, the people, machines, and other factors, which can cause accidents, including the energies associated with them, must be controlled. This can be done through education and training, good safety engineering, and enforcement. Many accidents can be prevented. One study showed that 88% were caused by human failure (unsafe acts), 10% by mechanical failure (unsafe conditions), and only 2% were beyond human control (acts of God).
If workers are aware of what hazards are, and what can be done to eradicate them, many accidents can be prevented. For a situation to be called an accident, it must have certain characteristics. The personal injury may be considered minor when it requires no treatment or only first aid. Personal injury is considered serious if it results in a fatality or in a permanent, partial, or temporary total disability (lost-time injuries). Property damage may also be minor or serious.
1.7 FATALITY AND INJURY PROFILE FOR THE SERVICE INDUSTRY
In 2005, there were 5702 occupationally related deaths in all of private industry, while the service industry had 2736 (48%) of these fatalities the goods-producing industry had 42% fatalities. In Table 1.2, the major contributors to these fatalities are depicted. Injuries are examined somewhat differently and the statistical data are presented usually in four different ways. These are as follows:1. Nature of injury or illness names the principal physical characteristic of a disabling condition, such as sprain=strain, cut=laceration, or carpal tunnel syndrome.
2. Part of body affected is directly linked to the nature of injury or illness cited, for example, back sprain,finger cut, or wrist and carpal tunnel syndrome. 3. Source of injury or illness is the object, substance, exposure, or bodily
motion that directly produced or inflicted the disabling condition cited. Examples are a heavy box, a toxic substance,fire=flame, and bodily motion of injured=ill worker.
4. Event or exposure (type of accident) signifies the manner in which the injury or illness was produced or inflicted, for example, overexertion while lifting or fall from a ladder (see Appendix A).
Tables 1.3 through 1.6 allow us to start identifying the most common facets of an injury profile. The total employment for the service industry in 2004 was 84,896,300 and the total number of injuries was 850,930. The data in the tables denote the most frequently occurring factor resulting in the injury=incident or resulting from the injury=incident.
It would appear from a rough observation of Tables 1.3 through 1.6 that a service industry employee would suffer a sprain or strain to the trunk and in most cases the back or possibly the lower or upper extremities because of one of the three causes: worker motion=position; floors, walkways, or ground surfaces; or containers that resulted in an overexertion=lifting or fall on the same level. As it can be seen, these
TABLE 1.2
Occupational Death Cause in Percent
Cause Service Industry (%) All Private Industries (%)
Highway 34 25
Homicides 16 10
Falls 9 13
Struck-by 7 11
Source: From Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of
Labor. National Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries in 2005.
TABLE 1.3
Nature of Injury by Number and Percent for the Service Industry
Nature of Injury Number Percent
Sprains=strainsa 377,760 44 Fracturesa 55,450 6.5 Cuts=puncturesa 63,220 7 Bruisesa 82,610 10 Heat burns 12,780 1.5 Chemical burns 4,330 0.5 Amputations 2,710 0.3
Carpal tunnel syndrome 10,810 1.3
Tendonitis 3,950 0.4
Multiple traumaa 34,450 4
Back pain (only) 28,600 3
Source: From Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor.
Workplace Injuries and Illnesses in 2004. Available at http:==bls.gov.
a Five most frequently occurring conditions.
TABLE 1.4
Body Part Injured by Number and Percent for the Service Industry
Body Part Injured Number Percent
Head 51,500 6 Eyes 19,070 2 Neck 15,960 1.8 Trunka 314,190 37 Backa 204,240 24 Shoulder 56,350 7 Upper extremitiesa 173,260 20 Finger 58,080 6.8 Hand 30,810 3.6 Wrist 38,000 4.5 Lower extremitiesa 183,780 22 Knee 69,250 8
Foot and toe 39,050 4.6
Body systems 10,940 1.3
Multiple body partsa 95,490 11
Source: From Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor.
Workplace Injuries and Illnesses in 2004. Available at http:==bls.gov.
TABLE 1.5
Source of Injury by Number and Percent for the Service Industry
Sources of Injuries Number Percent
Parts and materials 51,680 6
Worker motion=positiona 119,340 14
Floor, walkways, or ground surfacesa 168,620 20
Hand tools 29,420 3.5
Vehiclesa 88,830 10
Health care patienta 57,220 6.7
Chemicals and chemical products 11,070 1.3
Containersa 124,700 15
Furniture andfixtures 36,700 4
Machinery 40,940 4.8
Source: From Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department
of Labor. Workplace Injuries and Illnesses in 2004.
Available at http:==bls.gov.
a Five most frequent sources of injury.
TABLE 1.6
Exposure=Accident Type by Number and Percent for the Service Industry
Type of Accidents Number Percent
Struck by an objecta 101,390 12
Struck against an object 51,670 6
Caught in or compressed or crushed 25,290 3
Fall to lower level 46,820 5.5
Fall on same levela 130,260 15
Slips or trips without a fall 27,400 3
Overexertiona 227,350 27
Liftinga 126,380 15
Repetitive motion 27,180 3.2
Exposure to harmful substance or environment
36,070 4
Transportation accidentsa 51,070 6
Fires and explosions 1,100 0.1
Assaults=violent acts 22,790 2.7
Source: From Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department
of Labor. Workplace Injuries and Illnesses in 2004.
Available at http:==bls.gov.
a Five most frequent exposures or type of accidents that led to an
data give us some information to start our search for the hazards that contributed to these injuries.
1.8 OCCUPATIONAL ILLNESSES IN THE SERVICE INDUSTRY
Occupational illnesses have always been underreported. For this reason, they do not seem to get the same attention as injuries since their numbers or causes are not of epidemic proportions. The reasons why illnesses are not reported include the following:. Not occurring in real time and usually having a latency period before signs and symptoms occur.
. Not readily observable and have been linked to personal habits and expo-sure from hobbies. There is the question of multiple expoexpo-sures and syner-gistic effects on-the-job and off-the-job.
. Not always easy to detect cause and effect relationships.
. Often difficult to diagnose since many exhibit flu or cold symptoms.
These are not excuses for not pursuing preventive strategies, but an explanation of why occupational illnesses are more difficult to accurately describe and identify their root cause. The 84,896,300 employees experienced 131,500 (53%) cases of illness during 2004 according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics. This compares to the total number of illnesses reported by all of industry that equaled 249,000 of which 53% was attributed to the service industry. The most common reported types of occupa-tional illnesses for this period are found in Table 1.7.
The remainder of this book is directed toward managing, preventing, and control-ling hazards that occur within the goods and material service sector of the service industry. This includes the wholesale trade, retail trade, and warehousing sectors.
It is important to keep in mind that because of the complexity and diversity within the industry sectors of the service industry, no cookie cutter approach could be used nor is a one-size-fits-all approach possible. There has to be a mixing of
TABLE 1.7
Occupational Illnesses by Number of Cases and Percent for the Service Industry
Illness Type Number Percent
Skin diseases and disorders 24,900 19
Respiratory conditions 13,000 10
Poisoning 2,000 1.5
Hearing loss 4,000 3
All others 87,400 66.5
Source: From Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor.
information and data from diverse sources such as the NAICS and the outdated SIC, since all agencies have not changed to the new system. Also, even within the supersectors and the sectors themselves there is not a common approach to the management of safety and health, identification of hazards compatible, or the same approach for each varied sector, nor should we expect these to be. This is the reason that by consulting the table of contents of this book and Industrial Safety and Health for Goods and Materials Services, Industrial Safety and Health for Administrative Services, and Industrial Safety and Health for People-Oriented Services, decisions can be made regarding which book would be most useful to your particular business. In some cases, one book will fulfill a company’s safety and health needs while in other cases all the four books will be most beneficial.
REFERENCES
Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor. Available at http:==www.bls. gov, Washington, 2007.
Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor. National Census of Fatal Occupational Injuries in 2005. Available at http:==bls.gov.
Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor. Workplace Injuries and Illnesses in 2004. Available at http:==bls.gov.
2
Transportation
The transportation sector includes industries providing transportation of passengers and cargo, scenic and sightseeing transportation, and support activities related to modes of transportation. Establishments in these industries use transportation equip-ment or transportation-related facilities as a productive asset. The type of equipequip-ment depends on the mode of transportation. The modes of transportation are air, rail, water, road, and pipeline and have been classified in the North American Industrial Classification System (NAICS) in the following manner:
Transportation (48)
Air transportation (481000)
Scheduled air transportation (481100) Nonscheduled air transportation (481200) Rail transportation (482000)
Rail transportation (482100) Water transportation (483000)
Deep sea, coastal, and Great Lakes water transportation (483100) Inland water transportation (483200)
Truck transportation (484000) General freight trucking (484100) Specialized freight trucking (484200)
Transit and ground passenger transportation (485000)
As with transit in transportation, large vehicles involved in moving passengers and goods contribute to unique safety and health hazards.
Urban transportation (485100)
Interurban and rural bus transportation (485200) Taxi and limousine services (485300)
School and employee bus transportation (485400) Charter bus industry (485500)
Other transit and ground passenger transportation (485900) Pipeline transportation (486000)
Pipeline transportation of crude oil (486100) Pipeline transportation of natural gas (486200) Other pipeline transportation (486300) Scenic and sightseeing transportation (487000)
Scenic and sightseeing transportation, land (487100) Scenic and sightseeing transportation, water (487200) Scenic and sightseeing transportation, other (487300) Support activities for transportation (48800)
Support activities for air transportation (488100) Support activities for rail transportation (488200) Support activities for water transportation (488300) Freight transportation arrangement (488400) Other support activities for transportation (488900) Postal service (491000)
Postal service (491100)
Couriers and messengers (492000) Couriers (492100)
Local messenger and local delivery (492200)
2.1 TRANSPORTATION
Transportation is a multifaceted sector and certain subsectors will not be discussed in this chapter due to limited space and information gaps. Little has been written regarding water transportation, scenic and sightseeing transportation, urban trans-portation (buses, taxis, etc.), couriers=messengers, and the postal service as a part of the transportation sector. This does not mean that it does not have safety and health issues, but from the information presented in this chapter and this book much can be transferred or extrapolated to these subsectors.
Pipeline transportation actuallyfits better with utilities and the dangers faced by those workers than with transportation workers. Air and rail transportation are unique enough to have stand-alone coverage. However, in the scope of this book, they are addressed with truck transportation getting the most thorough coverage.
2.1.1 TRUCK
TRANSPORTATION
Truck drivers hold 45% of all jobs in the industry. Firms in the truck transportation industry provide a link between manufacturers and consumers. Businesses and occasionally individuals contract with trucking companies to pick up, transport, store, and deliver a variety of goods. The industry includes general freight trucking,
specialized freight trucking, and warehousing and storage. Since the major task of warehousing is more closely allied with tasks performed in the retail and wholesale sectors, it is covered in Industrial Safety and Health for Goods and Materials Services.
General freight trucking uses motor vehicles, such as trucks and tractor-trailers, to provide over-the-road transportation of general commodities. This industry seg-ment is further subdivided based on distance traveled. Local trucking establishseg-ments carry goods primarily within a single metropolitan area and its adjacent nonurban areas. Long-distance trucking establishments carry goods between distant areas (see Figure 2.1).
Local trucking comprised 27,000 trucking establishments in 2004. The work of local trucking firms varies with the products transported. Produce truckers usually pick up loaded trucks early in the morning and spend the rest of the day delivering produce to many different grocery stores. Lumber truck drivers, on the other hand, make several trips from the lumberyard to one or more construction sites.
Long-distance trucking comprises establishments engaged primarily in provid-ing long-distance truckprovid-ing between distant areas and sometimes between the United States and Canada or Mexico. Numbering 39,000 establishments, thesefirms handle every kind of commodity.
Specialized freight trucking provides over-the-road transportation of freight, which, because of size, weight, shape, or other inherent characteristics, requires specialized equipment such asflatbeds, tankers, or refrigerated trailers. This industry
FIGURE 2.1 Over-the-road heavy truck transportation of freight and loads creates hazards on the highway system.
sector also includes the moving industry, that is, the transportation of used household, institutional, and commercial furniture. Like general freight trucking, specialized freight trucking is subdivided into local and long-distance components. The specialized freight trucking sector contained 46,000 establishments in 2004.
Some goods are carried cross-country using intermodal transportation to save time and money. Intermodal transportation encompasses any combination of trans-portation by truck, train, plane, or ship. Typically, trucks perform at least one leg of the trip. For example, a shipment of cars from an assembly plant begins its journey when they are loaded onto railcars. Next, trains haul the cars across country to a depot, where the shipments are broken into smaller lots and loaded onto tractor-trailers, which drive them to dealerships.
Many firms rely on new technologies and the coordination of processes to expedite the distribution of goods. Voice control software allows a computer to coordinate workers through audible commands—telling workers what items to pack for which orders—helping to reduce errors and increase efficiency. Voice control software can also be used to perform inventory checks and reordering. Somefirms use radio frequency identification devices (RFID) to track and manage incoming and outgoing shipments.
The U.S. Department of Transportation governs work hours and many other working conditions of truck drivers engaged in interstate commerce. Long-distance drivers are not permitted to drive after having worked for 60 h in the past 7 days or 70 h in the past 8 days, unless they have taken at least 34 consecutive hours off duty.
Drivers are required to document their time in logbooks. Many drivers, particu-larly on long runs, work close to the maximum time permitted because employers usually compensate them on the basis of the number of miles or hours they drive. Drivers frequently travel at night, on holidays, and on weekends to avoid traffic delays so that they can deliver their cargo on time.
Truck drivers must cope with a variety of working conditions, including variable weather and traffic conditions, boredom, and fatigue. Many truck drivers enjoy the independence and working without direct supervision found in long-distance driving. Local truck drivers often have regular routes or assignments that allow them to return home in the evening.
Improvements in roads and trucks are reducing stress and increasing the efficiency of long-distance drivers. Many advanced trucks are equipped with refri-gerators, televisions, and beds for their drivers’ convenience. Included in some of these state-of-the-art vehicles are satellite links with their company’s headquarters, so that drivers can get directions, weather and traffic reports, and other important communications in a matter of seconds. In the event of bad weather or mechanical problems, truckers can communicate with dispatchers to discuss delivery schedules and courses of action. Satellite links allow dispatchers to track the location of the truck and monitor fuel consumption and engine performance.
Vehicle and mobile equipment mechanics, installers, and repairers usually work indoors, although they occasionally make repairs on the road. Minor cuts, burns, and bruises are common, but serious accidents typically can be avoided if the shop is kept clean and orderly and if safety practices are observed. Service technicians and
mechanics handle greasy and dirty parts and may stand or lie in awkward positions to repair vehicles and equipment. They usually work in well-lighted, heated, and ventilated areas, but some shops are drafty and noisy.
Safety is a major concern for the truck transportation industry. Truck drivers have a higher injury=illness rate than the average for the private sector. The operation of trucks can be dangerous without proper training and supervision. Efforts are underway to standardize training programs to make drivers more efficient and effective truck operators. Truck drivers must adhere to federally mandated certi fica-tions and regulafica-tions, requiring them to submit to drug and alcohol tests as a condition of employment. Employers are required to perform random on-the-job checks for drugs and alcohol.
2.1.2 AIR
TRANSPORTATION
Although flight crews—pilots and flight attendants—are the most visible occupa-tions, the vast majority of the industry’s employees work in ground occupations. Air travel in the United States grew at a rapid pace until 2001, expanding from 172 million passengers in 1970 to nearly 642 million in 2003. However, over the next 3 years, a combination of factors—including the events of September 11, 2001 and an economic recession—combined to reduce traffic to 1996 levels. Nevertheless, air travel remains one of the most popular modes of transportation.
Airlines transport passengers and freight over regularly scheduled routes or on routes, called charters, specifically designed for a group of travelers or a particular cargo. Several classes of airlines function in the United States. As of 2004, there were 15 major airlines—12 passenger and 3 all-cargo airlines.
In competition with the large carriers are low-cost, low-fare carriers. These carriers have traditionally not used hub-and-spoke systems and have offeredflights between limited numbers of cities. They have primarily focused on flying shorter routes (400 miles or less) and on serving leisure travelers.
Another type of passenger airline carrier is the commuter or regional carrier. As of 2004, there were approximately 75 of these carriers. Regional airlines operate short- and medium-haul scheduled airline services connecting smaller communities with larger cities and with hubs. The regional airlines’ fleet consists primarily of smaller 19- to 68-seat turboprop and 40- to 70-seat jet aircraft.
Air cargo is another sector of the airline industry. Cargo can be carried in cargo holds of passenger airlines or on aircraft designed exclusively to carry freight. Cargo carriers in this industry do not provide door-to-door service. Instead, they provide only air transport from an airport near the cargo’s origin to an airport near the cargo’s destination. Companies that provide door-to-door delivery of parcels (postal service) either across town or across the continent are classified in the couriers and messengers industry.
Working conditions in air transportation vary widely, depending on the occupa-tion. Most employees work in fairly comfortable surroundings, such as offices, terminals, or airplanes. However, mechanics and others who service aircraft are subject to excessive noise, dirt, and grease and sometimes work outside in bad weather.
