Research_Methodology Quantitatif

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Research Methodology

Quantitative Research

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The Section covers the following areas

Overview of the Research

Process:-



Formulating a Research Problem



Identifying variables



Constructing Hypotheses



The Research design



Selecting a method of data collection



Collecting data using attitudinal scales



Establish the validity & reliability of a Research

instrument

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The Section covers the following areas

Overview of the Research

Process:-



Formulating a Research Problem



Identifying variables



Constructing Hypotheses



The Research design



Selecting a method of data collection



Collecting data using attitudinal scales



Establish the validity & reliability of a Research

instrument

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Formulating a Research problem

•

• The first step in beginning a The first step in beginning a researresearch project is to ch project is to decide “ Whatdecide “ What

is the

is the ResearResearch Question”?ch Question”?

•

• A “Research Question” is a A “Research Question” is a question about the question about the problem to beproblem to be

addressed , it is therefor

addressed , it is therefore focused on the content of the topic ofe focused on the content of the topic of interest.

interest.

•

• First identifying & then specifying First identifying & then specifying a research problem migha research problem mightt

seem like research tasks that ought to b easy & quality seem like research tasks that ought to b easy & quality

accomplished. However, such is often not the case (Yegidis & accomplished. However, such is often not the case (Yegidis & Weinback,1991,35)

Weinback,1991,35)

•

• It is essential for the problem you formulatIt is essential for the problem you formulate to b e to b able toable to

withstand scrutiny in terms of the procedures required to be withstand scrutiny in terms of the procedures required to be undertaken.

undertaken.

•

• Always researAlways researcher should send cher should send a considerable time in thinking a considerable time in thinking itit

through through

•

• Researcher should always have a clear idea with regard to whatResearcher should always have a clear idea with regard to what

is that want to find out

is that want to find out about about & not what they think they much & not what they think they much find

find

•

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Sources of Research Problem

•

If the Researcher has already selected the

topic or question, next step is to identify the

sources of Research Problem.

•

Most research in the humanities resolves

around four “P”s

–

People

- Study Population –

Problems

–

Programs

–

Phenomena

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• Every Research study has 2 aspects,

1. The Study Population 2.The Subject Area

Aspects of a study About Study of Study Population People Individuals,

organizations, groups,

communities

They provide with rte required

information or collect

information from or about them Subject area Problem Issues, Situations,

Needs, Associations, Profiles etc Program Contents, Structure, outcomes, attributes, satisfaction, consumers Information that need to collect to find answers to the research question Phenomenon

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Considering in selecting a Research

problem

• Interest – should be the most important consideration in

selecting a problem

• Magnitude – Having sufficient knowledge about the research

process

• Measurement of process- It the researcher is using a concept

in th study should make sure to be very clear about its indicators & measurements

• Level of Expertise – Having adequate level of expertise for the

task which is proposed

• Relevance- Select a topic that is of relevance to as a

professional

• Availability of data

• Ethical Issues- Formulating a research problem is the Ethical

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Steps in the formulation of a Research

Problem

•

Step 1

–

Identify a broad field or subjects are of

interest to you

•

Step 2-Dissect the broad are into a sub areas

•

Step 3

–

Select what is of most interest to you

•

Step 4-Raise research question

•

Step 5

–

Formulate Objectives

•

Step 6

–

Assess your objectives

•

Step 7- Double

–

check

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The formulation of Objectives

• Objectives are the goals Researcher set out to attain in the study

• Objectives should b listed under 2 headings

1.Min objectives – An overall statement of the thrust of the study 2. Sub objectives –Specific aspects of the topic should be listed numerically

• Characteristics of

Objectives:-• 1.Clear

• 2.Complete • 3.Spcific

• 4.Identify the min variables to be correlated • 5.Identify the directions of the relationship

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Establishing Operational Definitions

• The Researcher needs to develop operational definitions for the major concepts you are using in the study & develop a framework for the study population

enabling the researcher to select appropriate respondents

• Operational definitions give an operational meaning to the study population & the concepts used

• Eg:- The main objective is ,

• To measure the effectiveness o a retraining program designed to help Young People

• It is equally important to decide exactly what you mean by “young” up to what age will you consider a person to be Child, Who would you consider Young? • Operationalisation of concepts & the study population

:-Study Concept Issues Population to be studied 1 Effectiveness What constitutes

”Effectiveness”

The Young Who would consider a Young person

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Identifying Variables

The Definition of a Variable

•

An image , perception or concept that is capable of

measurement , hence capable of taking on different

values is called a variable

Or

•

A concept that can be measured

Eg :

1. This program is effective

2.We are providing a Quality service to

our clients

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The difference between a concept & a

variable

•

Concepts are mental

images or perceptions

and therefore their

meanings vary markedly

from individual to

individual

Where as ,

•

Variables are

measurable , of course

with varying degrees of

accuracy

Concepts Variables Effectiveness Satisfaction Rich Excellent Gender (Male/female) Attitude Weight Height -Subjective impression No uniformity as to its understanding among different people

As such cannot be

Measurable through the degree of

precision varies from scale to scale from variable to variable

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Concepts , indicators and Variables

•

If a

concept

is used in a study , the researcher

need to consider its operationalisation, that is

, how it will be measured

•

To operationlise a concept , first need to go

through the process of identifying

indicators

,

a set of criteria reflective of the concept which

can then be converted into

variables

.

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Types of Variable

• Independent variable – The cause supposed to be responsible

for bringing about changes in a phenomenon or situation

• Dependent variable – The outcome of the changes brought

about by introduction of an independent variable

• Extraneous variable- several other factors operating in a real

life situation may affect changes in the dependent variable. These factors , not measured in the study, may increase or decrease the magnitude or strength o the relationship

between independent and dependent variables

• Intervening variable – This links the independent and

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Types measurement scale

There are four measurement categories

1. Nominal or classificatory scale – Each subgroup has a

characteristic /property which is common to all classified within that subgroups

Eg. Tree, House, Taxi, Gender :Male/Female

2. Ordinal or ranking scale – It has the characteristics of a Nominal scale

Eg. Income (Above average, Average, low)

3. Interval scale – It has all the characteristics of an ordinal scale Eg: Temperature

4. Ratio – It has all the properties of an interval scale. Eg: Height, income

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Constructing Hypothesis

The Definition of a Hypothesis,

• The second important consideration in the formulation of a research problem is the construction of hypothesis.

• Hypotheses bring clarity, specify and focus to research problem, but are not essential for a study

• Hypotheses are based on guesses. As researcher, it is not required to know

about the phenomena , a situation , the prevalence of a condition in a population or about the outcome of a program , but has to have a hunch to form the basis of certain assumptions or guesses. The verification process should be don based on the information and the verification process will provide one of the three

outcomes below, 1.right

2.partially right 3.worng

• Without this process o verification, the researcher cannot conclude anything about the validity of the assumption.

• Hence Hypotheses is a hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion or an idea about a phenomenon, relationship or situation , the reality or truth of which do not know .

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The functions of Hypothesis

•

The formulation of hypotheses provided a study

with focus. It tells what specific aspects of a research

problem to investigate

•

A hypotheses tells what data to collect and what not

to collect, thereby providing focus to the study

•

As it provides a focus, the construction of a

hypothesis enhances objectivity in a study

•

A hypothesis may enable to add to the formulation

of theory. It enables to specifically conclude what is

true or what is false.

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The characteristics of a hypothesis

• A hypothesis should be simple , specific and conceptually

clear

Eg: The average age o the male students in this class is higher than that of the female students

• A Hypotheses should be capable of verifications – Methods

and techniques must be available for data collection and analysis

• A hypotheses should be related to the existing body of

knowledge – It is important that hypotheses emerges from the existing body of knowledge

• A Hypotheses should be Operationalisble – This mans that it

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Types of Hypothesis

•

Broadly there are two categories of hypothesis

1.Research hypotheses

2.Alternativc Hypotheses

– The formulation of an alternative hypotheses is a

convention in scientific circles. Its main function is to

explicitly specify the relationship that will be considered as true in case the research hypotheses proves to be

wrong.

– Alternative hypothesis is the opposite of the research

hypotheses

– A null hypothesis or hypotheses of no difference is

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• Null Hypothesis – When constructing hypothesis stipulating

that there is no difference between two situations, groups outcomes or the prevalence of condition or phenomenon .

• Hypothesis difference – A hypothesis in which researcher

stipulates that there will be difference but does not specify it magnitude.

• Hypotheses of point –prevalence – Outcomes is known in

quantitative units eg. The proportion of mal & female smokers is 60 and 30 per cent respectively.

• Hypothesis of association – The relationship between the

impact of different combinations on the dependent variable or relationship between the prevalence of a phenomenon among different populations .

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Errors in testing a hypothesis

• Incorrect conclusions about the validity of a hypothesis may be

drawn if,

• The study design selected is faulty

• The sampling procedure adopted is faulty • The method of data collection is inaccurate • The analysis is wrong

• The statistical procedures applied are inappropriate • The conclusions drawn are incorrect

 Rejection of a null hypotheses when it is true. This is know as a Type I error.

 Acceptance of a null hypothesis when it is false. This is know s a Type II error.

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The Research Design

The Definition of a Research Design

A Research design is a procedural plan that is

adopted by the researcher to answer

questions validity, objectively, accurately and

economically.

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Functions of a Research Design

•

Conceptualize an operational plan to

undertake the various procedures and tasks

required to complete the study

•

Ensure that procedures are adequate to

obtain valid, objective and accurate answers

to the research questions.

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Selecting a method of data collection

•

There are two major approaches to gather

information about a situation, person,

problem or phenomenon.

1. Secondary data

–

Information gathered using the

first approach is said to be collected from

secondary sources

2. Primary data - the sources used in the second

approach

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Method of data collection

Secondary sources Primary sources

Documents -Govmt publications -Earlier research -Census -Personal records -Client histories -Service records

Observation Interviewing Questionnaire

Participant Non-Participant Structured Unstructured Mailed Questionnaire Collective Questionnaire

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Collecting data using attitudinal scales

Functions of attitudinal scale

• Respondents usually have different attitudes towards different aspects. • If the researcher want to find out the attitude of respondents towards an

issue, either a closed ended or an open ended question can be asked.

Difficulties in developing an attitudinal scale

1.Wic aspects of a situation or issue should be included when seeking to measure an attitude?

Eg. What is your attitude towards you’re your lecturer?, In this what aspects

of teaching should be included in a scale to find out the attitude of students towards their lecturer?

2. What procedure should be adopted for combining the different aspects to obtain an overall picture ?

3.How can one ensure that a scale rally is measuring what it is supposed to measure?

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Types of Attitudinal scale

There are three major types of attitudinal scale,

1. The summated rating scale, also know as the

Linkert scale

2. The equal appearing interval scale or

different scale, also know as the Thurstone

scale

3. The cumulative scale , also know as the

Guttman scale

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Establishing the validity and reliability of a

research instrument

There are two perspectives on validity:

1. Is the research investigations providing answers to the research questions for which it was undertaken?

2. If so, is it providing these answers using appropriate methods and procedures?

The concept of Validity

It is important to remember that the concept of

validity is pertinent only to a particular instrument

and it is an ideal state that you as a researcher to

achieve.

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Types of Validity

There are three types of validity

1. Face and content validity – Each question or item on the scale must have a logical link with an objective.

Establishment of this link is called “Face validity”

2. Concurrent and predictive validity – Predictive validity is judged by the degree to which an instrument can forecast

an outcome. Concurrent validity is judged by Howell an instrument compares with a second assessment

concurrently done.

3. Construct validity – Construct validity is a more

sophisticated technique for establishing the validity of n instrument. It is I based upon statistical procedures. It is determined by ascertaining the contribution of each

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The Concept of Reliability

Reliability is the degree of accuracy or precision in the measurement made by a research instrument.

The concept of reliability in relation to research can be looked at from two sides,

1. How reliable is an instrument ? 2. How unreliable is it ?

• The first question focus on the ability of an instrument

to produce consistent measurement

• The second question focuses on the degree of

inconsistency in the measurement made by an instrument.

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Factors affecting the reliability of a research

instrument

•

The wording of question

•

The physical setting

•

The respondent’s mood

•

The nature of interaction

•