History
of
Economic
Thought
–
Marxism
Overview
•
Marx
did
not
lay
a
blueprint
for
any
economic
system
•
Marx
studied
the
production
processes
within
capitalism
–Internal contradictions make it unsustainable
Influences
• Ricardo: Labor theory of value
–Shortcomings addressed by Marx
• Socialists
–Dislike of capitalism
–Criticism of classical economics
–General vision of future society
•Would not be reached unless working conditions were very bad • Darwin
–Analogy between Darwinian natural selection and class
struggle
–Emphasis on dynamic rather than static analysis
Influences
•
Hegel:
Dialectical
process
–Knowledge and progress occur through conflict
and opposing ideas
•Thesis and antithesis synthesis
•
Feuerbach:
Materialism
–People come to know and accept reality through
the use of their senses
•Emphasis on the tangible rather than the intangible
•Critical of religion
•Basis of social order is production and exchange
Theory
of
History
•
Conflict
between
forces
of
production
and
relations
of
production
–Forces of production (dynamic): technology, skill,
labor
–Relations of production (static): rules, private
property rights, social structure
–Relations eventually come into conflict with forces
•Conflict revolutionizes the system
•Class struggle results in overthrowing old societies
Theory
of
History
• Six stages: Primitive Communism Slavery
Feudalism Capitalism Socialism Communism
–Primitive communism (American Indians)
• Land commonly owned and cooperative labor
• Production is very low
• No struggle between classes
• Eventually workers can produce more than subsistence
–Slavery (Ancient Greeks / Romans)
• Stimulates an increase in production
• Exploitation and class conflicts arise
• Becomes a barrier to further progress because slaves are
Theory
of
History
• Six Stages
–Feudalism (pre‐capitalist Europe)
•Exploitation of serfs obvious •Greater incentive to work than slaves •System limits further progress –Capitalism (US)
•Substantial increase in productivity
•Private ownership becomes a barrier to progress •Increasing concentration of wealth and unemployment •State acts as an agent of the wealthy
•Working class revolts
Theory
of
History
•
Six
Stages
–Socialism•Dictatorship of the proletariat (workers)
•Free market for consumer goods
•Land and capital publicly owned
•Production and investment are planned
•Eventually becomes self‐sustaining and state withers
away
–Communism
Labor
Theory
of
Value
•
Commodity
– Anything
capable
of
satisfying
human
wants
–Directly: means of subsistence
–Indirectly: means of production
•
Use
values
of
commodities
are
the
source
of
wealth
–Did not consider diminishing marginal utility or
elasticity of demand
Labor
Theory
of
Value
• What determines a commodity’s exchange value?
–Socially necessary labor time– the average labor time embodied
in a commodity’s production
• Includes direct labor and labor embodied in producing machines
and raw materials
• Only the typical labor time matters
• Marx measured value in units of “simple average labor” –Skilled work counts as multiple units of unskilled labor • Temporary fluctuations may cause price to deviate above or below
true value, but average price of commodities will reflect labor
value
• Can be restated in units of gold or money
• Owners of land and capital do not contribute to value – only labor
–Opens the door for exploitation!
–Marx’s value is absolute, Ricardo dealt only with relativevalues
Theory
of
Exploitation
•
If
all
commodities
sell
at
their
value,
how
can
there
ever
be
profit?
–Labor is the one commodity that can create value
greater than its own value
•
Labor
power
– a
person’s
ability
to
produce
commodities
•
Labor
time
– process
and
duration
of
work
Theory
of
Exploitation
• What determines the value of labor power? –Socially necessary labor time required to produce
requirements of living in society
•If necessities can be produced with 4 labor‐hour units, then
the value of labor is 4 hours of labor time per day –Market wage covers only subsistence
•Capitalist economies have reserves of unemployed workers •Profoundly rejected the Malthusian explanation –Profit (exploitation) occurs when workers produce
morethan a subsistence level of output
•Wage = subsistence level of output, but worker’s daily
Surplus
Value
• Surplus valueis the difference between a worker’s wage and the value of what he produces (net of material input costs)
–Would not exist if productivity were so low that
workers had to consume goods equivalent to their
own value in order to survive
–Labor time workers spend during work day creates a
larger value than the value of their own labor power
(subsistence level)
–Workers have no choice but to agree since capitalists
own the inputs needed to work
Surplus
Value
•
Capitalist
pays
some
of
the
surplus
value
as
interest
or
rent
–Thus, allproperty and interest income arises from
exploitation of labor in production process
•
Appearance
that
labor
is
properly
compensated
in
a
capitalist
system
is
illusory
•
All
profits
are
fundamentally
derived
from
underpayment
of
labor
Surplus
Value
•
Rate
of
surplus
value
–c= cost of raw materials and machinery
–v= wages for purchase of labor power
–s= surplus value from production
–s’= rate of surplus value (rate of exploitation)
•s’= s/ v
•Ratio of surplus value to wages
•Ratio of unpaid labor time to paid labor time
Surplus
Value
•
Raising
rate
of
surplus
value
–Lengthen working day (absolute surplus value)
•More unpaid labor time relative to paid labor time
–Increase productivity (relative surplus value)
•Produce things worker needs for subsistence in fewer
than 6 hours
•Value of worker’s labor power falls
•
Rate
of
profit
–p’= s/ (c +v)–Ratio of surplus value to costs
Transformation
Problem
1. All commodities sold at their values 2. Labor is the sole source of value
3. Industries that employ relatively more labor should earn more surplus value since labor is the only commodity that can be bought below its value
4. Evidence strongly contradicts (3) – Profit rates tend to equalize
– If anything, capital‐intense industries earn more
profit
Transformation
Problem
•
Marx’s
Solution
(strongly
debated)
–Commodities in capital‐intensive industries sell
above their values
–Commodities in labor‐intensive industries sell
below their values
–Labor theory of value still holds, but only on
average for a capitalist economy as a whole – not
Capital
Accumulation
•
Organic
composition
of
capital
–Q= c/ (c+ v)–Measures capital intensity
•
Profit
and
capital
accumulation
–Recall that p’= s/ (c+ v) and s’= s/ v –Combine: p’= s’(1 –Q)•Rate of profit increases as rate of surplus value
increases
•Rate of profit falls as capital intensity rises
Capital
Accumulation
• Trend towards mechanization – profit rates will fall
• Why don’t capitalists continue to use labor‐intensive
processes?
–Perfect competition – sellers can make short‐termprofit by
using more capital and lowering production costs
–Commodity prices then fall!
–Lowers value of labor power
• Substitution of capital for labor raises unemployment
• Large capital investments lead to a growing
concentration of capital into fewer hands
Capital
Accumulation
• Offsets
–Increase rate of exploitation s’
•Forcing workers to work longer hours
•Increasing pace of work
–Wages can temporarily be cut below their value
–Capital might become cheaper, slowing fall in the rate of
profit
–Firms may have an incentive to set up new labor‐intensive
industries – especially with many people out of work
–Globalization raises profit by lowering cost of capital and
lowering value of labor (necessities of life)
–Rate of surplus value increased by more efficient
production
Capital
Accumulation
and
Crisis
• Falling rate of profit leads to increasingly severe business cycles
• Severely criticized Say’s Law:
“Nothing can be more childish than the dogma that because every sale is a purchase, every purchase a sale, that therefore the circulation of commodities necessarily implies an equilibrium of sales and purchases. No one is forthwith bound to purchase because he has just sold. If the interval of time between the sale and the purchase becomes too pronounced, this asserts itself by producing a crisis.”
–C = commodity, M=money
–Traditional economy: C M C
–Capitalist economy: M C M’
•Capitalists buy to sell rather than sell to buy •Problem: M’ > M because of surplus value
Capital
Accumulation
and
Crisis
• Business Cycles:
–Rapid investment increases demand for labor – wage
temporarily rises
–Rates of surplus value and profit erode, sending
economy in the opposite direction
–Resulting depression destroys the monetary value of
capital
–Larger capitalists buy up smaller ones at low prices
–Rate of profit is restored again
• Note that each cycle will be increasingly severe
Concentration
and
Class
Conflict
•
Trend
is
towards
more
concentration
in
control
of
capital
Concentration
and
Class
Conflict
•
Concentration
and
high
rates
of
unemployment
lead
to
class
conflict
–Industrial reserve army: unemployment is normal
and a product of the business cycle
•
Ultimate
end
is
in
expropriation
–Workers reclaim capital and become the owners
Contributions
of
Marx
• Participant in establishing a suitable theory of how
exchange values are determined
• One of the first economists to observe that business
cycles and unemployment are normal occurrences in
capitalist economies
–Added to Malthus and Sismondi
• Predicted the growth of large‐scale enterprise and
monopoly power
–Contrast with Smith’s atomistic competition
• Highlighted substitution rather than complementarity between workers and capital
• Dynamic, rather than static analysis
Criticisms
of
Marx
•
Labor
theory
of
value
–Land and capital are sources of value too and are
entitled to compensation
•Marxian response: labor is used in producing capital
and rendering land suitable
–Work hours are not constant
•Different people have different labor/leisure tradeoff
•No well‐defined universal “value of labor power”
Criticisms
of
Marx
• Theory of exploitation
–Wages go to subsistence level because of a pool of
unemployed workers
•But unemployment in capitalist economies tends to be small
and temporary
–No large pool of unemployed workers employers
compete for workers
•Raises wages, reduces work hours and improves working
conditions
–Empirical: real wages have risen dramatically, and
labor’s share of national income has risen
Criticisms
of
Marx
•
Theory
of
capital
accumulation
–True that capital growing at a faster rate than
labor reduces return on capital
–Offset: technological improvements that increase
the productivity of capital
–Empirical: rate of return on capital oscillates with
business cycle but has not trended down
Criticisms
of
Marx
•
Capital
accumulation
and
business
cycles
–True that rapid expansions of capacity can lead toovercapacity, cutbacks and unemployment
–Empirical: investment rises at a steady rate with
Criticisms
of
Marx
•
Capital
accumulation
and
unemployment
–Increasing capital only causes unemployment ifcapital and labor are substitutes
•Increasing scale of production might lead to more
capital andlabor
•Some types of capital are complementary, rather than
substitutes, for workers
–Empirical: capital accumulation has been
accompanied by increases in employment
Criticisms
of
Marx
•
Class
conflict
–Polarization into “capitalists” and “proletariat” has
not occurred
•Most capitalist economies have healthy middle classes
–The state has ameliorated problems associated
with capitalism rather than aggravating them
•Marxists: just enough to keep capitalism going
–Marxian revolutions have occurred in low‐capital