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History

 

of

 

Economic

 

Thought

 

Marxism

Overview

Marx

 

did

 

not

 

lay

 

a

 

blueprint

 

for

 

any

 

economic

 

system

Marx

 

studied

 

the

 

production

 

processes

 

within

 

capitalism

–Internal contradictions make it unsustainable

Influences

• Ricardo: Labor theory of value

–Shortcomings addressed by Marx

• Socialists

–Dislike of capitalism

–Criticism of classical economics

–General vision of future society

•Would not be reached unless working conditions were very bad • Darwin

–Analogy between Darwinian natural selection and class 

struggle

–Emphasis on dynamic rather than static analysis

Influences

Hegel:

 

Dialectical

 

process

–Knowledge and progress occur through conflict 

and opposing ideas

•Thesis and antithesis synthesis

Feuerbach:

 

Materialism

–People come to know and accept reality through 

the use of their senses

•Emphasis on the tangible rather than the intangible

•Critical of religion

•Basis of social order is production and exchange

Theory

 

of

 

History

Conflict

 

between

 

forces

 

of

 

production

 

and

 

relations

 

of

 

production

–Forces of production (dynamic): technology, skill, 

labor

–Relations of production (static): rules, private 

property rights, social structure

–Relations eventually come into conflict with forces

•Conflict revolutionizes the system

•Class struggle results in overthrowing old societies

Theory

 

of

 

History

• Six stages: Primitive Communism Slavery 

Feudalism Capitalism Socialism Communism

–Primitive communism (American Indians)

• Land commonly owned and cooperative labor

• Production is very low

• No struggle between classes

• Eventually workers can produce more than subsistence 

–Slavery (Ancient Greeks / Romans)

• Stimulates an increase in production

• Exploitation and class conflicts arise

• Becomes a barrier to further progress because slaves are 

(2)

Theory

 

of

 

History

• Six Stages

–Feudalism (pre‐capitalist Europe)

•Exploitation of serfs obvious •Greater incentive to work than slaves •System limits further progress  –Capitalism (US)

•Substantial increase in productivity

•Private ownership becomes a barrier to progress •Increasing concentration of wealth and unemployment •State acts as an agent of the wealthy

•Working class revolts 

Theory

 

of

 

History

Six

 

Stages

–Socialism

•Dictatorship of the proletariat (workers)

•Free market for consumer goods

•Land and capital publicly owned

•Production and investment are planned

•Eventually becomes self‐sustaining and state withers 

away 

–Communism

Labor

 

Theory

 

of

 

Value

Commodity

 

– Anything

 

capable

 

of

 

satisfying

 

human

 

wants

–Directly: means of subsistence

–Indirectly: means of production

Use

 

values

 

of

 

commodities

 

are

 

the

 

source

 

of

 

wealth

–Did not consider diminishing marginal utility or 

elasticity of demand

Labor

 

Theory

 

of

 

Value

• What determines a commodity’s exchange value?

Socially necessary labor time– the average labor time embodied 

in a commodity’s production

• Includes direct labor and labor embodied in producing machines 

and raw materials

• Only the typical labor time matters

• Marx measured value in units of “simple average labor” –Skilled work counts as multiple units of unskilled labor • Temporary fluctuations may cause price to deviate above or below 

true value, but average price of commodities will reflect labor 

value

• Can be restated in units of gold or money

• Owners of land and capital do not contribute to value – only labor

–Opens the door for exploitation!

–Marx’s value is absolute, Ricardo dealt only with relativevalues

Theory

 

of

 

Exploitation

If

 

all

 

commodities

 

sell

 

at

 

their

 

value,

 

how

 

can

 

there

 

ever

 

be

 

profit?

–Labor is the one commodity that can create value 

greater than its own value

Labor

 

power

– a

 

person’s

 

ability

 

to

 

produce

 

commodities

Labor

 

time

– process

 

and

 

duration

 

of

 

work

Theory

 

of

 

Exploitation

• What determines the value of labor power? –Socially necessary labor time required to produce 

requirements of living in society

•If necessities can be produced with 4 labor‐hour units, then 

the value of labor is 4 hours of labor time per day –Market wage covers only subsistence

•Capitalist economies have reserves of unemployed workers •Profoundly rejected the Malthusian explanation –Profit (exploitation) occurs when workers produce 

morethan a subsistence level of output

•Wage = subsistence level of output, but worker’s daily 

(3)

Surplus

 

Value

Surplus valueis the difference between a  worker’s wage and the value of what he produces  (net of material input costs)

–Would not exist if productivity were so low that 

workers had to consume goods equivalent to their 

own value in order to survive

–Labor time workers spend during work day creates a 

larger value than the value of their own labor power 

(subsistence level)

–Workers have no choice but to agree since capitalists 

own the inputs needed to work

Surplus

 

Value

Capitalist

 

pays

 

some

 

of

 

the

 

surplus

 

value

 

as

 

interest

 

or

 

rent

–Thus, allproperty and interest income arises from 

exploitation of labor in production process

Appearance

 

that

 

labor

 

is

 

properly

 

compensated

 

in

 

a

 

capitalist

 

system

 

is

 

illusory

 

All

 

profits

 

are

 

fundamentally

 

derived

 

from

 

underpayment

 

of

 

labor

Surplus

 

Value

Rate

 

of

 

surplus

 

value

c= cost of raw materials and machinery

v= wages for purchase of labor power

s= surplus value from production

s’= rate of surplus value (rate of exploitation)

s’sv

•Ratio of surplus value to wages

•Ratio of unpaid labor time to paid labor time

Surplus

 

Value

Raising

 

rate

 

of

 

surplus

 

value

–Lengthen working day (absolute surplus value)

•More unpaid labor time relative to paid labor time

–Increase productivity (relative surplus value)

•Produce things worker needs for subsistence in fewer 

than 6 hours

•Value of worker’s labor power falls

Rate

 

of

 

profit

p’s/ (+v)

–Ratio of surplus value to costs

Transformation

 

Problem

1. All commodities sold at their values 2. Labor is the sole source of value

3. Industries that employ relatively more labor  should earn more surplus value since labor is  the only commodity that can be bought below  its value

4. Evidence strongly contradicts (3) – Profit rates tend to equalize

– If anything, capital‐intense industries earn more

profit

Transformation

 

Problem

Marx’s

 

Solution

 

(strongly

 

debated)

–Commodities in capital‐intensive industries sell 

above their values

–Commodities in labor‐intensive industries sell 

below their values

–Labor theory of value still holds, but only on 

average for a capitalist economy as a whole – not 

(4)

Capital

 

Accumulation

Organic

 

composition

 

of

 

capital

Qc/ (cv)

–Measures capital intensity

Profit

 

and

 

capital

 

accumulation

–Recall that p’s/ (cv) and s’sv –Combine: p’s’(1 –Q)

•Rate of profit increases as rate of surplus value 

increases

•Rate of profit falls as capital intensity rises

Capital

 

Accumulation

• Trend towards mechanization – profit rates will fall

• Why don’t capitalists continue to use labor‐intensive 

processes?

–Perfect competition – sellers can make short‐termprofit by 

using more capital and lowering production costs

–Commodity prices then fall!

–Lowers value of labor power

• Substitution of capital for labor raises unemployment

• Large capital investments lead to a growing 

concentration of capital into fewer hands

Capital

 

Accumulation

• Offsets

–Increase rate of exploitation s

•Forcing workers to work longer hours

•Increasing pace of work

–Wages can temporarily be cut below their value

–Capital might become cheaper, slowing fall in the rate of 

profit

–Firms may have an incentive to set up new labor‐intensive 

industries – especially with many people out of work

–Globalization raises profit by lowering cost of capital and 

lowering value of labor (necessities of life)

–Rate of surplus value increased by more efficient 

production

Capital

 

Accumulation

 

and

 

Crisis

• Falling rate of profit leads to increasingly severe  business cycles

• Severely criticized Say’s Law:

“Nothing can be more childish than the dogma that because every sale is a  purchase, every purchase a sale, that therefore the circulation of commodities  necessarily implies an equilibrium of sales and purchases. No one is forthwith  bound to purchase because he has just sold. If the interval of time between the sale  and the purchase becomes too pronounced, this asserts itself by producing a crisis.”

–C = commodity, M=money

–Traditional economy: C M C

–Capitalist economy: M C M’

•Capitalists buy to sell rather than sell to buy •Problem: M’ > M because of surplus value

Capital

 

Accumulation

 

and

 

Crisis

• Business Cycles:

–Rapid investment increases demand for labor – wage 

temporarily rises

–Rates of surplus value and profit erode, sending 

economy in the opposite direction

–Resulting depression destroys the monetary value of 

capital

–Larger capitalists buy up smaller ones at low prices

–Rate of profit is restored again

• Note that each cycle will be increasingly severe

Concentration

 

and

 

Class

 

Conflict

Trend

 

is

 

towards

 

more

 

concentration

 

in

 

control

 

of

 

capital

(5)

Concentration

 

and

 

Class

 

Conflict

Concentration

 

and

 

high

 

rates

 

of

 

unemployment

 

lead

 

to

 

class

 

conflict

–Industrial reserve army: unemployment is normal 

and a product of the business cycle

Ultimate

 

end

 

is

 

in

 

expropriation

–Workers reclaim capital and become the owners

Contributions

 

of

 

Marx

• Participant in establishing a suitable theory of how 

exchange values are determined

• One of the first economists to observe that business 

cycles and unemployment are normal occurrences in 

capitalist economies

–Added to Malthus and Sismondi

• Predicted the growth of large‐scale enterprise and 

monopoly power

–Contrast with Smith’s atomistic competition

• Highlighted substitution rather than complementarity between workers and capital

• Dynamic, rather than static analysis

Criticisms

 

of

 

Marx

Labor

 

theory

 

of

 

value

–Land and capital are sources of value too and are 

entitled to compensation

•Marxian response: labor is used in producing capital 

and rendering land suitable

–Work hours are not constant

•Different people have different labor/leisure tradeoff

•No well‐defined universal “value of labor power”

Criticisms

 

of

 

Marx

• Theory of exploitation

–Wages go to subsistence level because of a pool of 

unemployed workers

•But unemployment in capitalist economies tends to be small 

and temporary

–No large pool of unemployed workers employers 

compete for workers

•Raises wages, reduces work hours and improves working 

conditions

–Empirical: real wages have risen dramatically, and 

labor’s share of national income has risen

Criticisms

 

of

 

Marx

Theory

 

of

 

capital

 

accumulation

–True that capital growing at a faster rate than 

labor reduces return on capital

–Offset: technological improvements that increase 

the productivity of capital

–Empirical: rate of return on capital oscillates with 

business cycle but has not trended down

Criticisms

 

of

 

Marx

Capital

 

accumulation

 

and

 

business

 

cycles

–True that rapid expansions of capacity can lead to 

overcapacity, cutbacks and unemployment

–Empirical: investment rises at a steady rate with 

(6)

Criticisms

 

of

 

Marx

Capital

 

accumulation

 

and

 

unemployment

–Increasing capital only causes unemployment if 

capital and labor are substitutes

•Increasing scale of production might lead to more 

capital andlabor

•Some types of capital are complementary, rather than 

substitutes, for workers

–Empirical: capital accumulation has been 

accompanied by increases in employment

Criticisms

 

of

 

Marx

Class

 

conflict

–Polarization into “capitalists” and “proletariat” has 

not occurred

•Most capitalist economies have healthy middle classes

–The state has ameliorated problems associated 

with capitalism rather than aggravating them

•Marxists: just enough to keep capitalism going

–Marxian revolutions have occurred in low‐capital 

References

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