Type of Work Type of Work
...The Iliad is an epic poem, a long narrative work about heroic exploits that is elevated in tone ...The Iliad is an epic poem, a long narrative work about heroic exploits that is elevated in tone andand highly formal in its language. It was composed in ancient Greek and transmitted orally before it was highly formal in its language. It was composed in ancient Greek and transmitted orally before it was written down. Many modern translators present the Iliad in prose, making it read like a novel. written down. Many modern translators present the Iliad in prose, making it read like a novel. Title Explanation
Title Explanation
...The Iliad derives the first two syllables of its name from Ilios or Ilion (Greek for Troy) or, alternately, ...The Iliad derives the first two syllables of its name from Ilios or Ilion (Greek for Troy) or, alternately, from Ilium (Latin for Troy). The suffix -ad means related to, concerning, having to do
from Ilium (Latin for Troy). The suffix -ad means related to, concerning, having to do with, or associatedwith, or associated with. Thus, Iliad means
with. Thus, Iliad means a story concerning Troy.a story concerning Troy. Setting
Setting ..
Time of Action: About 3,200 years
Time of Action: About 3,200 years ago in recorded history's infancy, when humankind's imaginationago in recorded history's infancy, when humankind's imagination peopled the known world with great heroes and villains and nature reflected the mood of the peopled the known world with great heroes and villains and nature reflected the mood of the godsgods inhabiting the mountaintops, the seas, the forests, and the
inhabiting the mountaintops, the seas, the forests, and the unseen worlds above and below. Homerunseen worlds above and below. Homer fashioned The Iliad, the story of the
fashioned The Iliad, the story of the Trojan War, about 600 years after the war ended. The story is aTrojan War, about 600 years after the war ended. The story is a mixture of fact, legend, and myth.
mixture of fact, legend, and myth.
Place of Action: The walled city of Troy and
Place of Action: The walled city of Troy and the surrounding plains in northwestern Anatolia, a regionthe surrounding plains in northwestern Anatolia, a region that is part
that is part of modern-day Turkey. Anatolia is west of Greece (across the Aegean Sea) and north of Egyptof modern-day Turkey. Anatolia is west of Greece (across the Aegean Sea) and north of Egypt (across the Mediterranean Sea).
(across the Mediterranean Sea). Historical Troy
Historical Troy ...In archeologica
...In archeological digs l digs between 1870 and 1890, German-born American archeologist Heinrichbetween 1870 and 1890, German-born American archeologist Heinrich Schliemann (182
Schliemann (1822-1890) appear2-1890) appeared to prove that ed to prove that the ancient city of Troy was a the ancient city of Troy was a fact, not a myth, fact, not a myth, as manyas many had thought. However, the story of the
had thought. However, the story of the Trojan WarTrojan War
—
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as passed down to Homeras passed down to Homer—
—
was a mixture of fact,was a mixture of fact, legend, and myth.legend, and myth. Iliad's Importance Iliad's Importance
...The Iliad ranks as one of the most important and most influential works in world literature in that ...The Iliad ranks as one of the most important and most influential works in world literature in that itit established literary standards and conventions that
established literary standards and conventions that writers have imitated over the centuries, down towriters have imitated over the centuries, down to the present day. It also
the present day. It also created archetypecreated archetypes that hundreds of great writerss that hundreds of great writers
—
—
including Vergil, Dante,including Vergil, Dante, Shakespeare, Stephen Crane, and James JoyceShakespeare, Stephen Crane, and James Joyce
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—
alluded to when in need of an alluded to when in need of an apt metaphor or simile.apt metaphor or simile. In addition, the Iliad provided a mother lode ofIn addition, the Iliad provided a mother lode of information about Greek customs and ideals and aboutinformation about Greek customs and ideals and about Greek mythology. The Iliad was a
Greek mythology. The Iliad was a truly remarkable accomplishmtruly remarkable accomplishment. Even though its ent. Even though its author had noauthor had no similar literary model on which to base his work, he wrote a
similar literary model on which to base his work, he wrote a masterpiece that ranks with the greatestmasterpiece that ranks with the greatest works of all time. No student of
works of all time. No student of literature can ignore Homer. No writer's educaliterature can ignore Homer. No writer's education is complete unlesstion is complete unless he has read Homer.
he has read Homer. Verse Format
Verse Format
...The meter (rhythmic pattern of syllables) of Homer’s ep
...The meter (rhythmic pattern of syllables) of Homer’s ep
ic poems is dactylic hexameter. A dactyl is aic poems is dactylic hexameter. A dactyl is a metrical foot consisting of one accented syllable followed by two unaccented syllables, as in the words metrical foot consisting of one accented syllable followed by two unaccented syllables, as in the words technical (TEK nik l), allocate (AL oh kate), andtechnical (TEK nik l), allocate (AL oh kate), and harbinger (HAR bin jer). Hexamharbinger (HAR bin jer). Hexameter is a line containing sixeter is a line containing six metrical feet. Thus, dactylic hexameter is a
me a BEAU ti ful
me a BEAU ti ful GOWN and a HAT fringed with TASS les of DOWN, good sir. For a GOWN and a HAT fringed with TASS les of DOWN, good sir. For a full detailed discussionfull detailed discussion and explanation of meter and its forms, click here.
and explanation of meter and its forms, click here. The Homeric Epithet
The Homeric Epithet
...One of the hallmarks of the Homeric style is the epithet, a combination of a
...One of the hallmarks of the Homeric style is the epithet, a combination of a descriptive phrase and adescriptive phrase and a noun. An epithet presents a miniature portrait that identifies a person or thing by
noun. An epithet presents a miniature portrait that identifies a person or thing by highlighting ahighlighting a prominent characteris
prominent characteristic of that person or tic of that person or thing. In English, the Homeric epithet usually consists of athing. In English, the Homeric epithet usually consists of a noun modified by a
noun modified by a compound adjective, such as the following: fleet-footed Achilles, rosy-fingeredcompound adjective, such as the following: fleet-footed Achilles, rosy-fingered dawn, wine-dark sea, earth-shaking Poseidon, and
dawn, wine-dark sea, earth-shaking Poseidon, and gray-eyed Athena. The Homeric epithet is an gray-eyed Athena. The Homeric epithet is an ancientancient relative of such later
relative of such later epithets as Richard the epithets as Richard the Lion-Hearted, Ivan the Terrible, and America the Beautiful.Lion-Hearted, Ivan the Terrible, and America the Beautiful. Homer repeated his epithets often, presumably so the listeners of his recited tales could easily
Homer repeated his epithets often, presumably so the listeners of his recited tales could easily remember and picture the person or t
remember and picture the person or thing each time it was hing each time it was mentioned. In this respect, the mentioned. In this respect, the HomericHomeric epithet resembles the leitmotiv of opera composer Richard Wagner (1813-1883). The leitmotiv was a epithet resembles the leitmotiv of opera composer Richard Wagner (1813-1883). The leitmotiv was a repeated musical theme associated with a character, a group of characters, an emotion, or an idea. repeated musical theme associated with a character, a group of characters, an emotion, or an idea. Epic Conventions
Epic Conventions ...Home
...Homer established literary practices, rules, r established literary practices, rules, or devices that or devices that became commonplbecame commonplace in ace in epic poetryepic poetry written later. These rules or
written later. These rules or devices are now known as devices are now known as epic conventions. They include the following:epic conventions. They include the following: The invocation of the muse, a
The invocation of the muse, a goddess. In Greek mythology, there wergoddess. In Greek mythology, there were nine muses, all sisters, whoe nine muses, all sisters, who were believed to inspire poets,
were believed to inspire poets, historians, flutists, dancers, singers, astronomers, philosophers, andhistorians, flutists, dancers, singers, astronomers, philosophers, and other thinkers and artists. If one wanted to
other thinkers and artists. If one wanted to write a great poem, play a write a great poem, play a musical instrumenmusical instrument with bravado,t with bravado, or develop a grand scientific or philosophical theory, he would ask for help from a muse. When a
or develop a grand scientific or philosophical theory, he would ask for help from a muse. When a poetpoet
asked for help, he was said to
asked for help, he was said to be “invoking the muse.” The muse of epic poetry was named Calliope *kuh
be “invoking the muse.” The muse of epic poetry was named Calliope *kuh
LY uh pe].LY uh pe].
Telling a story with which readers or listeners are already familiar; they know the characters, the plot, Telling a story with which readers or listeners are already familiar; they know the characters, the plot, and the outcome. Most of the
and the outcome. Most of the great writers of the ancient worldgreat writers of the ancient world
—
—
as well as many great writers in lateras well as many great writers in later times, including Shakespearetimes, including Shakespeare
—
—
frequently told stories already known to the public. Thus, in such stories,frequently told stories already known to the public. Thus, in such stories, there were no unexpected plot twists, no surprise endings. If this sounds strange to you,there were no unexpected plot twists, no surprise endings. If this sounds strange to you, the modernthe modern reader and theatergoer, conside
reader and theatergoer, consider that many of r that many of the most popular motion pictures today are about storiesthe most popular motion pictures today are about stories already known to t
already known to the public. Examples are The Passion of he public. Examples are The Passion of the Christ, Titanic, The Ten the Christ, Titanic, The Ten CommandmCommandments,ents, Troy, Spartacus, Pearl Harbor, and
Troy, Spartacus, Pearl Harbor, and Gettysburg.Gettysburg.
Conflict in the celestial realm. Divine beings fight and scheme against one another in the epics of
Conflict in the celestial realm. Divine beings fight and scheme against one another in the epics of HomerHomer and Vergil, and they do so
and Vergil, and they do so in John Milton's Paradise Lost on a in John Milton's Paradise Lost on a grand scale, with Satan and his forcesgrand scale, with Satan and his forces opposing God and his
opposing God and his forces.forces. Use of epithets.
Use of epithets. See "Homeric Epithet," above.See "Homeric Epithet," above. Attitude Toward the Afterlife
Attitude Toward the Afterlife
...The here and now concerns the Greeks at
...The here and now concerns the Greeks at Troy more than the Troy more than the afterlife, for they generally believeafterlife, for they generally believe that the abode of
that the abode of the dead is dark and the dead is dark and dismal. Consequedismal. Consequently, their main purpose in life is ntly, their main purpose in life is to achieveto achieve immediate reward
immediate rewards and to live s and to live for the moment. The idea of a for the moment. The idea of a heaven that will requite them for goodheaven that will requite them for good deeds, whether on or off the battlefield, is of
deeds, whether on or off the battlefield, is of less importance to them. However, they generallless importance to them. However, they generally doy do revere the gods of Olympus, who take sides in t
revere the gods of Olympus, who take sides in the war. Offending the gods could incur their wrath andhe war. Offending the gods could incur their wrath and affect the outcome of the war.
affect the outcome of the war. Principal Characters
Principal Characters ..
me a BEAU ti ful
me a BEAU ti ful GOWN and a HAT fringed with TASS les of DOWN, good sir. For a GOWN and a HAT fringed with TASS les of DOWN, good sir. For a full detailed discussionfull detailed discussion and explanation of meter and its forms, click here.
and explanation of meter and its forms, click here. The Homeric Epithet
The Homeric Epithet
...One of the hallmarks of the Homeric style is the epithet, a combination of a
...One of the hallmarks of the Homeric style is the epithet, a combination of a descriptive phrase and adescriptive phrase and a noun. An epithet presents a miniature portrait that identifies a person or thing by
noun. An epithet presents a miniature portrait that identifies a person or thing by highlighting ahighlighting a prominent characteris
prominent characteristic of that person or tic of that person or thing. In English, the Homeric epithet usually consists of athing. In English, the Homeric epithet usually consists of a noun modified by a
noun modified by a compound adjective, such as the following: fleet-footed Achilles, rosy-fingeredcompound adjective, such as the following: fleet-footed Achilles, rosy-fingered dawn, wine-dark sea, earth-shaking Poseidon, and
dawn, wine-dark sea, earth-shaking Poseidon, and gray-eyed Athena. The Homeric epithet is an gray-eyed Athena. The Homeric epithet is an ancientancient relative of such later
relative of such later epithets as Richard the epithets as Richard the Lion-Hearted, Ivan the Terrible, and America the Beautiful.Lion-Hearted, Ivan the Terrible, and America the Beautiful. Homer repeated his epithets often, presumably so the listeners of his recited tales could easily
Homer repeated his epithets often, presumably so the listeners of his recited tales could easily remember and picture the person or t
remember and picture the person or thing each time it was hing each time it was mentioned. In this respect, the mentioned. In this respect, the HomericHomeric epithet resembles the leitmotiv of opera composer Richard Wagner (1813-1883). The leitmotiv was a epithet resembles the leitmotiv of opera composer Richard Wagner (1813-1883). The leitmotiv was a repeated musical theme associated with a character, a group of characters, an emotion, or an idea. repeated musical theme associated with a character, a group of characters, an emotion, or an idea. Epic Conventions
Epic Conventions ...Home
...Homer established literary practices, rules, r established literary practices, rules, or devices that or devices that became commonplbecame commonplace in ace in epic poetryepic poetry written later. These rules or
written later. These rules or devices are now known as devices are now known as epic conventions. They include the following:epic conventions. They include the following: The invocation of the muse, a
The invocation of the muse, a goddess. In Greek mythology, there wergoddess. In Greek mythology, there were nine muses, all sisters, whoe nine muses, all sisters, who were believed to inspire poets,
were believed to inspire poets, historians, flutists, dancers, singers, astronomers, philosophers, andhistorians, flutists, dancers, singers, astronomers, philosophers, and other thinkers and artists. If one wanted to
other thinkers and artists. If one wanted to write a great poem, play a write a great poem, play a musical instrumenmusical instrument with bravado,t with bravado, or develop a grand scientific or philosophical theory, he would ask for help from a muse. When a
or develop a grand scientific or philosophical theory, he would ask for help from a muse. When a poetpoet
asked for help, he was said to
asked for help, he was said to be “invoking the muse.” The muse of epic poetry was named Calliope *kuh
be “invoking the muse.” The muse of epic poetry was named Calliope *kuh
LY uh pe].LY uh pe].
Telling a story with which readers or listeners are already familiar; they know the characters, the plot, Telling a story with which readers or listeners are already familiar; they know the characters, the plot, and the outcome. Most of the
and the outcome. Most of the great writers of the ancient worldgreat writers of the ancient world
—
—
as well as many great writers in lateras well as many great writers in later times, including Shakespearetimes, including Shakespeare
—
—
frequently told stories already known to the public. Thus, in such stories,frequently told stories already known to the public. Thus, in such stories, there were no unexpected plot twists, no surprise endings. If this sounds strange to you,there were no unexpected plot twists, no surprise endings. If this sounds strange to you, the modernthe modern reader and theatergoer, conside
reader and theatergoer, consider that many of r that many of the most popular motion pictures today are about storiesthe most popular motion pictures today are about stories already known to t
already known to the public. Examples are The Passion of he public. Examples are The Passion of the Christ, Titanic, The Ten the Christ, Titanic, The Ten CommandmCommandments,ents, Troy, Spartacus, Pearl Harbor, and
Troy, Spartacus, Pearl Harbor, and Gettysburg.Gettysburg.
Conflict in the celestial realm. Divine beings fight and scheme against one another in the epics of
Conflict in the celestial realm. Divine beings fight and scheme against one another in the epics of HomerHomer and Vergil, and they do so
and Vergil, and they do so in John Milton's Paradise Lost on a in John Milton's Paradise Lost on a grand scale, with Satan and his forcesgrand scale, with Satan and his forces opposing God and his
opposing God and his forces.forces. Use of epithets.
Use of epithets. See "Homeric Epithet," above.See "Homeric Epithet," above. Attitude Toward the Afterlife
Attitude Toward the Afterlife
...The here and now concerns the Greeks at
...The here and now concerns the Greeks at Troy more than the Troy more than the afterlife, for they generally believeafterlife, for they generally believe that the abode of
that the abode of the dead is dark and the dead is dark and dismal. Consequedismal. Consequently, their main purpose in life is ntly, their main purpose in life is to achieveto achieve immediate reward
immediate rewards and to live s and to live for the moment. The idea of a for the moment. The idea of a heaven that will requite them for goodheaven that will requite them for good deeds, whether on or off the battlefield, is of
deeds, whether on or off the battlefield, is of less importance to them. However, they generallless importance to them. However, they generally doy do revere the gods of Olympus, who take sides in t
revere the gods of Olympus, who take sides in the war. Offending the gods could incur their wrath andhe war. Offending the gods could incur their wrath and affect the outcome of the war.
affect the outcome of the war. Principal Characters
Principal Characters ..
Greeks Greeks
Achilles: Tempera
Achilles: Temperamental Greek warrior and king of mental Greek warrior and king of the Myrmidons, who were soldiers from Thessaly inthe Myrmidons, who were soldiers from Thessaly in Greece. Achilles, the protagonist, leads the Myrmidons against the
Greece. Achilles, the protagonist, leads the Myrmidons against the Trojans. He is revered as Trojans. He is revered as the greatestthe greatest warrior in the world; no man can stand against him. Achilles is t
warrior in the world; no man can stand against him. Achilles is t he son of Peleus, the former king of the son of Peleus, the former king of thehe Myrmidons, and a sea nymph named Thetis.
Myrmidons, and a sea nymph named Thetis. Agamemnon
Agamemnon: Commander-in-chie: Commander-in-chief of f of the Greek armies and son the Greek armies and son of Atreus, the of Atreus, the king of Mycenae. Heking of Mycenae. He incurs the wrath of his greatest warrior, Achilles, by taking the latter's prize of war,
incurs the wrath of his greatest warrior, Achilles, by taking the latter's prize of war, the beautiful Briseis.the beautiful Briseis. Menelaus: King of Sparta and
Menelaus: King of Sparta and brother of Agamemnon. After his wife, Helen, tbrother of Agamemnon. After his wife, Helen, the most beautiful womanhe most beautiful woman in the world, was taken
in the world, was taken by a Trojan named Paris, the Greeks declared war on Troy.by a Trojan named Paris, the Greeks declared war on Troy. Helen: Wife of Menelaus, paramour of Paris, and the most beautiful woman in the
Helen: Wife of Menelaus, paramour of Paris, and the most beautiful woman in the world.world. Odysseus (Roman Name, Ulysses): King of Ithaca
Odysseus (Roman Name, Ulysses): King of Ithaca and brilliant strategist. He is and brilliant strategist. He is unsurpassed in cunning.unsurpassed in cunning. Aias the Great (Roman Name, Ajax the Great): Hulking giant who is second only to
Aias the Great (Roman Name, Ajax the Great): Hulking giant who is second only to Achilles in battlefieldAchilles in battlefield prowess. Many translators of the epic use his Roman name, perhaps because of the force of
prowess. Many translators of the epic use his Roman name, perhaps because of the force of itsits emphatic consonants.
emphatic consonants.
Aias the Lesser (Roman Name, Ajax the Lesser, or the Locrian Ajax): Leader of the Locrian archers on the Aias the Lesser (Roman Name, Ajax the Lesser, or the Locrian Ajax): Leader of the Locrian archers on the Greek side.
Greek side.
Patroclus: Greek warrior and beloved companion of Achilles. Patroclus: Greek warrior and beloved companion of Achilles. Diomedes: Greek warrior of extraordinary valor and ability. Diomedes: Greek warrior of extraordinary valor and ability. Calchas: Greek soothsayer who
Calchas: Greek soothsayer who advises Agamemnon.advises Agamemnon. Nestor: Wise old king
Nestor: Wise old king who advises Agamemnon.who advises Agamemnon. Diomedes: Powerful Greek warrior.
Diomedes: Powerful Greek warrior. Idomeneus: King of Crete, who leads
Idomeneus: King of Crete, who leads a Greek contingent against the a Greek contingent against the Trojans.Trojans. Machaon: Greek physician wounded by Paris.
Machaon: Greek physician wounded by Paris. Automedon: Chariot driver for
Automedon: Chariot driver for Achilles.Achilles.
Phoenix: Elderly Greek warrior and trusted friend of
Phoenix: Elderly Greek warrior and trusted friend of Achilles.Achilles. Briseis: Beautiful captive of
Briseis: Beautiful captive of Achilles.Achilles.
Chryseis: Female captive of Agamemnon. He is forced to
Chryseis: Female captive of Agamemnon. He is forced to give her up.give her up. Eudorus: Myrmidon commander under Achilles.
Eudorus: Myrmidon commander under Achilles.
Neoptolemus: Son of Achilles. He arrives at Troy in the last year of
Neoptolemus: Son of Achilles. He arrives at Troy in the last year of fighting.fighting. Stentor: Greek herald.
Stentor: Greek herald. Trojans
Trojans
Priam: King of Troy. Priam: King of Troy.
Hecuba: Wife of Priam and queen of Troy. Hecuba: Wife of Priam and queen of Troy. Hector: Bravest and most
Hector: Bravest and most accomplisheaccomplished of d of the Trojan warriors; son of the Trojan warriors; son of Priam. Achilles slays him.Priam. Achilles slays him. Andromache
Andromache: Hector's : Hector's noble and dedicated noble and dedicated wife.wife. Astyanax: Son of Hector
Astyanax: Son of Hector and Andromache.and Andromache. Paris: Trojan who took
Paris: Trojan who took Helen From Menelaus.Helen From Menelaus. Aeneas: Brave and
Aeneas: Brave and powerful Trojan warrior.powerful Trojan warrior. Polydamas: Wise Trojan
Polydamas: Wise Trojan commandecommander.r. Glaucus: Great Trojan warrior.
Glaucus: Great Trojan warrior. Dolon: Trojan spy who
Dolon: Trojan spy who reconnoiters the Greek camp.reconnoiters the Greek camp. Pandarus: Trojan archer.
Pandarus: Trojan archer.
Antenor: Advisor to King Priam. He argues that Paris should return Helen to the Greeks, but P
Antenor: Advisor to King Priam. He argues that Paris should return Helen to the Greeks, but P aris will notaris will not give her up.
Sarpedon: Leader of the Lycian allies on the side the
Sarpedon: Leader of the Lycian allies on the side the Trojans. He fights bravely but dies at the hands Trojans. He fights bravely but dies at the hands of of Patroclus. Sarpedon was the son of Zeus and Laodameia, a
Patroclus. Sarpedon was the son of Zeus and Laodameia, a human.human. Laocoön: Trojan seer.
Laocoön: Trojan seer.
Deiphobus: Trojan warrior and son of P Deiphobus: Trojan warrior and son of Priam.riam.
Gorgythion: Trojan warrior and son of Priam. He dies by an arrow meant for Hector. Gorgythion: Trojan warrior and son of Priam. He dies by an arrow meant for Hector. Cebriones: Chariot driver for
Cebriones: Chariot driver for Hector.Hector.
Helenus: Trojan seer and son of Priam and Hecuba. Helenus: Trojan seer and son of Priam and Hecuba. Pandarus: Trojan archer.
Pandarus: Trojan archer.
Euphorbus: Trojan soldier who wounds Patroclus. Euphorbus: Trojan soldier who wounds Patroclus. Gods
Gods
Zeus (Roman names, Jupiter and Jove): King of the gods, who
Zeus (Roman names, Jupiter and Jove): King of the gods, who prefers to remain neutral in the war butprefers to remain neutral in the war but intervenes after a plea for help.
intervenes after a plea for help.
Hera (Roman name, Juno): Queen of the gods, who favors t
Hera (Roman name, Juno): Queen of the gods, who favors t he Greeks.he Greeks. Athena (Roman name, Minerva): Goddess of wisdom and war,
Athena (Roman name, Minerva): Goddess of wisdom and war, who favors the Greeks.who favors the Greeks. Poseidon (Roman name, Neptune): God of the sea, who favors the Greeks.
Poseidon (Roman name, Neptune): God of the sea, who favors the Greeks. Hephaestus (Roman name, Vulcan): God of the forge, who favors the Greeks. Hephaestus (Roman name, Vulcan): God of the forge, who favors the Greeks. Aphrodite (Roman name, Venu
Aphrodite (Roman name, Venus): Goddess of love and beauty, who s): Goddess of love and beauty, who sides with the Trojans.sides with the Trojans. Apollo (or Phoebus Apollo): Highly revered and feared sun god, who sides with the Trojans. Apollo (or Phoebus Apollo): Highly revered and feared sun god, who sides with the Trojans. Ares (Roman name, Mars): God of war, who sides with the Trojans.
Ares (Roman name, Mars): God of war, who sides with the Trojans. Artemis (Roman name, Diana): Goddess of archery and hunting, who
Artemis (Roman name, Diana): Goddess of archery and hunting, who sides with the Trojans.sides with the Trojans. Hades (Roman Name, Pluto): God o
Hades (Roman Name, Pluto): God of the Underworld.f the Underworld.
Hermes (Roman Name, Mercury): Messenger god. He guides Priam to Achilles' tent to ransom the body Hermes (Roman Name, Mercury): Messenger god. He guides Priam to Achilles' tent to ransom the body of Hector.
of Hector.
Thetis: Sea nymph who is the mother of Achilles. Thetis: Sea nymph who is the mother of Achilles. Iris: Messenger goddess.
Iris: Messenger goddess.
Themes Themes
Theme 1:.The wrath of Achilles. The main focus of the Iliad is the anger of
Theme 1:.The wrath of Achilles. The main focus of the Iliad is the anger of the Greek warrior Achilles andthe Greek warrior Achilles and the revenge he seeks against those who wrong him, including the general of the Greek armies,
the revenge he seeks against those who wrong him, including the general of the Greek armies, Agamemnon, and the Trojan
Agamemnon, and the Trojan warriors.warriors.
Theme 2:.Glory and honor are everything. The war
Theme 2:.Glory and honor are everything. The war begins because a Trojan offended Greek honor bybegins because a Trojan offended Greek honor by absconding with the wife of a Greek king. The war continues
absconding with the wife of a Greek king. The war continues
—
—
for fully 10 yearsfor fully 10 years—
—
in part because thein part because the combatants seek glory on the battlefield. In this respect, the combatants are like modern athletes, combatants seek glory on the battlefield. In this respect, the combatants are like modern athletes, actors, and politicians whoactors, and politicians who compete for Heisman Trophies, Academy Awards, and votes. Achillescompete for Heisman Trophies, Academy Awards, and votes. Achilles withdraws from battle on a point of
withdraws from battle on a point of honor; King Priam reclaimhonor; King Priam reclaims his son's s his son's body for the same reason.body for the same reason. Theme 3:.Reveng
Theme 3:.Revenge. The Greeks seek e. The Greeks seek revenge against the Trojans because one of revenge against the Trojans because one of the latter has the latter has taken thetaken the wife of a Greek king. Chryses and Apollo seek revenge because Agamemnon has defied them. Achilles wife of a Greek king. Chryses and Apollo seek revenge because Agamemnon has defied them. Achilles seeks revenge against Agamemnon because the latter has insulted
seeks revenge against Agamemnon because the latter has insulted him. Later, after he reenters thehim. Later, after he reenters the battle, Achilles seeks revenge against the Trojans
battle, Achilles seeks revenge against the Trojans in generalin general
—
—
and Hector in and Hector in particularparticular—
—
for the death of for the death of Patroclus.Patroclus.
Theme 4:.Persistence pays. For 10 years, the Greeks fight
Theme 4:.Persistence pays. For 10 years, the Greeks fight a foreign war. a foreign war. Although they long for theirAlthough they long for their families, although they have lost many men, they refuse to
families, although they have lost many men, they refuse to abandon the battlefield. Ultimately, theirabandon the battlefield. Ultimately, their pertinacity enables them to gain the upper hand, setting the stage
pertinacity enables them to gain the upper hand, setting the stage for ultimate victory.for ultimate victory.
Theme 5:.Women play important roles in motivating action and shaping the future. Helen is the Theme 5:.Women play important roles in motivating action and shaping the future. Helen is the immediate cause of the Trojan War.
priest, Chryseis. Briseis is the cause of the rift between Agamemnon and Achilles. Athena, Aphrodite, Hera, and the sea-nymph mother of Achilles
—
Thetis—
all affect the action of The Iliad significantly. Sometimes these goddesses get the better of their male counterparts....
..
Mythology Background and Plot Summary .By Michael J. Cummings...© 2003
.
Mythology Background
...In the ancient Mediterranean world, feminine beauty reaches its zenith in Helen, wife of King
Menelaus of Greece. Her wondrous face and body are without flaw. She is perfect. Even the goddess of love, Aphrodite, admires her. While Aphrodite competes with other goddesses in a beauty contest
—
in which a golden apple is to be awarded as the prize—
she bribes the judge, a young Trojan named Paris. She promises him the most ravishing woman in the world, Helen, if he will select her, Aphrodite, as the most beautiful goddess. After winning the contest and receiving the coveted golden apple, she tells Paris about Helen and her incomparable pulchritude. Forthwith, Paris goes to Greece, woos Helen, andabsconds with her to Troy, a walled city in Asia Minor (in present-day Turkey).
...The elopement is an affront to all the Greeks. How dare an upstart Trojan invade their land! How dare he steal the wife of one of their kings! Which Greek family would be next to fall victim to a Trojan machination? Infuriated, King Menelaus and his friends assemble a mighty army that includes the finest warriors in the land. Together, they cross the sea in one thousand ships to make war against Troy and win back their pride
—
and Helen. But the war drags on and on. Weeks become months. Months become years. Years become a decade. It is in fact in the tenth year of the war that Homer picks up the thread of the story and spins his tale, focusing on a crisis in the Greek ranks in which the greatest soldier inhistory, Achilles, decides to withdraw from battle and allow his fellow Greeks to fend for themselves. It is Achilles who is the central figure in The Iliad.
...Homer begins with a one-paragraph invocation requesting the Muse (a goddess) to inspire him in the telling of his tale. Such an invocation was a convention in classical literature, notably in epics, from the time of Homer onward.
...
Plot Summary .
...Ten years have passed since the Greek armies arrived in Asia minor to lay waste Troy and win back their honor. Yet in all those years, neither side has gained enough advantage to force a surrender. The Greeks remain encamped outside the walls of the city, their nighttime fires mocking the glittering firmament while their generals plot stratagems and their warriors hone weapons.
...Among the Greek leaders, bloodstained and hardened to war, are Agamemnon, the commander-in-chief; Menelaus, king of Sparta and brother of Agamemnon; Odysseus, king of Ithaca and a military genius of unparalleled cunning; and Aias the Great, a giant warrior of colossal strength. With sword and spear, with rocks and fists, the Greeks have fought the Trojans
—
led by the godlike Hector, theirmightiest warrior, and Aeneas, a war machine second only to Hector on the Trojan side
—
to a standoff. In time, the Greeks believe, they will prevail. They have right on their side, after all. But even more important, they have Achilles. He is the greatest warrior ever to walk the earth—
fierce, unrelenting, unconquerable. When Achilles fights, enemies cower in terror and rivers run with blood. No man can stand against him. Not Hector. Not an army of Hectors....But, alas, in the tenth year of the great war, Achilles refuses to fight after Agamemnon insults him. No one can offend the great Achilles with impunity. Not even Agamemnon, general of generals, who can whisper a command that ten thousand will obey. The rift between them opens after Agamemnon and Achilles capture two maidens while raidi
ng the region around Troy. Agamemnon’s prize is Chryseis, the
daughter of a priest of the god Apollo. For Achilles, there is the beautiful Briseis, who becomes his slave mistress....When Chryses, the father of Chryseis, offers a ransom for his daughter, Agamemnon refuses it. Chryses then invokes his patron, Apollo, for aid, and the sun god sends a pestilence upon the Greeks. Many soldiers die before Agamemnon learns the cause of their deaths from the soothsayer Calchas. Unable to wage war against disease, Agamemnon reluctantly surrenders Chryseis to her father. ...Unfortunately for the Greeks, the headstrong king then orders his men to seize Briseis as a replacement for his lost prize. Achilles is outraged. But rather than venting his wrath with his mighty sword, he retires from battle, vowing never again to fight for his countrymen. On his behalf, his mother, the sea nymph Thetis, importunes Zeus, king of the gods, to turn the tide of war in favor of the Trojans. Such a reversal would be fitting punishment for Agamemnon. But Zeus is reluctant to intervene in the war, for the other gods of Olympus have taken sides, actively meddling in daily combat. For him to support one army over the other would be to foment celestial discord. Among the deities favoring the Trojans are Ares, Aphrodite, Apollo, and Artemis. On the side of the Greeks are Athena, Poseidon, and Hera
—
the wife of Zeus. There would be hell-raising in the heavens if Zeus shows partiality. In particular,his wife’s scolding tongue would w
ag without surcease. But Zeus is Zeus, god of thunder and lightning. In the end, he well knows, he can do as he pleases. Swayed by the pleas of Thetis, he confers his benisons on the Trojans....However, when the next battle rages, the Greeks
—
fired with Promethean defiance and succored by their gods—
fight like madmen. True, their right arm, Achilles, is absent; but their left arm becomes a scythe that reaps a harvest of Trojans. Aias and Diomedes are especially magnificent. Only intervention by the Trojans’ Olympian supporters save them from massacre. Alas, however, when the Trojans
regroup for the next fight, Zeus infuses new power into Hector’s sinews. After Hector bids a tender
goodbye to his wife, Andromache, and little boy, Astyanax, he leads a fierce charge that drives the Greeks all the way back to within sight of the shoreline, where they had started ten years before. Not a few Greeks, including Agamemnon, are ready to board their ships and set sail for home. Such has been the fury of the Hector-led onslaught....Then Nestor, a wise old king of three score and ten, advises Agamemnon to make peace with Achilles. The proud commander, now repentant and fully acknowledging his unjust treatment of Achilles, accepts the advice and pledges to restore Briseis to Achilles. When representatives of Agamemnon meet with lordly Achilles, the great warrior is idly passing time with the person he loves most in the world, his friend Patroclus, a distinguished warrior in his own right. Told that all wrongs against him will be righted, Achilles
—
still smoldering with anger—
spurns the peace-making overture. His wrath is unquenchable. However, Patroclus, unable to brook the Trojan onslaught against his countrymen, borrows the armor of Achilles and, at the next opportunity, enters the battle disguised as Achilles....The stratagem works for a while as Patroclus chops and hacks his way through the Trojan ranks. But
eventually Hector’s spear fells brave Patroclus with no small help from meddlesome Apollo. The Tr
ojanhero celebrates the kill with an audacious coup de grâce: He removes and puts on Achilles’ armor.
Grievously saddened by the death of his friend and outraged at t he brazen behavior of Hector, wrathful Achilles—
with a new suit of armor forged in Olympus by Hephaestus at the behest of Achilles' mother, Thetis—
agrees to rejoin the fight at long last....The next day, Achilles rules the battlefield with death and destruction, cutting a swath of terror through enemy ranks. Trojan blood mulches the fields. Limbs lie helter-skelter, broken and crooked, as
fodder for diving raptors. Terrified, the Trojans flee to the safety of Troy and its high walls
—
all of them, that is, except Hector. Foolishly, out of his deep sense of honor and responsibility as protector of Troy, he stands his ground. In a fairy tale about a noble hero with an adoring wife and son, Hector would surely have won the day against a vengeful, all-devouring foe. His compatriots—
and the gallery of sons and daughters and wives peering down from the Trojan bulwarks—
would surely have crowned him king. But in the brutal world of Achilles—
whose ability to disembowel and decapitate is a virtue—
Hector suffers a humiliating death. After Achilles chases and catches him, he easily slays him, then straps his carcass to his chariot and drags him around the walls of Troy. Patroclus has been avenged, the Greeks have reclaimed battlefield supremacy, and victory seems imminent....However, old Priam, the king of Troy and the father of Hector, shows that Trojan valor has not died with Hector. At great risk to himself, he crosses the battlefield in a chariot and presents himself to Achilles to claim the body of his son. But there is no anger in Priam's heart. He understands the ways of wars and warriors. He knows that Achilles, the greatest of the Greek soldiers, had no choice but to kill his son, the greatest of the Trojan warriors. Humbly, Priam embraces Achilles and gives him his hand. Deeply moved, Achilles welcomes Priam and orders an attendant to prepare Hector's body. To spare Priam the shock of seeing the grossly disfigured corpse, Achilles orders the attendant to cloak it. Troy mourns Hector for nine days, then burns his body and puts the remains in a golden urn that is buried in a modest grave.
...(The Iliad ends here. Homer's audience was aware of the outcome of the war: the defeat and destruction of Troy by the Greeks. When Troy fell, so did Achilles
—
from the wound of arrow shot by Paris and guided by the god Apollo. In his other great epic, the Odyssey, Homer tells the story of the Greek hero Odysseus on his harrowing sea voyage home from Troy.).. ...
Essay Topics and Discussion Questions Compare/Contrast Achilles and Hector
...Achilles and Hector are alike in some ways but different in many others. For example, each is the greatest warrior of his army
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Achilles, the Greek champion, and Hector, the Trojan champion. In addition, both exhibit human flaws—
Achilles, vengeful rage, and Hector, impetuosity, as when he persuades Trojan warriors to leave the safety of Troy's walls shortly before Achilles returns to battle. However, they are unlike in many ways. Whereas Hector is a loving family man, Achilles has no wife or children. He seeks only one thing: battlefield glory. Write an informative essay or hold a discussion that compares and contrasts Achilles and Hector. Consider their personalities, their motivations, t heir intelligence, their leadership qualities, their relationships and standing with those around t hem, their skills as soldiers, their physical characteristics, and their moral and ethical values.Conflict
...Is the central conflict of the Iliad an internal or external one
—
that is, does the epic concern itself more with a conflict inside a person (or persons) or more with a conflict outside of a person (or persons) him, such as the war?...Which character do you most admire? Which character do you least admire? Is your selection based on qualities the character shares with you or on qualities of the character that you would like to have but lack? Overall, what does your choice say about your own personality and characteristics?
The Role of Women
Investigate and report on the role of women in ancient Mediterranean society. Does the treatment of women by Agamemnon, Achilles, Paris, Hector, or any other character reflect the prevailing values of ancient society in Greece and nearby lands?
The Trojan War
...How much of the Trojan War, as presented by Homer, is fact and how m uch legend or myth? As a starting point, look up the name Heinrich Schliemann (or Henry Schliemann) on the Internet or in an encyclopedia. Schliemann (1822-1890), who changed his first name to Henry after moving from his native Germany to America, conducted archeological digs in Turkey (the country where the fabled city was said to be located) in an attempt to prove that Troy really existed. What he found startled the world.
The Gods of Olympus .
...Encyclopedias and mythology books generally list twelve deities as the chief gods in Greek
mythology and as residents of Mount Olympus. However, two of these important deities spent most of their time in the domains which they governed, the sea and t he underworld. In addition, the Greeks of one era sometimes differed with the Greeks of another era on who were the most important gods. Consequently, the list of the favored twelve sometimes changed, omitting one god in favor of another. ...The Olympian gods were the successors of an earlier dynasty of gods known as Titans. The Titan ruler, Cronos, believing that one of his children might attempt to overthrow him, swallowed each of them after his or her birth. However, one child, Zeus, was rescued by his mother and hidden on the island of Crete. Later, Zeus forced his father to vomit the other children from his stomach. Then, with the help of his siblings, he overthrew Cronus to become lord of the universe.
...The names of the chief Olympian deities are listed below. Writers in ancient Greece
—
such asSophocles, Aeschylus, and Euripides
—
used the original Greek names, the English transliteration of which appears at left in the list. Writers in ancient Rome and its dominions used the Latin version of thenames, the English transliteration of which appears in parentheses.
...Some English language writers, past and present, use the transliteration of the Greek version;
others prefer the transliteration of the Latin (or Roman) version. For example, William Shakespeare uses the transliteration of the Latin version in his plays and poems. Instead of referring to the king of the gods as Zeus (the transliteration of the Greek name), he refers to him as Jupiter and Jove, the transliterations of the Latin names (Iuppiter and Iovis). Here are the names of the Olympian gods and a brief description of each:.
Zeus (Jupiter and Jove): King and protector of the gods and humankind. As ruler of the sky, he made rain and thunder and wielded lightning bolts. Zeus was the youngest son of the Titans Cronus and Rhea. Hera (Juno): Queen of the gods and protector of marriage. She was the wife of Zeus and, as the daughter of the Titans Cronus and Rhea, also his sister.
Athena or Pallas Athena (Minerva): Goddess of wisdom and war. She was born fully grown in a suit of armor, issuing from the forehead of Zeus. The Greeks highly revered her and built many temples in her honor.
Ares (Mars): God of war and the son of Zeus and Hera. Poseidon (Neptune): God of the sea and brother of Zeus. Hades (Pluto): God of the underworld and brother of Zeus.
Hephaestus (Vulcan): God of fire and metalwork who built the palaces in which the Olympian gods lived. He also forged their armor and made their jewelry. He was the son of Zeus and Hera.
Apollo, Phoebus Apollo, or Phoebus (Same as Greek Names): God of prophecy, music, poetry, and medicine. His alternate name, Phoebus, means brightness, and he was thus also considered the god of the sun. He was the son of Zeus and Leto, the daughter of Titans. The Greeks highly revered him and built many temples in his honor. One such temple at Delphi was t he site of a famous oracle, the Pythia, who pronounced prophecies as the mouthpiece of Apollo.
Artemis (Diana): Goddess of the hunt. She was the daughter of Zeus and Leto (see Apollo) and the twin sister of Apollo.
Aphrodite (Venus): Goddess of love and beauty. According to Homer, she was the daughter of Zeus and Dione, the daughter of a Titan; according to the Greek poet Hesiod, she was born from the foam of the sea.
Hermes (Mercury): Messenger god who wore a winged hat and winged sandals. He was also the god of science, luck, commerce, and cunning. He was the son of Zeus and Maia, the daughter of a Titan.
Hestia (Vesta): Goddess of the home and hearth and sister of Zeus.
...Other lists of the major Olympian gods omit Hades in favor of Hebe, a cupbearer of the gods. Still others rank Dionysus (Roman name, Bacchus), the god of wine and vegetation and a patron of the arts, as one of the elite twelve.
..
The Abode of the Gods
...The Olympian gods lived in palaces constructed by Hephaestus on the summit of Mount Olympus, the highest peak (9,570 feet) in a mountain range between Macedonia and Thessaly near the Aegean Sea. Mount Olympus is sometimes called Upper Olympus because it lies just north of a lesser peak (5,210 feet) known as Lower Olympus.
...Minor goddesses called the Seasons maintained watch at the entranceway of Mount Olympus, a gate of clouds which opened and closed whenever a god left or returned to Olympus.
...In their lofty domain, the gods breathed only pure air, or ether. They took their meals in the palace of Zeus, eating ambrosia to sustain eternal life and drinking a delicious beverage called nectar, served by Hebe. Near the throne of Zeus sat lesser goddesses known as Muses, who were nine in number. They regaled the gathering with songs of the gods and of earthly heroes and history. These daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne, the goddess of memory, learned under the tutelage of Apollo.
...Other lesser gods on Olympus included the following: (1) Eros (Cupid), god of love and son of
Aphrodite who shot arrows that impregnated humans with love. (2) Iris, messenger goddess of Zeus and Hera who created rainbows when she flew across the sky. (3) Themis, a companion of Zeus who was the goddess of justice. She holds scales on which she weighs the claims in a suit of law. (4) The Charites, or Graces, goddesses of joy and beauty. (5) Nemesis, the goddess of vengeance and punishment. (6) Aidos, the goddess of conscience...
Influence of Greek Mythology and Characteristics of the Gods .
...Since ancient times, western literature has lived at the foot of Mount Olympus, the nearly two-mile high colossus that was believed to be home to important Greek gods. Writers of every age and every genre have invoked the magic of Olympus to make fire and thunder with words
—
or to perfume them with the breath of Venus....The Greek writers Hesiod (born in the 7th or 8th Century B.C.) and Homer (born in the 8th or 9th Century B.C.) immortalized the Olympian gods
—
Hesiod in the Theogony and in Works and Days, Homer in The Iliad and The Odyssey. The Theogony presents a creation myth and a genealogy of the gods, along with accounts of their exploits. The Works and Days advises farmers how to prosper, through honest toiland righteous living, without incurring the disfavor of the gods. Homer’s Iliad tells the story of the final
year of the Trojan War, between Greece and Troy, focusing on the greatest Greek warrior, Achilles, and on the machinations of Olympian gods who take sides and att empt to influence the outcome of the war. The Odyssey narrates the adventures of Odysseus (known as Ulysses to the Romans), a hero of the war who designed the famous Trojan horse to breach the walls of Troy, on his long sea voyage home after the war. While sailing home, the Olympian gods alternately help or hinder his progress. The Iliad and The Odyssey, both epic poems, are among the greatest works in world literature....Every great writer since Hesiod and Homer
—
including Sophocles, Vergil, Ovid, Dante, Chaucer, Shakespeare, and Milton—
has climbed Olympus to retrieve metaphorical divinities or one of their qualities to illumine, clarify, or beautify his or her language....Though everlasting and supernal, the gods of Olympus exhibited humanlike behavior. They could be loving and generous, wise and forbearing. They could also be petty and base, fickle and vile. And, t hey could be quick to anger. In Book I of The Iliad, the Olympian god Apollo descends the great mountain in a rage after the Greek general Agamemnon captures a beautiful maiden and refuses to give her up to her father, Chryses, a priest of Apollo.
[Apollo] came down furious from the summits of Olympus, with his bow and his quiver upon his shoulder, and the arrows rattled on his back with the rage that trembled within him. He sat himself down away from the ships with a face as dark as night, and his silver bow rang death as he shot his arrow in the midst of them. First he smote their mules and their hounds, but presently he aimed his shafts at the people themselves, and all day long the pyres of the dead were burning. (English translation by.Samuel Butler)
The gods could also be quick to laugh. In Book 8 of The Odyssey, the blacksmith god, Hephaestus (Vulcan)
—
a lame and ugly hunchback—
fashions an invisible chain to ensnare his beautiful wife, Aphrodite (Venus), and her inamorato, Ares (Mars), after they rendezvous to make love. In bed, they become hopelessly entangled in the chain. Hephaestus then invites other gods to look upon his unfaithful wife and her paramour caught—like wasps in a spider’s web—
in his trap.On this the gods gathered to the house of Vulcan. Earth-encircling Neptune came, and Mercury the bringer of luck, and King Apollo. . . . Then the givers of all good things stood in the doorway, and the blessed gods roared with inextinguishable laughter, as they saw how cunning Vulcan had been. . . . (English translation by Samuel Butler)
The Gods
The Gods and the hero
The connection between the fragility of life and the pursuit of greatness is made more poignant by t he presence and intervention of the gods in the Iliad. Their interest and t he love they profess to feel for the mortal characters of the poem raises those characters' achievements to a more elevated level. For it is not just that they are honoured by their fellow humans, but also by the immortals. However, the fact that the gods do not need to fear death, are willing to see their favourites killed and to withdraw their involvement in the conflict, if it threatens their own peace and tranquillity, marks them out as
essentially superior and thus causes us to see the true impotence of the human condition. This is what Achilles has realised by the end of the poem, when he says to Priam 'this is the fate that the gods have spun for poor mortal men, that we should live in misery, but they themselves have no sorrows' (24.525-6). For although they claim to care about certain mortals, the deaths of those same mortals seem to affect the gods very little. Sarpedon, Patroclus, Hector and Achilles can all lay claim to divine favour, but it does not prevent their deaths in the poem (or, in Achilles' case, in the near future) and nor does it bring the immortals prolonged grief on the mortal scale. For, in truth, it is the certainty of early heroic death that attracts the gods to them. The acknowledgement of the fragility of their lives (in contrast to the timeless nature of the gods) and the consequent suffering that they undertake is what makes them heroes and what elevates them above the average human in the eyes of the gods.
Thetis
The only god that we see who does not fit into such a conception is Thetis, Achilles' mother. She is
important, not only for being the catalyst for the start of the action of the poem, but also because of her position as an intermediary between the immortal and mortal worlds. Unlike the human characters, she is able to influence the gods directly; but unlike the gods, she feels real grief at human suffering, most obviously that of Achilles. For evidence of this, we only need note that when Achilles is most upset or grief-stricken in Books 1 and 18, his mother comes to comfort him and provides him with important aids to maintaining his reputation as a hero, namely her petition to Zeus and the divine armour. She
understands her son and makes no real attempt to dissuade him from being what he is, a hero. Yet, at the same time, she grieves for his fate privately, as we see in her lament to her fellow Nereids (18.52-64).
The Character of the Gods
The Homeric gods are fascinating because they are not moral exempla. They are not dignified in the way that we expect. In truth, they are little better morally than the mortal characters, but are simply blessed with eternal life and superhuman powers. They are an amalgam of the majestic and the ridiculous, the impersonally powerful and the personally weak. Zeus is the god whose nod shakes Olympus and who can alter the fortunes of either side in the war, yet he also has to avoid upsetting his domineering wife. Aphrodite is the goddess whose gift can cause the whole Trojan War, yet who runs crying to her father's lap when she is injured by Diomedes. Hephaestus can create divine armour of awesome beauty and strength, yet he is also laughed at by his fellow gods in Book 1, as he bustles around. The power of Homer's depiction is in the frequent juxtaposition of these scenes. Zeus' fear of Hera's wrath is followed by his awe-inspiring assent to Thetis' request (Book 1). The wounds dealt by Diomedes to Ares and Aphrodite, in Book 5, are followed by Apollo's warning to the hero that he should never try to be the equal of the gods. While Zeus' seduction by Hera in Book 14 is followed by a re-assertion of his power in Book 15, which sees all the other gods bow to his command.
This juxtaposition of the ridiculous and the sublime emphasises the ultimate power of the gods and their superiority over the mortals whose lives they govern. The contrast is marked throughout. The gods can disagree, yet they do not concern themselves with loss of face, as the hero must, for their lives are not limited. It is not important for them to prove themselves before their allotted time runs out. Similarly, they may enter the battlefield secure in the knowledge that they will not be killed, a situation that means that they are risking nothing and that consequently they can leave the battlefield without any questions being asked. The battlefield is an interest and amusement, not a matter of life and death. Constantly, we are reminded of the frivolous nature of the conflict for the gods, in contrast to its deadly seriousness for mortals. In Book 1, Zeus and Hera quarrel over Zeus' decision to honour Thetis' request Symbolic Representation
The action of the Iliad occurs within a very limited timeframe. We do not see the start of the war nor do we see anything from the first nine years nor do we see Troy fall. Instead, only a few days in the tenth year are covered, separated from the rest of the war by two periods of nine days at both ends of the poem - the plague and the preparation of Hector's funeral. However, in the course of relating these few days, Homer succeeds in producing a poem that is representative of the whole war. The major events that have occurred prior to the period described are symbolically represented by events within the period, while those that are to come are foreshadowed or prophesied.
In Book 2, we are treated to a catalogue of the ships and peoples who are contesting the war. This catalogue and the descriptions of the preparations of the two sides for battle would be more fitting at the start of the war, and yet Homer has seamlessly managed to fit them into the structure of a poem that details the events of the tenth year of that war, without any loss of coherence. Similarly, when Helen stands with Priam at the walls of Troy in Book 3 and points out the great Achaean heroes, it is a scene we would have expected to have occurred long before now. In both cases, the poet represents events that naturally took place in the early days of the war and fits them into the present situation. He contextualises the few days that he is covering.
In Book 3, we are also shown the duel between Paris and Menelaus, which is representative of the start of the conflict. Paris constantly challenges the best of the Achaeans to oppose him in single combat. Menelaus accepts and the two characters whose personal quarrel has resulted in the war find
themselves face to face. Menelaus has the better of the contest and is on the point of killing Paris, when the latter is suddenly rescued by Aphrodite, the goddess whose gift to him started the whole affair. She transports him to his room and forces Helen, against her will, to return there and sleep with him.
Therefore, we see in this episode an echo of the war's origin. We see Paris the aggressor, ill-equipped to deal with the consequences of his actions; Menelaus the victim, wronged by one of t he gods of the victory that should have been his; Aphrodite, the meddlesome goddess, whose allegiance to Paris and his marriage to Helen brings frustration to Menelaus and his fellow Achaean and; and Helen who is reluctant to be with Paris and is conscious of her own guilt.
As far as future events after the end of the poem are concerned, the fall of Troy and the death of
Achilles are constantly foreshadowed within it. In Book 2 (300ff.), Odysseus reminds the Achaeans of the prophecy of Calchas at Aulis that they would sack Troy in the tenth year of the war. On a divine level, Zeus makes it clear throughout that the city is fated to fall and that any success for the Trojans is only short-lived, while symbolically, the destruction of Hector represents the city's own destruction. Having heard in Book 6 that Hector alone is defending the city, the poet makes a pointed remark when
describing the reaction of the Trojan people to the mutilation of their hero's body. After relating how lamentation filled the city, he notes that, 'it was as if all lofty Troy were burning utterly in fire', thus unequivocally connecting Hector's death to the now- inevitable fall of the city.
As for the death of Achilles, as soon as he re-enters the fray, we know, as indeed he does, that he will die shortly. The fact that this does not occur within the poem does not matter, since the fact and
manner of his death have already been made clear. After the death of Patroclus, Achilles' cries of grief reach his mother Thetis' ears. Briefly, she laments her own misfortune in raising a son who will never now return to his father's home, but will die on the plains of Troy. She then goes to him and finds that he is intent on killing Hector, despite knowing that such a course of action will lead inevitably to his death. For he has always been aware of the prophecy that he would either die young and gloriously, or old and unknown. Here, when reminded by his mother of his predicament, he clearly states his choice -'then let me die directly' (18.98).
Further clarity is added to the manner of his death when his horse Xanthus, briefly blessed with the power of human speech, prophesies that he will be 'brought down in battle by a god and a man' (19.417). The final piece of information is provided by Hector in his prophecy as he dies. Apollo will be the god, Paris the man and the location will be the Scaean gates (22.359ff.). We are given, therefore, a relatively
Themes
The Problems of Heroism
To see the Iliad, as many have done, as a straightforward glorification of war and the role of the hero is to neglect many of the complex aspects of the poem and to overlook the fact that its most heroic character ends the poem utterly disillusioned at his own, and his fellow men's, position within the cosmos. On the other hand, to see it as a damning indictment of war and its consequences is to misunderstand the world of Homer and the demands made upon individuals within that world. We must, therefore, find some middle ground between these two polarised views. The question that the poem poses and which the more reflective of the leading players battle with is 'what is it to be a hero?'. Acceptance of the heroic code
The choice that Achilles is given explicitly and which is emphasised throughout the poem is the choice that implicitly every heroic character has to face, namely between a life that is short yet glorious and a life that is long yet obscure. That Achilles, in Books 1 and 9, questions whether his exertions are worth their results is not a rejection of the heroic code per se, but rather a situational dilemma. It is not that he is averse to the heroic lifestyle, which demands that he risk his own life in the pursuit of glory, but that he feels that he is not being rewarded sufficiently. Agamemnon is disrespecting him by threatening to confiscate the gifts and prizes that he has won, the material possessions by which his heroism is
manifestly proven. In addition, he is dishonouring him in front of his fellow Achaeans by insulting him in such a way. Heroism in Homer is all about proving oneself to be better than anyone else, yet
Agamemnon is seeking to outdo him through his rank rather than through his capabilities as a warrior and hence as a hero. To Achilles, a world in which the pay-off for being a hero is not fully realised is a world in which it is not worth being a hero.
Achilles' great speech to Priam in Book 24 (518-551), which has similarly been held up as proof of his rejection of the heroic code, is again no such thing. Certainly, Achilles is pained by the events that have led him to realise that his father Peleus will never see him again and that Priam is in a parallel situation with respect to Hector, but he never suggests that things might have been different. He accepts that this is the hero's lot and that endless grieving is of no use. Men must simply learn to endure the harsh
realities of a life which requires heroes to be heroes in a world governed by divine and ultimately unchangeable rulers.
The difficulty for all the great heroes is in squaring the requirement to be better than anybody else with the need to protect their own people. The hero does not exist in isolation. Heroic status is conferred on him by the people who benefit from his acts of heroism. The requirements of the hero are succintly stated by Sarpedon when he urges on his fellow Lycian king, Glaucus (12.310-328). In order to justify the privileges they receive in peacetime, the two men must prove themselves in war. It is they who must provide the lead and perform the deeds that win the day. Problems arise, however, when the hero's character, which requires that sometimes he overreach himself to bring glory to himself or to avoid being shamed, brings disaster upon those he is supposed to be protecting. Agamemnon, in order not to lose face in front of the Achaean army, succeeds in insulting their greatest warrior with disastrous
consequences. Achilles initially takes umbrage in Book 1 and then refuses to accept Agamemnon's offers of reconciliation via the embassy in Book 9, feeling that his honour has been irreparably damaged, and sees his best friend die the next day. Patroclus, seeking to gain greater personal glory, ignores Achilles' instruction to return to his hut after he has driven back the Trojans from the Achaean ships, and is subsequently killed. Hector rejects the advice of Poulydamas, in Book 18, to return to Troy that night, rather than camping on the plain, and sees the Trojans slaughtered the next day by the returning Achilles. He then refuses the pleas of his family and fellow citizens to retreat inside the walls of Troy, when Achilles is set on single combat, and consequently is slain, a death which, symbolically, marks the fall of Troy itself.
In all these cases, the hero is given the opportunity to relinquish his heroic position by the more pragmatic advice of another party. Every time he rejects it, in order to add to, or at least not detract from, his glory. Every time the consequence of that decision is fatal. And yet, if any of the heroes had decided upon the more pragmatic course of action, they would have abrogated their duty as heroes, which requires them
Character List ACHAEANS
including captive women in the Achaean encampment. Homer calls the Greeks "Achaeans." They are also referred to as Argives, Danaans, and Thessalians.
Achilles
Prince of Phthia. Leader of the Myrmidon contingent. Son of Peleus and Thetis. He is t he central
character of the Iliad. He is by far the greatest warrior involved in the Trojan War. On the battlefield, he is unstoppable, able to rout whole armies single-handedly. Dealing with his rage is the central action of the epic; he sacrifices many of his allies to his pride, refusing to fight because of an insult to his honor. His movement from rage to grief and wrath and finally to recognition is the heart of the Iliad.
Patroclus
Son of Menoetius. Beloved companion of Achilles. Patroclus is Achilles henchman, reared in the house of Peleus, Achilles' father. As a child, he killed a man in anger, and in his exile he was taken in by Peleus. Achilles and Patroclus have been inseparable since boyhood. Patroclus is compassionate as well as fierce; when Achilles will not fight, it is Patroclus who attempts to save his comrades from certain death. He is killed by Hector, and his death brings Achilles back to battle.
Agamemnon
King of Mycenae. Son of Atreus. Brother of Menelaus. Commander-in-chief of the Achaean forces. As the high king of the Achaeans, Agamemnon feels the burden of responsibility most strongly. He is at times torn by indecision, and at other times he is a stubborn and monstrously proud man. His insult to Achilles' honor is an outrage, and he is never able to bring himself to give Achilles the true apology that will bring the great warrior back to battle. But his majesty is recognizable, and his attacks of indecision show how seriously he takes his role as ruler.
Odysseus
King of Ithaca. Son of Laertes. Beloved of Athena, Odysseus is the shrewd counselor and skilled
diplomat. He is cunning and loyal, supporting and spurring Agamemnon when the commander-in-chief falters.
Great Ajax
Also known as Telamonian Ajax. Son of Telamon. Commander of the contingent from Salamis. A giant of a man, Great Ajax is the embodiment of the good soldier and second-greatest of the Achaean warriors. Although he does not drive back whole armies as Achilles, Hector, and Diomedes do, he is a nearly insurmountable bulwark against advancing troops. Halting the enemy advance is his specialty. When he and Little Ajax are grouped together, they are called the Aeantes.
Little Ajax
Also known as Oilean Ajax. Son of Oileus. Commander of the contingent from Locris. Swift of foot, Little Ajax is a great warrior in his own right. He comes quickly when called on by hard-pressed allies. He and Great Ajax work well together as a team. When he and Great Ajax are referred to as a pair, they are called the Aeantes.
Nestor
King of the Nelians. Son of Neleus. Nestor is the oldest of the Achaean kings. He is still courageous and surprisingly strong, but in terms of battle prowess his best days are behind him. He is an important counselor to Agamemnon. He often tells long stories about the exploits of his youth.
Menelaus
King of Lacedaemon. Son of Atreus. Brother of Agamemnon. Husband of Helen. Often in his brother's shadow, Menelaus is still a strong warrior and at times an effective leader. The abduction of his wife Helen is the cause of the Trojan War.
Prince of Argos. Son of Tydeus. Never one to shrink from a fight, Diomedes cries out for battle whenever the possibility of withdrawal is mentioned. He is given great strength by Athena in Book 5, and
slaughters countless Trojans. He also accompanies Odysseus during the night raids of Book 10. Phoenix
Son of Amyntor. He is an old mentor of Achilles, beloved by the great warrior. He relates the story of Meleager, hoping to win Achilles over in the embassy of Book 9, but he does not succeed in persuading Achilles to return to battle.
Antilochus
Son of Nestor. In Book 18, Antilochus is the man on whom falls the hard task of telling Achilles that Patroclus has been killed.
Idomenus
Son of Deucalion. Leader of the Cretan contingent. He and Meriones lead a staunch counterattack on the left side of the battlefield in Book 13. Even at Hector's high tide, Idomenus and Meriones manage to make the Trojans pay a heavy price in lives.
Meriones
Son of Molos. He is Idomenus' comrade and second-in-command. See Idomenus, above. Teucer
Bastard son of Telamon. Half-brother of Great Ajax. Teucer is one of the most sk illed of the Achaean archers.
Calchas
Son of Thestor. He is a great prophet. He correctly diagnoses the cause of the plague in Book 1. Automedon
One of the Myrmidons. He is an esteemed comrade and charioteer of Patroclus and Achilles. Machaon
Son of Asclepius. Co-commander, with his brother, of the Thessalians who hail from Tricca and Oechalia. Machaon is the greatest of the Achaean healers.
Briseis
Daughter of Briseus. Captive woman in the Achaean camp. Given to Achilles as a prize for valor. When Agamemnon retracts the gift, the insult to Achilles honor is the cause of his rage.
Chryseis
Daughter of Chryses. Captive of Agamemnon. When Agamemnon refuses her father's ransom, Apollo brings plague on the Achaeans.
TROJANS and their Allies
Troy is also referred to as Ilium. Hector
Prince of Troy. Son of Priam and Hecuba. Husband of Andromache. Greatest of the Trojan warriors, he is the champion of his people. He is a civilized man, more suited to peacetime than to war. When he slays Patroclus, he brings Achilles back into battle. Hector, in turn, is killed by Achilles.
Aeneas
Son of Anchises and Aphrodite. Leader of those Trojans called Dardanians. A great Trojan champion, he is watched over by the gods to ensure that he survives. He is destined to be the ruler of the Trojans who survive the war.
Priam
King of Troy. Son of Laomedon. Father of Hector, Paris, and many other Trojan heroes. An old man with no appetite for war, Priam watches the battles from the ramparts of Troy. He ransoms Hector's body at the end of the epic.
