Literary Theories

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Dr Marek Oziewicz Introduction to Literary Theory

Dr Marek Oziewicz Introduction to Literary Theory and Criticismand Criticism 1

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Myth and Archetypal criticism is an

Myth and Archetypal criticism is an approach to literature which derives fromapproach to literature which derives from the insights of depth

the insights of depth

psychology (C. G. Jung and

psychology (C. G. Jung and James Hillman), anthropology (primarily JamesJames Hillman), anthropology (primarily James Frazer and Edward B. Tylor),

Frazer and Edward B. Tylor),

comparative religion and mythology (Mircea Eliade and J

comparative religion and mythology (Mircea Eliade and Joseph Campbell),oseph Campbell), and attempts to explain literature by

and attempts to explain literature by

mythic principles. Although for many scholars archetypal theory and criticism mythic principles. Although for many scholars archetypal theory and criticism is distinct from myth theory and

is distinct from myth theory and

criticism, boundaries are elusive and the two may be treated as one type of, criticism, boundaries are elusive and the two may be treated as one type of, still evolving, approach to art and

still evolving, approach to art and literature.

literature.

Myth critics, aligned with writers in comparative anthropology and Myth critics, aligned with writers in comparative anthropology and philosophy, are said to include James

philosophy, are said to include James

Frazer, Jessie Weston, Leslie Fiedler, Ernst Cassirer, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Frazer, Jessie Weston, Leslie Fiedler, Ernst Cassirer, Claude Lévi-Strauss, Richard Chase, Joseph Campbell,

Richard Chase, Joseph Campbell,

Philip Wheelwright, and Francis Fergusson. The archetypal theorists who Philip Wheelwright, and Francis Fergusson. The archetypal theorists who have remained faithful to the origins

have remained faithful to the origins

and traditions of depth, especially analytical, psychology include James and traditions of depth, especially analytical, psychology include James Hillman, Henri Corbin, Gilbert Durand,

Hillman, Henri Corbin, Gilbert Durand, Rafael Lopez-P

Rafael Lopez-Pedraza, Evangelos edraza, Evangelos Christou.Christou.

Archetypal (Jungian) criticism is an attempt to bring psychological analysis Archetypal (Jungian) criticism is an attempt to bring psychological analysis and reflection to bear upon

and reflection to bear upon

the imaginative experience communicated by literature, and to examine the imaginative experience communicated by literature, and to examine those forms or patterns in which the

those forms or patterns in which the

universal forces of human nature there find

universal forces of human nature there find objectification. Hillman locatesobjectification. Hillman locates the archetypal neither “in the

the archetypal neither “in the

physiology of the brain, the structure of language,

physiology of the brain, the structure of language, the organization of the organization of society, nor the analysis of behavior, but

society, nor the analysis of behavior, but

in the processes of imagination.” Focusing on

in the processes of imagination.” Focusing on the imaginal and makingthe imaginal and making central the concept they call “soul,” the

central the concept they call “soul,” the

archetypalists maintain an insistent focus on psychoid phenomena, which archetypalists maintain an insistent focus on psychoid phenomena, which they characterize as meaningful. Yet,

they characterize as meaningful. Yet,

since Jungian theory provided no clear avenue of access for

since Jungian theory provided no clear avenue of access for those outside of those outside of psychology, and since orthodox

psychology, and since orthodox

Jungians were left with little in the way of models for the psychological Jungians were left with little in the way of models for the psychological

analysis of literature, this school of analysis of literature, this school of

criticism has long remained on the margins of academic discourse and criticism has long remained on the margins of academic discourse and outside the boundaries of traditional

outside the boundaries of traditional academic disciplines and departments. academic disciplines and departments. Myth criticism signaled a need fo

Myth criticism signaled a need for criticism to move beyond r criticism to move beyond the restrainedthe restrained and relatively objective

and relatively objective

explication of single texts to the sustained a

explication of single texts to the sustained and even passionate meditationnd even passionate meditation upon the larger mythic patternings of

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the human mind that

the human mind that produce ritual, myth, legend, romance, and ultimatelyproduce ritual, myth, legend, romance, and ultimately literature. Much of the rhetorical

literature. Much of the rhetorical

power of myth criticism lay not just in a claim to

power of myth criticism lay not just in a claim to erect or preserve a literaryerect or preserve a literary or cultural tradition, but in the

or cultural tradition, but in the

feeling that it was participating vitally in a pan-disciplinary effort, often feeling that it was participating vitally in a pan-disciplinary effort, often combining, the “findings” of

combining, the “findings” of anthropology (F

anthropology (Frazer), mythology (Ernst Cassirer), and psychology razer), mythology (Ernst Cassirer), and psychology (C. G. Jung(C. G. Jung primarily, but Sigmund

primarily, but Sigmund FFreud asreud as

well) to get at the ways that humanity makes meaning. This is clear in an well) to get at the ways that humanity makes meaning. This is clear in an inaugural work of myth criticism,

inaugural work of myth criticism,

Joseph Campbell's 1949 Hero with a Thousand

Joseph Campbell's 1949 Hero with a Thousand FFaces, just as well as aces, just as well as in itsin its crowning achievement, Northrop

crowning achievement, Northrop FFrye’srye’s 1957 Anatomy of Criticism.

1957 Anatomy of Criticism. F

Frye’s Theory: rye’s Theory: In his In his Anatomy of Anatomy of Criticism, Northrop Frye essentiallyCriticism, Northrop Frye essentially redefines and relocates archetype on

redefines and relocates archetype on

grounds that remove him unequivocally from the ranks

grounds that remove him unequivocally from the ranks of “Jungian” critics byof “Jungian” critics by severing the connection between

severing the connection between archetype and depth psychology: Per

archetype and depth psychology: Perceiving a theory ceiving a theory of a collectiveof a collective unconscious as an unnecessary hypothesis in

unconscious as an unnecessary hypothesis in literary criticism, Frye re

literary criticism, Frye retains the Jungian tains the Jungian concept of archetype, but redefinesconcept of archetype, but redefines it as a literary occurrence per se,

it as a literary occurrence per se,

an exclusively intertextual recurring phenomenon resembling a convention. an exclusively intertextual recurring phenomenon resembling a convention. F

Frye attempts a comprehensive classification of rye attempts a comprehensive classification of literature into four narrativeliterature into four narrative categories (comic, tragic,

categories (comic, tragic,

romantic, ironic) that correspond to four mythoi (spring,

romantic, ironic) that correspond to four mythoi (spring, summer, autumn,summer, autumn, winter). Like other myth critics,

winter). Like other myth critics, FFryerye

is heavily dependent upon ritualist assumptions—i.e. that classical art had its is heavily dependent upon ritualist assumptions—i.e. that classical art had its origins in primitive ritual, and

origins in primitive ritual, and modern art is also

modern art is also evolved from vital primitive rituals that reflected primalevolved from vital primitive rituals that reflected primal mystical ways of thinking. (Jessie

mystical ways of thinking. (Jessie

Weston's 1920 From Ritual to Romance, a study of the Grail romances as Weston's 1920 From Ritual to Romance, a study of the Grail romances as civilized versions of fertility rites, is one

civilized versions of fertility rites, is one

of the first applications of the ritualist approach to nonclassical material). of the first applications of the ritualist approach to nonclassical material). F

Frye lays rye lays over literature a over literature a simplifiedsimplified

evolutionary grid on which ritual evolves into myth which evolves into evolutionary grid on which ritual evolves into myth which evolves into literature. For him all genres of

literature. For him all genres of literatureliterature

derive from myth—specifically, the myth of the

derive from myth—specifically, the myth of the life of the hero. Associatinglife of the hero. Associating the life cycle of

the life cycle of the hero withthe hero with

several other cycles: the yearly cycle of the seasons, the

several other cycles: the yearly cycle of the seasons, the daily cycle of thedaily cycle of the sun, and the nightly cycle of dreaming

sun, and the nightly cycle of dreaming and awakening, F

and awakening, Frye offers his rye offers his own heroic pattern, which he calls own heroic pattern, which he calls the “quest-the “quest-myth,” and which consists of four

myth,” and which consists of four

broad stages: the birth, triumph, isolation, and defeat of the

broad stages: the birth, triumph, isolation, and defeat of the hero.hero. Dr Marek Oziewicz Introduction to Literary Theory

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Each main genre of literature parallels at once a season, a stage in the day, a Each main genre of literature parallels at once a season, a stage in the day, a stage of consciousness, and

stage of consciousness, and

above all a stage in the heroic myth. Romance parallels at once spring, above all a stage in the heroic myth. Romance parallels at once spring, sunrise, awakening, and the birth of the

sunrise, awakening, and the birth of the

hero. Comedy parallels summer, midday, waking consciousness, and the hero. Comedy parallels summer, midday, waking consciousness, and the triumph of the hero. Tragedy parallels

triumph of the hero. Tragedy parallels autumn, sunset, daydreaming, and

autumn, sunset, daydreaming, and the isolation of the the isolation of the hero. Satire parallelshero. Satire parallels winter, night, sleep, and the defeat of

winter, night, sleep, and the defeat of the hero. The literary genres do not

the hero. The literary genres do not merely parallel the heroic myth butmerely parallel the heroic myth but derive from it, just as the myth itself

derive from it, just as the myth itself derives from ritual.

derives from ritual.

MYTH AND LITERATURE MYTH AND LITERATURE

The relationship between myth and literature has taken varying

The relationship between myth and literature has taken varying forms, butforms, but the dominant are th

the dominant are three:ree:

1. the use of myth in works of

1. the use of myth in works of literature, which usually boils down to aliterature, which usually boils down to a standard theme of tracing of

standard theme of tracing of

classical figures, events, and themes in

classical figures, events, and themes in works of literature.works of literature. 2. the derivation of

2. the derivation of literature from myth. An example of this approach is literature from myth. An example of this approach is FFromrom Ritual to Romance in

Ritual to Romance in which the

which the English medievalist Jessie English medievalist Jessie WestWeston (1850-1928).on (1850-1928).

3. the focus on a common story line, combined with the search for mythic 3. the focus on a common story line, combined with the search for mythic patterns in literature.

patterns in literature. M

M YTHIC PATTERNS YTHIC PATTERNS

Myths collectively are too varied to share a plot, but common plots have Myths collectively are too varied to share a plot, but common plots have been proposed for specific kinds of

been proposed for specific kinds of

myths, most often for hero myths. Other categories of myths, such as myths, most often for hero myths. Other categories of myths, such as creation myths, flood myths, myths of

creation myths, flood myths, myths of

paradise, and myths of the future, have proved too

paradise, and myths of the future, have proved too disparate for all but thedisparate for all but the broadest commonalities. Most

broadest commonalities. Most

notable attempts to delineate mythic patterns include: notable attempts to delineate mythic patterns include: In 1876 the Austrian scholar Johann Georg von Hahn uses f

In 1876 the Austrian scholar Johann Georg von Hahn uses fourteen cases toourteen cases to argue that all “Aryan” hero

argue that all “Aryan” hero

tales follow an “exposure and return” formula. In each case the

tales follow an “exposure and return” formula. In each case the hero is bornhero is born illegitimately, out of the fear of the

illegitimately, out of the fear of the

prophecy of his future greatness is abandoned by his father, is sa

prophecy of his future greatness is abandoned by his father, is sa ved byved by animals and raised by a lowly couple,

animals and raised by a lowly couple,

fights wars, returns home triumphant, defeats his

fights wars, returns home triumphant, defeats his persecutors, frees hispersecutors, frees his mother, becomes king, founds a city,

mother, becomes king, founds a city, and dies young.

and dies young.

In 1914 the Viennese psychoanalyst Otto Rank publishes The

In 1914 the Viennese psychoanalyst Otto Rank publishes The Myth of theMyth of the Birth of

Birth of the Hero, a the Hero, a classical Frclassical Freudianeudian analysis of myth

analysis of myth as the disguised, symbolic as the disguised, symbolic fulfillment of repressed,fulfillment of repressed, overwhelmingly Oedipal wishes lingering in

overwhelmingly Oedipal wishes lingering in the adult myth-maker or

the adult myth-maker or readerreader. Rank presents a . Rank presents a common plot, or common plot, or pattern,pattern, for one category of myths: those of

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male heroes. For Rank, following Freud, heroism deals with what

male heroes. For Rank, following Freud, heroism deals with what Jungians callJungians call the “first half of life”—birth,

the “first half of life”—birth,

childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood—and involves the childhood, adolescence, and young adulthood—and involves the establishment of oneself as an

establishment of oneself as an independentindependent person in the

person in the external world. The attainment of independence expressesexternal world. The attainment of independence expresses itself concretely in the securing of a job

itself concretely in the securing of a job

and a mate. The securing of either requires both separation from one's and a mate. The securing of either requires both separation from one's parents and mastery of one's instincts,

parents and mastery of one's instincts,

but for Rank actually culminates in a literary fantasy about

but for Rank actually culminates in a literary fantasy about the fulfillment of the fulfillment of the Oedipal wish to kill one's father

the Oedipal wish to kill one's father in order to gain

in order to gain sexual access to one's mother. By identifying himself withsexual access to one's mother. By identifying himself with the named hero, the creator or

the named hero, the creator or readerreader of the myth(ic story) acts out in his mind

of the myth(ic story) acts out in his mind deeds that he would never dare actdeeds that he would never dare act out in the world. Even the Oedipal

out in the world. Even the Oedipal

deeds of the named hero are disguised, for the heroic pattern operates at or deeds of the named hero are disguised, for the heroic pattern operates at or near the manifest, not the latent,

near the manifest, not the latent, level.

level.

Rank’s Hero Saga from The Myth of the Birth of the Hero develops the Rank’s Hero Saga from The Myth of the Birth of the Hero develops the following outline: The hero is the child

following outline: The hero is the child

of most distinguished parents, usually the son of a k

of most distinguished parents, usually the son of a king. His origin ising. His origin is preceded by difficulties, such as

preceded by difficulties, such as

continence, or prolonged barrenness, or secret intercourse of the p

continence, or prolonged barrenness, or secret intercourse of the p arentsarents due to external prohibition or

due to external prohibition or

obstacles. During or before the pregnancy, there is a prophecy, in the form of obstacles. During or before the pregnancy, there is a prophecy, in the form of a dream or oracle, cautioning

a dream or oracle, cautioning

against his birth, and usually threatening danger to

against his birth, and usually threatening danger to the father or histhe father or his represent

representative. As ative. As a rule, a rule, he is surrenderedhe is surrendered to the water, in a box. He is then saved by

to the water, in a box. He is then saved by animals, or by lowly peopleanimals, or by lowly people (shepherds), and is suckled by a female

(shepherds), and is suckled by a female

animal or by an humble woman. After he has grown up, he finds his animal or by an humble woman. After he has grown up, he finds his distinguished parents, in a highly versatile

distinguished parents, in a highly versatile

fashion. He takes his revenge on his father, on the one hand,

fashion. He takes his revenge on his father, on the one hand, and isand is acknowledged, on the other. Finally he

acknowledged, on the other. Finally he achieves rank and honors.

achieves rank and honors.

In 1928 the Russian folklorist Vladimir Propp seeks to demonstrate that In 1928 the Russian folklorist Vladimir Propp seeks to demonstrate that Russi

Russian fairy an fairy tales follow atales follow a

common plot, in which the hero goes off on a successful adventure and

common plot, in which the hero goes off on a successful adventure and uponupon his return marries and gains the

his return marries and gains the

throne. Although Propp's pattern skirts both the birth and the death of the throne. Although Propp's pattern skirts both the birth and the death of the hero, he attempts to establish a

hero, he attempts to establish a pattern for hero stories.

pattern for hero stories.

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In 1936 the English folklorist

In 1936 the English folklorist Lord Raglan works out a detailed, twenty-twoLord Raglan works out a detailed, twenty-two step pattern for the myth of

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the hero—a pattern he then applies to twenty-one myths—in his book The the hero—a pattern he then applies to twenty-one myths—in his book The Hero. Raglan makes the heart of hero

Hero. Raglan makes the heart of hero

myths not the attainment of the throne but the loss of it, and

myths not the attainment of the throne but the loss of it, and his patternhis pattern covers the whole of the hero's life.

covers the whole of the hero's life.

What makes Raglan's theory applicable to literature is the centrality

What makes Raglan's theory applicable to literature is the centrality of theof the plot; his myth-ritualism does not

plot; his myth-ritualism does not merely mak

merely make the plot the scenario for the re the plot the scenario for the ritual but argues for the ritual fromitual but argues for the ritual from the plot.

the plot.

Raglan’s Hero Myth pattern from The Hero consists of

Raglan’s Hero Myth pattern from The Hero consists of the following stages:the following stages: 1. The hero's mother is a royal virgin;

1. The hero's mother is a royal virgin; 2. His father is a king, and

2. His father is a king, and

3. Often a near relative of his mother, but 3. Often a near relative of his mother, but

4. The circumstances of his conception are unusual, and 4. The circumstances of his conception are unusual, and 5. He is also reputed to be the son of a god.

5. He is also reputed to be the son of a god.

6. At birth an attempt is made, usually by his father or his maternal 6. At birth an attempt is made, usually by his father or his maternal grandfather, to kill him, but

grandfather, to kill him, but 7. He is spirited away, and 7. He is spirited away, and

8. Reared by foster-parents in a far country. 8. Reared by foster-parents in a far country. 9. We are told nothing of his childhood, 9. We are told nothing of his childhood, butbut

10. On reaching manhood he returns or goes to his future kingdom. 10. On reaching manhood he returns or goes to his future kingdom. 11. Aft

11. After a victory over er a victory over the king and/or a giant, dragon, the king and/or a giant, dragon, or wild beast,or wild beast, 12. He marries a princess, often the daughter of his predecessor, and 12. He marries a princess, often the daughter of his predecessor, and 13. Becomes king.

13. Becomes king.

14. For a time he reigns uneventfully, and 14. For a time he reigns uneventfully, and 15. Prescribes laws, but

15. Prescribes laws, but

16. Later he loses favor with the gods and/or

16. Later he loses favor with the gods and/or his subjects, andhis subjects, and 17. Is driven from the throne and city, after which

17. Is driven from the throne and city, after which 18. He meets with a mysterious

18. He meets with a mysterious death,death, 19. Often at the top of a hill.

19. Often at the top of a hill.

20. His children, if any, do not succeed him. 20. His children, if any, do not succeed him. 21. His body is not buried, but

21. His body is not buried, but neverthelessnevertheless 22. He has one or more holy sepulchers. 22. He has one or more holy sepulchers. In 1949 the American mythographer Joseph

In 1949 the American mythographer Joseph Campbell publishes theCampbell publishes the classically Jungian counterpart to

classically Jungian counterpart to Rank’s work in his

Rank’s work in his The Hero with a Thousand The Hero with a Thousand FFaces. In it aces. In it Campbell claimsCampbell claims that the standard path of the

that the standard path of the

mythological adventure of the hero is

mythological adventure of the hero is a magnification of the fa magnification of the formulaormula represent

represented in the ed in the rites of passage:rites of passage: separation-initiation-ret

separation-initiation-return, which might be named urn, which might be named the nuclear unit of the nuclear unit of thethe monomyth. For Cambpell a hero

monomyth. For Cambpell a hero

ventures forth, from the world of common day into a region of supernatural ventures forth, from the world of common day into a region of supernatural wonder (Separation). There he

wonder (Separation). There he

encounters fabulous forces and wins a decisive victory (Initiation). Then the encounters fabulous forces and wins a decisive victory (Initiation). Then the hero comes back from this

hero comes back from this

mysterious adventure with the power to bestow boons on his fellow man mysterious adventure with the power to bestow boons on his fellow man (Re

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the myths accompanying

the myths accompanying initiation rituals “reveal the benign self-givinginitiation rituals “reveal the benign self-giving aspect of the archetypal father,” he is

aspect of the archetypal father,” he is using the term in its

using the term in its Jungian sense. For FrJungian sense. For Freudians, gods symbolize parents.eudians, gods symbolize parents. For Jungians, parents symbolize

For Jungians, parents symbolize

gods, who in turn symbolize father and mother archetypes, which are gods, who in turn symbolize father and mother archetypes, which are components of the hero's personality. The

components of the hero's personality. The

hero's relationship to these gods symbolizes the relationship of one side of a hero's relationship to these gods symbolizes the relationship of one side of a male's personality—his ego—to

male's personality—his ego—to

another side—his unconscious. The father and the mother are but two of another side—his unconscious. The father and the mother are but two of thethe archetypes of which the Jungian,

archetypes of which the Jungian,

or “collective,” unconscious is composed.

or “collective,” unconscious is composed. Archetypes are unconscious notArchetypes are unconscious not because they have been repressed

because they have been repressed

but because they have never been made conscious. For Jung and Campbell, but because they have never been made conscious. For Jung and Campbell, myth originates and functions not,

myth originates and functions not,

as for Freud and Rank, to satisfy neurotic urges that cannot

as for Freud and Rank, to satisfy neurotic urges that cannot be manifestedbe manifested openly but to

openly but to express normal sides of express normal sides of the personality that have just not had

the personality that have just not had a chance at realization. Thus fora chance at realization. Thus for Campbell male or female myth-maker or

Campbell male or female myth-maker or reader vicariously lives out mentally an

reader vicariously lives out mentally an adventure that even when directlyadventure that even when directly fulfilled would still be taking place

fulfilled would still be taking place inin the mind. For parts of

the mind. For parts of the mind are what the hero is the mind are what the hero is really encountering.really encountering. However, where Jung espouses

However, where Jung espouses

balance between ego consciousness and the unconscious, Campbell balance between ego consciousness and the unconscious, Campbell espouses fusion. Combining a philosophical

espouses fusion. Combining a philosophical interpretation of hero myths with a psycho

interpretation of hero myths with a psychological one, he takes all herological one, he takes all hero myths to be preaching mystical oneness.

myths to be preaching mystical oneness.

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Campbell’s stages of the heroic journey

Campbell’s stages of the heroic journey from The Hero with a Thousandfrom The Hero with a Thousand Faces include:

Faces include:

SEPARATION

SEPARATION oror DEPARTUREDEPARTURE::

1. The Call to

1. The Call to Adventure;Adventure; 2. Refusal of the Call; 2. Refusal of the Call; 3. Supernatural Aid; 3. Supernatural Aid; 4. The Crossing of

4. The Crossing of the Fthe First Threshold;irst Threshold; 5. The Belly of the Whale.

5. The Belly of the Whale.

INITIATION INITIATION::

1. The Road of Trials; 1. The Road of Trials;

2. The Meeting with the Goddess; 2. The Meeting with the Goddess; 3. Woman as the Temptress;

3. Woman as the Temptress; 4. Atonement with the Father; 4. Atonement with the Father; 5. Apotheosis;

5. Apotheosis;

6. The Ultimate Boon. 6. The Ultimate Boon.

RETURN RETURN::

1. Refusal of the Return; 1. Refusal of the Return; 2. The Magic Flight;

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3. Rescue from Without; 3. Rescue from Without; 4. The Crossing of

4. The Crossing of the Returthe Return Threshold;n Threshold; 5. Master of the Two Worlds;

5. Master of the Two Worlds; 6. Freedom to Live.

6. Freedom to Live. W

WHAT ARCHETYPAL AND MYTH CRITICS DOHAT ARCHETYPAL AND MYTH CRITICS DO

1. They examine literature as echoing a ritualistic function, usually of 1. They examine literature as echoing a ritualistic function, usually of initiation into the mystery of adult life,

initiation into the mystery of adult life,

and basically growing out of myths through its use of

and basically growing out of myths through its use of mythic structures,mythic structures, motives, plot patterns, and archetypes.

motives, plot patterns, and archetypes.

2. They point out the process of mythicization of contemporary literature as 2. They point out the process of mythicization of contemporary literature as evidence of the resilience of

evidence of the resilience of

myth and mythic structures of human imagination and cognition. myth and mythic structures of human imagination and cognition. 3. They propose mythic plotlines or

3. They propose mythic plotlines or structures as templates for specific formsstructures as templates for specific forms of literary

of literary expression (genres,expression (genres,

conventions) and they examine individual works of literature as variations of conventions) and they examine individual works of literature as variations of those patterns.

those patterns.

4. They assume the unavoidability of mythic narratives in human life, tracing 4. They assume the unavoidability of mythic narratives in human life, tracing the transformations of older

the transformations of older myths into modern ones. myths into modern ones.

5. They are looking for traces of “mythic expression” in all types of art, not 5. They are looking for traces of “mythic expression” in all types of art, not only literature, linking the

only literature, linking the

mythic with the imaginary and

mythic with the imaginary and identifying a “mythic” and “archetypal”identifying a “mythic” and “archetypal” context in literary works.

context in literary works. Postcolonialism

Postcolonialism deals with cultural identity in colonised societies: the dilemmas of deals with cultural identity in colonised societies: the dilemmas of developing a

developing a national identitynational identityafter colonial rule; the ways in which writers articulate andafter colonial rule; the ways in which writers articulate and celebrate that identity (often reclaiming it from and maintaining strong connec

celebrate that identity (often reclaiming it from and maintaining strong connec tions with thetions with the coloniser); the ways in which the knowledge

coloniser); the ways in which the knowledge of the colonised (of the colonised (subordinatedsubordinated) people has been) people has been generated and used to

generated and used to serve the coloniser's interests; and the ways in which the cserve the coloniser's interests; and the ways in which the c oloniser'soloniser's literature has justified colonialism via images of the colonised as a p

literature has justified colonialism via images of the colonised as a p erpetually inferior people,erpetually inferior people, society and culture. These

society and culture. These inward struggles of identity, historyinward struggles of identity, history, and future , and future possibilities oftenpossibilities often occur in the metropolis and, ironically, with the aid of postcolonial structures of power, such as occur in the metropolis and, ironically, with the aid of postcolonial structures of power, such as universities. Not surprisingly

universities. Not surprisingly, many contemporary p, many contemporary postcolonial writers reside in London, ostcolonial writers reside in London, Paris,Paris, New York and Madrid.

New York and Madrid.

The creation of binary opposition structures the way we view others. In the case of colonialism, The creation of binary opposition structures the way we view others. In the case of colonialism, the

the OrientalOrientaland theand the Westerner Westerner were distinguished as different from each other (i.e. thewere distinguished as different from each other (i.e. the

emotional, decadent Orient vs. the principled, progressive Occident). This opposition justified emotional, decadent Orient vs. the principled, progressive Occident). This opposition justified the "

the "white man's burdenwhite man's burden," the coloniser's self-perceived "destiny to rule" subordinate peoples. In," the coloniser's self-perceived "destiny to rule" subordinate peoples. In contrast, post-colonialism seeks out areas of hybridity and transculturalization. This aspect is contrast, post-colonialism seeks out areas of hybridity and transculturalization. This aspect is particularly relevant during processes of globalization.

particularly relevant during processes of globalization. In

In Post-Colonial Drama: theory, practice, politics, Post-Colonial Drama: theory, practice, politics, Helen Gilbert and JoannHelen Gilbert and Joanne Te Tompkins write:ompkins write: "the term postcolonialism – according to a

"the term postcolonialism – according to a too-rigid etymology – is frequently misunderstood astoo-rigid etymology – is frequently misunderstood as a temporal concept, meaning the time after colonialism has ceased, or the time following the a temporal concept, meaning the time after colonialism has ceased, or the time following the politically

politicallydetermined Independence Day on which a country breaks away from its governancedetermined Independence Day on which a country breaks away from its governance by another state, Not a naïve

by another state, Not a naïve teleological sequence which supersedes colonialism,teleological sequence which supersedes colonialism,

postcolonialism is, rather, an engagement with and contestation of colonialism's discourses, postcolonialism is, rather, an engagement with and contestation of colonialism's discourses,

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power structures, and social

power structures, and social hierarchies ... A theory of postcolonialism must, then, respond tohierarchies ... A theory of postcolonialism must, then, respond to more than the merely chronological construction of p

more than the merely chronological construction of p ost-independence, and to more than ost-independence, and to more than just thejust the discursive experience of

discursive experience of imperialismimperialism."."[4][4]

Colonized peoples reply to the colonial legacy by

Colonized peoples reply to the colonial legacy by writing back to the center writing back to the center , when the, when the indigenous peoples

indigenous peopleswrite their own histories and legacies using the coloniser's language (e.g.write their own histories and legacies using the coloniser's language (e.g. English, French, Dutch) for their own purposes.

English, French, Dutch) for their own purposes.[5][5]_{""Indigenous decolonization}_{Indigenous decolonization}_{" is the intellectual}_{" is the intellectual}

impact of postcolonialist theory upon communities of indigenous peoples,

impact of postcolonialist theory upon communities of indigenous peoples, therebythereby, their , their generating

generating postcolonial literature postcolonial literature..

A single, definitive definition of postcolonial theory is co

A single, definitive definition of postcolonial theory is co ntroversial; writers have stronglyntroversial; writers have strongly criticised it as a concept embedded in

criticised it as a concept embedded in identity politicsidentity politics. Ann Laura . Ann Laura StolerStoler, in, in Carnal KnowledgeCarnal Knowledge and Imperial Power,

and Imperial Power, argues that the simplistic oppositional binary concept of argues that the simplistic oppositional binary concept of Coloniser and Coloniser and Colonised

Colonised is more complicated than it seems, since these categories are fluid and shifting;is more complicated than it seems, since these categories are fluid and shifting; postcolonial works emphasise the re-analysis of categories assumed to be natural an

postcolonial works emphasise the re-analysis of categories assumed to be natural an d immutable.d immutable. Postcolonial Theory - as

Postcolonial Theory - as epistemologyepistemology, ethics, , ethics, and politics - and politics - addresses matters of addresses matters of identityidentity, gender,, gender, race, racism and ethnicity with the challenges of

race, racism and ethnicity with the challenges of developing a post-colonial national identity, of developing a post-colonial national identity, of how a colonised people's knowledge was used against them in service of the coloniser's interests, how a colonised people's knowledge was used against them in service of the coloniser's interests, and of how knowledge about the world is generated under specific relations between the

and of how knowledge about the world is generated under specific relations between the powerful and the powerless, circulated repetitively and finally legitimated in service to c

powerful and the powerless, circulated repetitively and finally legitimated in service to c ertainertain imperial interests.

imperial interests. At the same time, postcolonial theory encourages thoughAt the same time, postcolonial theory encourages though t about thet about the

colonised's creative resistance to the coloniser and how that resistance complicates and gives colonised's creative resistance to the coloniser and how that resistance complicates and gives texture to European imperial colonial projects, which u

texture to European imperial colonial projects, which u tilised a range of strategies, includingtilised a range of strategies, including anti-conquest narratives

anti-conquest narratives, to legitimise their dominance., to legitimise their dominance.

Postcolonial writers object to the colonised's depiction as hollow "mimics" of Europeans or as Postcolonial writers object to the colonised's depiction as hollow "mimics" of Europeans or as passive recipients of power. Consequent to

passive recipients of power. Consequent to FoucauldianFoucauldianargument, postcolonial scholars, i.e. theargument, postcolonial scholars, i.e. the Subaltern

Subaltern Studies collective, argue that anti-colonial resistance accompanies every deploymentStudies collective, argue that anti-colonial resistance accompanies every deployment of power.

of power.

Archetypal literary criticism

Archetypal literary criticism is a type of critical theory that interprets a text by focusing onis a type of critical theory that interprets a text by focusing on recurring

recurring mythsmythsandand archetypesarchetypes(from the Greek archē (from the Greek archē , or beginning, and, or beginning, and typostypos, or imprint) in, or imprint) in the

the narrativenarrative,, symbolssymbols,, imagesimages,, and character types in a literary work. As a form of literaryand character types in a literary work. As a form of literary criticism, it dates back to 1934 when

criticism, it dates back to 1934 when Maud BodkinMaud Bodkinpublishedpublished Archetypal Patterns in Poetry Archetypal Patterns in Poetry.. Archetypal literary criticism’

Archetypal literary criticism’s origins are rooted s origins are rooted in two other acin two other academic disciplines,ademic disciplines, socialsocial

anthropology

anthropology andand psychoanalysis psychoanalysis; each contributed to the ; each contributed to the literary criticism in separate ways,literary criticism in separate ways, with the latter being

with the latter being a sub-branch of a sub-branch of the critical theory. the critical theory. Archetypal criticism was its most popular Archetypal criticism was its most popular in the 1950’s and 1960’s, largely due to the

in the 1950’s and 1960’s, largely due to the work of Canadian work of Canadian literary criticliterary critic Northrop Frye Northrop Frye.. Though archetypal literary criticism is no longer widely practiced, nor have

Though archetypal literary criticism is no longer widely practiced, nor have there been any major there been any major developments in the field, it still has a place

developments in the field, it still has a place in the tradition of literary studiesin the tradition of literary studies ntent

ntent

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Shakespeare - Hamlet's Problem with

Women

Sexual Inexperience, Mother-Son Relationship and Delayed

Revenge

©

Oct 12, 2008

Hamlet's problems, and the fate of Ophelia, in Shakespeare's tragedy can be Hamlet's problems, and the fate of Ophelia, in Shakespeare's tragedy can be blamed on his inability to reconcile the idea of Gertrude, his mother, and her blamed on his inability to reconcile the idea of Gertrude, his mother, and her sexuality.

sexuality.

Hamlet can be seen, ac

Hamlet can be seen, according to Wcording to W. Dyson W. Dyson Wood, as a young ood, as a young man of a delicate age man of a delicate age of of indecision generally

indecision generally, not yet fully in harmony with himself, sexuality and the , not yet fully in harmony with himself, sexuality and the culture around him.culture around him. This certainly seems to be the case in

This certainly seems to be the case in the opening of the opening of Hamlet Hamlet . He is out of tune with the rest of . He is out of tune with the rest of the court, in theatrical terms, standing apart from those whom he sees as hypocritical.

the court, in theatrical terms, standing apart from those whom he sees as hypocritical. Gertrude and Sexuality

Gertrude and Sexuality

It is here that the root of Hamlet’s problem is discovered – his mother’s hasty marriage to It is here that the root of Hamlet’s problem is discovered – his mother’s hasty marriage to Claudius. This is preying on his mind even before h

Claudius. This is preying on his mind even before h e discovers by means of the ghost that e discovers by means of the ghost that hishis father had been murdered b

father had been murdered by Claudius. He is still trying to come to terms with his mother’sy Claudius. He is still trying to come to terms with his mother’s sexuality and he has to work through

sexuality and he has to work through these feelings before he can evethese feelings before he can even really consider n really consider avengingavenging

his father’s death

his father’s death..

By Elizabethan law, the marriage is incestuous and Hamlet has every right to call it so. By Elizabethan law, the marriage is incestuous and Hamlet has every right to call it so.

Elizabethans also had long terms of mourning for the dead, but Gertrude does not, which maybe Elizabethans also had long terms of mourning for the dead, but Gertrude does not, which maybe is symbolised by her inability to see the ghost of her dea

is symbolised by her inability to see the ghost of her dea d husband. This, together with thed husband. This, together with the hastiness of her marriage could quite easily suggest to an

hastiness of her marriage could quite easily suggest to an audience as well as to Hamlet audience as well as to Hamlet thatthat Gertrude may have been guilty of adulter

Gertrude may have been guilty of adultery while her husband was alive.y while her husband was alive. During the time that Hamlet is railing at his mother and

During the time that Hamlet is railing at his mother and trying to come to terms with the waytrying to come to terms with the way sexuality works, his thoughts have little scope left for thinking abou

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anything, he appears to be

anything, he appears to be acting out his revenge on acting out his revenge on his mother for her suspected crime againsthis mother for her suspected crime against his father. This does not detract from the heroic ideal, however. Shakespeare uses the concept, his father. This does not detract from the heroic ideal, however. Shakespeare uses the concept, but with a difference, portraying the sensitive, thoughtful hero, rather than

but with a difference, portraying the sensitive, thoughtful hero, rather than a two-dimensionala two-dimensional Homeric hero.

Homeric hero.

Condemning or Protecting Ophelia? Condemning or Protecting Ophelia?

Hamlet displays a degree of ambiguous feeling towards Ophelia,

Hamlet displays a degree of ambiguous feeling towards Ophelia, resulting in his ultimateresulting in his ultimate rejection of her. His behaviour stems from his undeveloped, juvenile feelings of sexuality rejection of her. His behaviour stems from his undeveloped, juvenile feelings of sexuality surrounding his mother. Hamlet is obviously shocked and dismayed by what he assumes is his surrounding his mother. Hamlet is obviously shocked and dismayed by what he assumes is his mother’s lack of moral strength. Critics such as Muir believe, therefore, that he h

mother’s lack of moral strength. Critics such as Muir believe, therefore, that he h eartlesslyeartlessly condemns Ophelia with:

condemns Ophelia with:

T

To a nunnero a nunneryy, go; and , go; and quickly too. (III,1, l.147)quickly too. (III,1, l.147) because he assumes that Ophelia, like

because he assumes that Ophelia, like Gertrude, must be a corrupt female and, Gertrude, must be a corrupt female and, in saying this, hein saying this, he betrays his sexually inexperienced thoughts about all women.

betrays his sexually inexperienced thoughts about all women. However, it is possible that Hamlet sees

However, it is possible that Hamlet sees the nunnery as the nunnery as Ophelia’s means of protecting herself Ophelia’s means of protecting herself against the sins of the flesh. He asks Ophelia:

against the sins of the flesh. He asks Ophelia: Why would’

Why would’st thou be a breedest thou be a breeder of sinners? (III,1, l.124-5)r of sinners? (III,1, l.124-5) This suggests that, although in his own mind

This suggests that, although in his own mind he associates all women with hypocritical love, hehe associates all women with hypocritical love, he is actually trying to protect Ophelia from corruption. This is highlighted further when Hamlet is actually trying to protect Ophelia from corruption. This is highlighted further when Hamlet describes her as innocent when he

describes her as innocent when he discovers she is dead. Evidently, Hamlet has loved Ophelia asdiscovers she is dead. Evidently, Hamlet has loved Ophelia as he not only sacrificed his own happiness with

he not only sacrificed his own happiness with her earlier in the play, but he is stirred into actionher earlier in the play, but he is stirred into action by the discovery of her death.

by the discovery of her death.

There is also another possibility, which is rooted in the inexperience of Hamlet himself. In There is also another possibility, which is rooted in the inexperience of Hamlet himself. In expressing his wish to hid

expressing his wish to hide Ophelia away e Ophelia away in a nunnery, it suggests Hamlet’s fear of sexuality andin a nunnery, it suggests Hamlet’s fear of sexuality and carnal love. It causes him to wish the removal of the only link he has with desire.

carnal love. It causes him to wish the removal of the only link he has with desire. The Tragedy of Hamlet’s Psychology

The Tragedy of Hamlet’s Psychology It is a rash thought, and through

It is a rash thought, and through Hamlet’Hamlet’s only rash deed of the s only rash deed of the entire play – that of killingentire play – that of killing Polonius, Ophelia’s father – that Ophelia’s fate is sealed. She thus

Polonius, Ophelia’s father – that Ophelia’s fate is sealed. She thus suffers madness and death,suffers madness and death, due to Hamlet’s agitation and undeveloped knowledge about

due to Hamlet’s agitation and undeveloped knowledge about the relationships of men andthe relationships of men and women which prays on his mind throughou

women which prays on his mind throughout and is the reason for the t and is the reason for the catastrophic fatality of catastrophic fatality of Polonius, Ophelia and

Polonius, Ophelia and Hamlet’Hamlet’s own happiness.s own happiness. It can be seen. then,

It can be seen. then, that the moral and sexuality-based distractions of a young, expthat the moral and sexuality-based distractions of a young, exp eriencederienced Hamlet are at the root of both

Hamlet are at the root of both Hamlet’Hamlet’s delay in taking revenge for hs delay in taking revenge for his father’s murder and of theis father’s murder and of the fate of Ophelia, a true, tragic heroine.

fate of Ophelia, a true, tragic heroine.

But Hamlet can be sympathised with. A modern audience can see Hamlet has a point: Gertrude But Hamlet can be sympathised with. A modern audience can see Hamlet has a point: Gertrude does settle rather quickly into her new role

does settle rather quickly into her new role as queen to Claudius. To an Elizabethan audience, heas queen to Claudius. To an Elizabethan audience, he is right is condemning his mother and he needs to work through these feelings before embarking is right is condemning his mother and he needs to work through these feelings before embarking upon any kind of revenge.

upon any kind of revenge.

It seems only logical that Hamlet, as a young

It seems only logical that Hamlet, as a young man, would be distracted by the man, would be distracted by the possibility of possibility of morally dubious sexuality of his mother and contemplates his revenge.

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the flaw in his character - in true Shakespearean tragic form, which leads to the ultimate the flaw in his character - in true Shakespearean tragic form, which leads to the ultimate catastrophic chain of events for Ophelia

catastrophic chain of events for Ophelia

Young Goodman Brown | Summary

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"Y

"Young Goodman oung Goodman Brown" opens with YBrown" opens with Young Goodman oung Goodman Brown about to Brown about to embark on an embark on an evening'sevening's journey

journey. His young wife, Faith, fearful for some unknown . His young wife, Faith, fearful for some unknown reason, beseeches him to delay hisreason, beseeches him to delay his journey

journey. Goodman Brown, however, stresses that he has a task . Goodman Brown, however, stresses that he has a task that must be accomplished beforethat must be accomplished before sunrise, and so the newlyweds reluctantly part. As he walks down the street, Goodman Brown sunrise, and so the newlyweds reluctantly part. As he walks down the street, Goodman Brown chides himself for leaving Faith while he goes on

chides himself for leaving Faith while he goes on his journey and resolves that, after this night,his journey and resolves that, after this night, he will stay by the side of his good

he will stay by the side of his good and pious wife. Pleased with himself, Goodman Brown theand pious wife. Pleased with himself, Goodman Brown the nn hurries through the forest to..

hurries through the forest to..

Young Goodman Brown | Introduction

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"Y

"Young Goodman Brown," written in oung Goodman Brown," written in 1835 by1835 by Nathaniel Hawthorne Nathaniel Hawthorneis known for being one of is known for being one of literature's most gripping portrayals of seventeenth-century Puritan

literature's most gripping portrayals of seventeenth-century Puritan societysociety. The tale . The tale firstfirst appeared in the April issue of

appeared in the April issue of New England Magazine New England Magazine and was later included in Hawthorne'sand was later included in Hawthorne's popular short story collection,

popular short story collection, Mosses from an Old ManseMosses from an Old Manse, in 1846., in 1846. "Y

"Young Goodman Brown" tells the tale oung Goodman Brown" tells the tale of a young Puritan man drawn into of a young Puritan man drawn into a covenant with thea covenant with the Devil. Brown's illusions about the goodness of his society are

Devil. Brown's illusions about the goodness of his society are crushed when he discovers thatcrushed when he discovers that many of his fellow townspeople, including religious leaders and

many of his fellow townspeople, including religious leaders and his wife, are attending a Black his wife, are attending a Black Mass. At the end of the

Mass. At the end of the storystory, it is no, it is not clear whether Brown's et clear whether Brown's experience was nightmare xperience was nightmare or realityor reality,, but the results are nonetheless the same. Brown is unable to forgive the possibility of evil in his but the results are nonetheless the same. Brown is unable to forgive the possibility of evil in his

loved ones and as a

loved ones and as a result spends the rest of his life in desperate loneliness and result spends the rest of his life in desperate loneliness and gloom.gloom. Though a work of fiction,

Though a work of fiction, "Y"Young Goodman Brown'' is widely considered oung Goodman Brown'' is widely considered to be one of the to be one of the mostmost effective literary works to address the h

effective literary works to address the h ysteria surrounding the Salem Witch Triysteria surrounding the Salem Witch Trials of 1692.als of 1692. Hawthorne is also remembered for helping to e

Hawthorne is also remembered for helping to establish the short story as a respected form of stablish the short story as a respected form of literature and as a proponent of instilling morals and lessons into his writing.

literature and as a proponent of instilling morals and lessons into his writing.

Young Goodman Brown Summary

"Y

"Young Goodman oung Goodman Brown" opens with YBrown" opens with Young Goodman oung Goodman Brown about to Brown about to embark on an embark on an evening'sevening's journey

journey. His young wife, Faith, fearful for some unknown . His young wife, Faith, fearful for some unknown reason, beseeches him to delay hisreason, beseeches him to delay his journey

journey. Goodman Brown, however, stresses that he has a task . Goodman Brown, however, stresses that he has a task that must be accomplished beforethat must be accomplished before sunrise, and so the newlyweds reluctantly part. As he walks down the street, Goodman Brown sunrise, and so the newlyweds reluctantly part. As he walks down the street, Goodman Brown

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chides himself for leaving Faith while he goes on

chides himself for leaving Faith while he goes on his journey and resolves that, after this night,his journey and resolves that, after this night, he will stay by the side of his good

he will stay by the side of his good and pious wife. Pleased with himself, Goodman Brown theand pious wife. Pleased with himself, Goodman Brown the nn hurries through the forest to accomplish some unknown

hurries through the forest to accomplish some unknown task.task. Deeper in the forest Goodman Brown

Deeper in the forest Goodman Brown spies an old man, who is actually the spies an old man, who is actually the Devil in disguise,Devil in disguise, waiting for him. Goodman Brown blames Faith for making

waiting for him. Goodman Brown blames Faith for making him late. The older man, who hahim late. The older man, who has as a curious resemblance to Goodman Brown, carries a

curious resemblance to Goodman Brown, carries a staff which resembles a black snake. Whenstaff which resembles a black snake. When the older man urges Goodman Brown to

the older man urges Goodman Brown to take the staff to ease his walk, Goodman take the staff to ease his walk, Goodman BrownBrown expresses second thoughts and his intention to go home. The older man convinces Goodman expresses second thoughts and his intention to go home. The older man convinces Goodman Brown to walk with him, however, and listen to the reasons

Brown to walk with him, however, and listen to the reasons why he should continue. Goodmanwhy he should continue. Goodman Brown agrees and murmurs that his forefathers, good h

Brown agrees and murmurs that his forefathers, good h onest Christians, would never go on suchonest Christians, would never go on such a walk.

a walk. T

To his surprise, Brown finds this is not true. His companion tells him that o his surprise, Brown finds this is not true. His companion tells him that he is well acquaintedhe is well acquainted with the Brown family and that he

with the Brown family and that he helped Brown's father and grandfather commit acts such helped Brown's father and grandfather commit acts such asas the punishment of religious dissenters and the massacre of Indians. While Goodman Brown the punishment of religious dissenters and the massacre of Indians. While Goodman Brown expresses surprise, his companion... »