DOI: 10.4018/IJEP.2019010104
Copyright©2019,IGIGlobal.CopyingordistributinginprintorelectronicformswithoutwrittenpermissionofIGIGlobalisprohibited.
Simulating Experiences of
Displacement and Migration:
Developing Immersive and Interactive
Media Forms Around Factual Narratives
James N Blake, Edinburgh Napier University, Edinburgh, ScotlandABSTRACT Immigrationisahighlypoliticisedandemotiveareaofpublicdiscourse.Duringthepeakoftheso-called‘RefugeeCrisis’inEurope,anumberofEUpoliticiansandmassmediaoutletsmanipulated theabstractideaof‘themigrant’asascapegoatforanumberofsocialillsincludingrisingcrime, unemploymentandnationalsecurity.Yet,duringtheseyears,somenewsorganisationsdidseekto counterthedominantnegativenarrativesaroundmigrationbyexploringnewmodesofstorytelling aroundinteractiveandimmersivedigitalenvironments.Thisstudyexaminesfoursuchmediaprojects, alldevelopedbetween2014and2016.Theirinteractivenarrativessoughttobreakdownpopular discourseswhichportrayedmigrantsas“theother”bycreatinganemotionalconnectionbetween mediauserandtheexperienceofrefugeesthemselves.Forthisresearch,journalists,editors,and producerswereinterviewedtodeterminethemotivationsofthecontentcreatorsandtheimpacttheir storytellingtechniqueshadonviewers. KEywoRDS
Documentary, Immigration, Journalism, Migration Crisis, Politics, Refugee, Television, The Displaced, User Agency, Virtual Reality
INTRoDUCTIoN Duringtheyear2015,anestimatedonemillionpeoplelefttheirhomelandstomakethedangerous journeyintoEurope.AccordingtotheUNHCR,this“unprecedented”numberofmigrantswereforced tofleedueto“persecution,conflictandpoverty”(UNHCR/IOM,2015).Halfofthesedisplaced peoplewereescapingthecivilwarinSyria.OtherscamefromAfghanistanandIraq.Mostofthese refugeesenduredtheperilousvoyageacrosstheAegeanSeafromTurkeyintoGreeceofteninsmall andfragileinflatableboats.Inthesameyear,about150,000crossedtheMediterraneanSeaintoItaly fromNorthAfrica.Duringthefirstfivemonthsof2016,morethan2,800werefeareddrownedin theMediterranean.InMay2016,theG7summitinJapandeclaredthe‘largescalemovementsof migrantsandrefugeesasaglobalchallengewhichrequiresaglobalresponse’(G7Statement2016). ItwasahumanitarianemergencyintheheartofEuropethatspannedseveralyearsandstill continuesinto2019.Duringthistime,asanumberofstudieshaveshown,manyEUpoliticalleaders andmediaorganisationssoughttomakepoliticalcapitaloutofthecrisisbyportrayingrefugees asathreat(Wodak2015,Crawley&Skleparis2018).AccordingtoKrzyzanowskietal.(2018), these“politicizedandmediatizedvisions”portrayed“mainlyimaginaryscenariosofmigrantsas
adanger”(p.8).Pineo-PineoandMoore(2015)describetheconsciousmanipulationofthepublic discourseonimmigrationasa“narrativeoroppression”(p.4).Inthischargedsocialclimate,theUN HighCommissionerforRefugees,AntonioGuterres,warnedabouttheescalationof“anti-foreigner sentiments”(UNHCR/IOM,2015). Publicdebateoverthesocialandeconomicimpactoftherefugeecrisisbecamedistorted throughalensofright-wingmediatisation(Trianafyllidou2017,LaBarbera2015).Asthishappened, once-commonlyusedtermsinimmigrationdiscoursebecameloadedwithideologicalandpopulist rhetoric.Inthisway,theword“‘migrant’comesimplicitlytomeansomeonewho’stravellingfor economicreasons,ratherthanforasyetundeterminedones”(Kingsley,2016).However,somemedia organizationsdidseektocounterthesedominantnegativenarrativesinpopulardiscourse.InAugust 2015,forexample,theTVnetworkAlJazeerabannedtheuseoftheword‘migrant’todescribe thosecrossingtheMediterraneanSea.BarryMalonewastheonlineeditoratAlJazeerawhostates:
The umbrella term migrant is no longer fit for purpose when it comes to describing the horror unfolding in the Mediterranean. It has evolved from its dictionary definitions into a tool that dehumanises and distances, a blunt pejorative. (Malone, 2015)
Inasimilarvein,thecategoriesof‘refugee’,‘economicmigrant’,and‘transitorymigrant’, forexample,becameeitherredundantormisleading.AccordingtoCrawleyandSkleparis(2018), “thesecategoriesprovelargelyincapableofadequatelyexplainingthecomplexexperiencesandback storiesofthosecrossingtheMediterraneanin2015.”(p.51).Otherresearchershavewarnedagainst theuseoftheword“crisis”itself.Krzyzanowskietal.state,“referringtoamigration“crisis”is bothstigmatizing—especiallyforthemigrantsthemselves—andaddinganunnecessarilyalarmistic connotationtothisdiscourse”(2018,p.3).
Migrants Portrayed as “The other”
Thisnegativemediatednarrativewascultivatedoverseveralyearsand,inmanycases,wasdesigned toraisedoubtsoverthestatusofrefugeesandtosolidifypublicsupportaroundtheirpoliciesof exclusionandrhetoricof‘bordercontrol’.Astheiragendaconverged,bothpoliticiansandring-wing newspapersmanipulatedthelexiconofimmigrationandportrayedthemigrant‘crisis’througha simplevantagepoint:Ourselvesagainst‘TheOthers’.Asaresult,accordingtoTriandafyllidou(2017) mediareportingwas“subjugatedtodominantdiscoursesonwhobelongsandwhoarethe‘aliens’, the‘outsiders’”(p.2).Indiscussinghisnotionofa“New(s)Racism”,VanDijk(2000)describes that“ethnicissuesprovide…polarizedidentificationformostwhitereaders:UsandThem”(p.37). AtatimewhenEuropeancountrieswerestillreelingfromthefinancialcrisisanddealingwiththe politicsofausterity,these‘others’becameascapegoatwhowereblamedforallmannerofsocialills. Atvarioustimesimmigrantshavebeenblamedforrisingcrime,socialunrest,unemploymentand nationalsecurityconcerns.“Anybodycanpotentiallybeconstructedasdangerous‘other’,shouldit becomeexpedientforspecificstrategicandmanipulativepurposes”(Wodak,2015).ToLaBarbera (2015),“migrantsinEuropearestillthemostmarginalisedothers”(p.6).FoxdescribestheUKdebate onimmigrationaheadofthe2016Brexitreferendum:“italmostbecameamythicalfightagainstevil forcesthathadtobenamed,shamedandexpelledfromthecountry”(2018,p.97). Inthemidstofthisemotiveandpoliticisedpublicdiscourse,thepowerofthemetaphorwas employedasanideologicaltool.Thiswasnotanewstrategyspecifictothe‘migrationcrisis’but theresurgenceofanestablishedpracticeofdemonisationinmediarepresentation.In2008,David Cisnerosstatedthat“immigrantsareframedvisuallyandmetaphorically,usingsimilarrepresentational strategies,asdangerousanddestructivepollutants”(p.570).Suchnegativeandloadedmetaphors resultinthede-humanizationofrefugeesandasylumseekers.AccordingtoPineo-PineoandMoore (2015)“metaphorspresentaculturalnarrativethataffectsthemoralconsiderationofthecharacters involvedinthestory”(p.1).Suchpejorativemetaphorsaroundimmigrationwerenotconfinedto
newspapersandthemanipulationoflanguage.Theuseofphotographicimagesandvideoswerea powerfulmeansofinfluencingpublicopinion:bothontelevisionandsharedonsocialmediasites. SuchvisualcontentwasusedextensivelybypoliticalcampaignsduringthereferendumonBritain’s membershipoftheEuropeanUnion.Forexample,inJune2016,NigelFarage,theleaderofthe UKpro-BrexitpartyUKIP,unveiledaposterusinganimageofalargegroupofrefugeesunderthe heading“BreakingPoint.”Therefugees,however,werenotattemptingtogetintotheUKbutrather crossingtheborderbetweenCroatiaandSlovenia.
Simon Tilford, director of the Centre for European Reform, criticized both Labour and Conservativepoliticalleadersbystatingthattheyshouldhave“shownsomeleadershipbyrefusing tolinkimmigrationwithsocialandeconomicproblems,andbyfacingdownpopulistsentimentin themediaratherthanpanderingtoit”(Tilford,2015,p.3).ItisaviewsharedbyFox(2018)who foundthat“Britishpoliticianshavenourishedthisfalsepopularrepresentationofimmigrants”(p.93). AccordingtoGoodwinandMilazzo(2017),theBritishpublic’sviewsonimmigrationwereadeciding factorintheBrexitvotebecause,accordingtotheirresearch,mostofthosewhovotedtoleavethe EU,“feltnegativelyabouthowhistoricallyunprecedentedlevelsofimmigrationwereimpactingon thenationaleconomy,cultureandthewelfarestate”(p.462). Between2014and2016,EuropeanTVnewsprogrammeswerefilledwiththeimagesofthe ‘migrationcrisis’onaneardailybasis:tensofthousandsofpeoplewalkingfromHungarytoAustria, overcrowdedboatscarryinghundredsofSyrianfamiliesintoGreeceandtheconditionsofrefugee campsinNorthernIraq,LebanonandTurkey.Thesheerscaleofthehumanitarianemergency,coupled withthelogisticsofdailyTVnewsgathering,meantthatmigrantswereoftenvisuallyrepresentedasa largegroupof‘otherpeople’ratherthanasnarrativesofindividualpeoplewithindividualchallenges. However,duringtheseyears,anumberofmediaorganisationsdidattempttobreakdownthe politicalandideologicalportrayalofmigrantsas“others”.Thisarticleexaminestheinteractive andimmersiveprojectsthatsoughttheemotionalinvolvementofviewersintheexperienceof refugees.Thisrequiredadeparturefromtheconventionsofjournalisticstorytellingandrequiredthe developmentofuseragencywithinsimulateddigitalnarrativesasameansoffosteringempathyand sharedunderstanding. Research Methodology Fourcasestudieshavebeenanalysedforthisresearch:allmediateddigitalnarrativeswithafocus onEUmigrationbetween2014and2016.Theprojectswerecommissionedbymainstreamnews organisationsandeachdevelopsaninteractiveorimmersivedigitalsimulationwhichenablesusers, indifferentways,toexperiencethelifeorjourneyofarefugee.Foreachproject,amemberof theproductionteamtookpartinsemi-structuredinterviewsaimedatdeterminingthecontextof productionandtheevolutionofthemediaproductfrominceptiontodelivery.Thisaspectofthe methodologyisrootedinaprocessofeliteinterviewingasenvisagedbyLauraNaderasa“kindof anthropologyconcernedwithpower”(Nader1974).However,inthecontextofmediaproduction studies,elitedoesnotnecessarilymeantheseniormanagersandeditorsofmediatitles.Insteadthis researchhassoughtanunderstandingofthecreativeandjournalisticdrivebehindtheinteractive narratives.AsBrunnstates:“thepurposeofmediaproductionanalysisistogaininsightintowhat isgoingon‘backstage’”(2016,p.134).Interactivemediaprojects,ofsuchambitionandscale,are nottheresultofonepersonbutagroupcollaborationincludingreporters,photographers,camera operators,artistsandeditors.Caldwell(2014)describesmediatextsas“dynamicsitesofintrinsically collective,negotiatedinteractionsbyindustry”(p.721).Forthisresearch,aselectionofdifferent voiceswassoughtthatwouldbereflectiveoftherangeofprofessionalandcreativeinputsintothe projects.Theinterviews,whichwereconductedthroughout2016,soughttoexaminetheunderlying motivationsandproductionprocessesthemselves.Eachintervieweewasaskedaboutconventional storytellingwithinthepublicdiscourseofimmigrationandhowtheirprojectdivergedfromthisin termsofformandintention.Intervieweeswerealsoquestionedaboutthemeansofengagementwith theiraudiencesinrelationtoaudienceparticipationanduseragency.
THE PRoJECTS AND INTERVIEwEES
Can you Break Into Fortress Europe? - The Guardian Newspaper
InJanuary2014,asthe‘migrationcrisis’wasbeginningtogrowinscale,theGuardiannewspaperin theUKcreatedanonlineinteractiveexperienceforitsreaders.Itusedmultimediatools-text,maps, stillsandrealvideotestimonies-toconstructthevariouspossibleroutesforSyrianrefugeestoget intoEurope.Thetitleitselfemployeditsownmetaphor:Europeasanunwelcomingstronghold.When usersenterthesitetheyaretold:‘YournameisKarima.Youarea28-yearoldSunniwomanfrom Aleppo,andyouhavetwochildren’.(Guardian,2014)Usersthentakepartinaninteractivejourney andarepresentedwithmanyofthechoicesandchallengeswhichfacerefugees.Thefirstdecision theyhavetomakeiswhethertotraveltoEuropeorTurkey. Interview:JohnDomokosisadocumentaryfilmmakerfortheGuardianwhohasmadeanumber offactualfilmsonthemigrationcrisisincludingtravellingwithmigrantsastheymadetheirjourney fromSyriatoGermany.HewasoneoftheproducersofFortress EuropefortheGuardian.
Refugee Republic - De Volkskrant / Submarine Channel
Refugee RepublicisanonlinemultimediaprojectwhichwascommissionedbyDe Volkskrant
newspaperintheNetherlands.Itwascreatedbyanartist,ajournalistandaphotographerworking incollaboration.TogethertheyweregivenaccesstotheUNDomizrefugeecampinNorthernIraq todocumentthelivesofthe58,000Syrianrefugeeswholivethere.Ratherthanshootandedita conventionalfilm,theteamdevelopedaninteractiveonlineexperiencewhichisacombinationof artworks,stillimages,text,audiorecordingsandvideofootage.ThesitewaslaunchedinSeptember 2014.Itopenswithanillustrationofthecamp,andletsusersexplorethecommunitybywalking downvirtualstreets,enteringmakeshifthomesandhearingthepersonalstoriesoftheresidents. Interview:JanRothuizenwastheartistinvolvedintheproject.Hecreatedtheillustrationsof thecampincludingstreetscenes,tentinteriors,personalbelongingsandimagesrepresentingtheUN presenceinthecamp.
Two Billion Miles - Channel 4 News
Bytheendof2015,theUKnewsprogrammeChannel 4 Newsestimatedthatmigrantscominginto Europehadcollectivelytravelledatotaldistanceoftwobillionmiles.Theproductionteamused existingTVfootagetocreateanonlineinteractiveexperiencewhichinvitespeopletoputthemselves inthepositionofanasylumseekerescapingfromterrororwarandattemptingtomakeittoEurope. Thesiteaskspeopleto‘chooseyourrouteandmaketouchdecisions’(Fraseretal.,2015).Everytime auserentersthesite,theybegininoneofsixpossiblelocations:SinjarinIraq,Somalia,Eritreaand threecitiesinSyria.Dependingonthechoicestheymake,thereareanumberofdifferentoutcomes totheirjourney.Forexample,theuser(asvirtualrefugee)mightmakeittoEurope,theymightbe turnedawayataborder,theycouldfallpreytopeoplesmugglersorendupinaboatwhichcapsizes intheMediterraneanSea. Interview:EdFraseristheManagingEditorofChannel 4 Newsandhasanoverviewofthedigital andonlinecontentoftheprogrammeoutput.HewasthecommissioningeditorofTwo Billion Miles. The Displaced - New york Times / VRSE works
The Displacedisan11-minuteVirtualRealityfactualfilmcommissionedbytheNew York Timesand
madebytheproductioncompanyVRSEWorksbasedinNewYork.Thefilmaimsforlimitedsensory
immersionandwasfilmedusinga360-degreesixGoProcamerarigtocreatestereoscopicmoving
imageswhichenableviewerstovirtuallyinhabitthefilmedspace.The Displacedwasreleasedwhen theNewYorkTimesunveileditsnewVirtualRealityAppforheadsetsinNovember2015.Thefilm
followstheexperiencesofthreerefugeechildren:aneleven-year-oldboycalledOlegfromeastern Ukraine,aSyriangirlcalledHanawhoistwelve,anda9year-oldboynamedChuolfromSouthSudan.
Interview:ImraanIsmailisafreelancedocumentarymakerforVRSEproductionswhodirected
The DisplacedworkingalongsidejournalistsandeditorsfromtheNew York Times.
THE EFFECT oF INTERACTIoN
Allofthemediaoutletsdiscussedinthispaperinvestedsignificanttimeandresourcestoreporton themigrationcrisisoveralongperiodoftime.Forthemostpart,theirnewsgatheringandcoverage remainedtraditional:onlinearticles,TVnewsreports,andvideodocumentaries.Eachalsodeveloped tailoredsocialmediacontenttoenableuserstoshareandcommentonthecoverage.Onapractical level,itquicklybecameclearthe‘migrationcrisis’wasatragedywhichwasgoingtoendureover alongperiod.Mediaorganisationscouldspendthenecessarytimedevelopinginteractiveprojects whichwouldcontinuetoberelevantovermonthsandyears.Channel 4 Newswasabletousefootage fromitscorecoveragewhichwasadaptedandrefashionedintotheinteractiveexperiences.EdFraser, fromChannel 4 News,states:“Wewantedtocreateabigpublicinterestproject.Wehadgotallof theseamazingreportsandwehadcapturedallofthispowerfulvideo.Wethought:‘let’sfindaway ofusingallthisfootagetofollowamigrantpathjourneyfromstartpointtoendpoint.Dothese journeys,makeitveryinteractiveandgiveviewersrealchoices”. Amongtheinterviewees,therewasanawarenessthatsomeaudienceswerebecomingde-sensitized oftheongoingcoveragearoundthecrisis.Thisisnottosaythatpeoplenolongerconsideredtheissue importantbutratherthattheyfeltoverwhelmedbythescaleanddurationoftheemergency.John DomokosdescribesthediscussionswithintheGuardiannewsroomin2014:“manyofthestories andvideoswewereputtingoutweren’treallygettingclickedon,”hesays,‘thiswaspartlybecause oftherepetitive,almostendlessnatureofthenewsonthemigrationcrisis.Itfeltlikeviewersand readersgotabitwearyofthestoriesanditwasharderandharderforeachnewstorytomakean impact”.JanRothuizen,anAmsterdam-basedartist,describeshowRefugee Republicwasdesigned, notonlytoalterthestructureandcontentofconventionalpressnarratives,butalsotobreakdownthe highlypoliticisedtonearoundthereportingofimmigration.“Wehavetothinkwhythesestoriesare beingtoldoverandoveragaininthesameway”,Rothuizensays,“Politicalsubjectsarehelpedby alternativestorytelling.Withthemigrationcrisis,we’veseenquitealot,butwhenyouthinkabout whatyou’veseenit’sfromthesameperspectiveandfromthesametoneofvoice’. Narrative Complexity Theprocessofconventionalnewsreportingisconstrainedbyanumberoffactors:fromthelogistical demandsofdailynewsgathering,totherequirementsofbalancewithinregulatoryframeworks,and thepracticallimitsimposedonstoryduration(bothinbroadcastingandinprint).Asaresultofthis, somehaveclaimedthatsuchtechniqueshave,attimes,becomeinsufficienttoconveythedepth andcomplexityoftheRefugeeCrisis.AsCrawleyandSkleparis(2018)observe,themediamakes “simplisticassumptionsabouttheexperiencesofthoseonthemove”(p.59).Likewise,according toTriandafyllidou(2017),“Mediareportingmoreoftenthannotprivilegessimpleblack-and-white accountsofsuchcomplexphenomena”(p.2).Inallthesecasestudies,interactiveandimmersivetools wereadoptedinconjunctionwithtraditionalformstoprovideadepthofemotionalandpsychological understandingwiththeplightofrefugees.ImraanIsmail,thedirectoroftheNYTVirtualRealityfilm The Displaced,states:“It’sasubjectthat’sreallyhardforpeopletograspingeneral:it’ssobigand complex.Thatcomplexitymeansthatpeoplearemoreopentotellingthestoryindifferentways.” AccordingtoJanRothuizen,“todeciphersomethingascomplexasthemigrationcrisis,alternative storytellingdoeshelp.”
BothTwo Billion MilesandFortress Europeemploysimilarinteractivedevicestoenableusers toengagewithafactualstoryascomplexasthemigrationcrisis.Thiswasachievedbyrequiring
participantstomakehardchoices:selectingtheleastdangerousrouteintoEurope,decidingbetween landandsea,orbetweenpayingpeoplesmugglersorremaininginrefugeecamps.Asmuchaspossible thesechoiceswerebasedonthereal-lifeexperiencesofrefugeesandthedangerstheyfaced.These threats,accordingtotheInternationalOrganisationonMigration,“wereharshnaturalenvironments, lackoffoodandshelter,andviolenceinflictedbysmugglersandnationalauthorities.”(IOM,2016, p.4)JohnDomokossaysthatthedecisiontodevelopFortress Europewas‘almostsecondary’to producingatraditionaldocumentary.‘Itwasadecisionthatwetookhalfwaythrougheditingour mainfilm’,Domokossays.‘Wethoughtthematerialhereistoodifficultandcomplextofitinto asingularlinearfilmstory.Wewantedtoexplainsomeofthechallengesanddilemmasfacedby migrantsandrefugees’. Jenkins(2006)arguesthat“thehungerforcomplexity”andthe“desiretorewritecorestories” aredemandsthatconsumersplaceonthemediainaconvergedenvironment(p.259).YetTwo Billion
Miles,Fortress EuropeandRefugee Republicshouldbeviewedasmorethaninteractivemultimedia
websites.It’ssignificantthatthesesiteswerecreatedbymainstreammediagroups.Two Billion Miles servesasalaunch-padforuserstomovebetweenmediachannelsandplatformsinordertoaccess otherstoriesonmigration.Ateachstageofthevirtualrefugeejourney,linksappeardirectingusers tonewsarticlesandotherrelevantinformationsources.Itisaninteractiveexperiencewhichcomes closetoonedefinitionofatransmedianarrativeprocessas“thecarefulplanninganddevelopment ofalargernarrativethathasacoordinatedpresentationtoitsaudienceviamultiplemethodsor storytellingplatforms”(Dowdetal.,2013,p.6).Jenkinswritesthattransmediastorytellingis“the artofworldmaking”whereconsumershavetochasedown“bitsofthestoryacrossmediachannels” (2006,p.21).Thisisagooddescriptionofhowyoungaudiencesconsumenewsonlineandonsocial mediasites:inanon-linearfashion,jumpingfromonesourcetoanother,movingbetweenplatforms inthesearchforinformation,explanation,analysisand(significantly)opportunitiesforparticipation. Suchaudienceswantchoicesandtheywanttobeactivelyinvolvedinmediadiscourse.EdFraser,the ManagingEditoratChannel 4 News,sayshisteamisplanningtodomoreprojectssimilartoTwo Billion Miles:“Wewilldefinitelydosomethingelseinthisarea”,saysFraser,“It’sincumbentonus nottojustgoonsocialmediatogetmoreviewingforourtraditionallinearTVpieces.Wecanbring adifferent,distinctive,originalandinnovativetakeonthesestories”.
The Evolution of User Agency
Accordingtomanyscholars,theconceptofuserinteractionisanecessarycomponentoftransmedia narrativeswhetherthey’rebasedinfactorfiction.Phillips(2013)saysinteractionis“anemergent propertyoftransmedia”(p.119),whilstGiovagnoli(2011)argues“themostimportantnarrative dimensionofatransmediaprojectalwaysconsistsofthewayinwhichtheaudienceinteractswith it”(p.43).Thisactiveprocessoftraversingbetweenmediachannels,ofmakingconsciouschoices andexploringworlds,demandsahighdegreeofaudienceagency.“Agencyisthesatisfyingpowerto takemeaningfulactionandseetheresultsofourdecisionsandchoices”saysMurrayinherseminal bookHamlet on the Holodeck(1997,p.126).Inessence,‘agency’involvesempoweringusersand givingthemasenseofresponsibilityovertheiractions.Itisatermcommonlyusedintherealmof gamestudieswhichisnowincreasinglyrelevantintheresponsetointeractivefactualnarratives. Engagementbymeansofheighteneduseragencyisoneofthecentralthemesthatlinksallof theseinteractiveprojectsonmigration.InexperiencingRefugee Republic,forexample,usersare abletonavigatealongstreetsintherefugeecampanddipinandoutofpersonalrefugeestories containedwithin.JanRothuizenexplains:“Yougivetheviewersomesortofresponsibilitytolook andtowander,toaskmoreandtoseemore.Youenteraworldwhereyouhavethefeelingthatyou discoveredyourself”.TincknellandRaguram(2002)arguethattheconceptofanactiveaudience needstobereconfigured:“thedevelopmentofnewkindsof‘interactive’mediatexts…suggests thatsuchaudiencesmaygobeyondsimplyrespondingtoatext–theymayalsohelptochangeit” (2002,p.201).
Virtual Experiences of Migration VirtualRealityisonetypeofsimulationwhere360-degreevisualrepresentationenablesaformof sensoryimmersion.Murray(1997)describesimmersionas“thesensationofbeingsurroundedbya completelyotherreality,asdifferentaswaterisfromair,thattakesoverallofourattention,ourwhole perceptualapparatus”(p.98).Castranova(2006)arguesthatpeopleturnintoVRplayersbybeing “luredawaybyfunsyntheticworlds”(p.16).Elsaesser(2014)describesvirtualrealityasa“fantasy” of“body-basedsensations”.Thenotionof‘immersion’canapplytoanumberofmediaformsand experiences:frombeingabsorbedinthenarrativeofanovel,toplayingaVRgameorwatching afilmatthecinema.Inordertocategorisethismultiplicityofmeanings,Ryan(2015)outlinesa taxonomyofimmersionbylistingthreevarieties:spatial,temporalandemotionalimmersion.Within thecontextofsimulateddigitalenvironments,theseconceptsimmersioncanbecloselyrelatedto formsofinteraction.AccordingtoSauveetal.(2007),simulationisdefinedas“asimplified,dynamic andpreciserepresentationofrealitydefinedasasystem”(p.252).Morethantwenty-fiveyearsago PimentelandTeixeira(1992)argued“interactivity,likeimmersion,isacrucialaspectofVR”(p.15). Similarly,Lasko-Harvillarguesthat“VRisintrinsicallyinteractive”(1992,p.222).
TheNew York Timesrecommendsviewerstowatchitsfilm,The Displaced,throughaVR headset.Inthefirstscene,viewersfindthemselvesinabombed-outclassroomintheUkraine.It’s possibletolookdowntostareattherubbleanddetritusatyourfeetorlookoutofthewindowatthe destructionofthetown.“Thefactthatyouaredoingphysicalthings”,saysdirectorIrmaanIsmail, “justmovingyourheadfromsidetoside,youfeelthatsortofagencyinwhatyou’redoingandwhat you’reseeing.Youfeelasifyouhavesomesortofroleinit.”Thefilmletsthedisplacedchildren speakforthemselvesbymeansoftheirownaudiotestimonies.Towardstheendofthefilm,viewers findthemselvesfollowingagroupoflaughingchildrenthroughthealleywaysofarefugeecamp. Thepresenceofthefilmmakercanonlybeglimpsedinthemovingshadowsonthetents.Otherwise theuserfeelspartofthecrowd.Inthisway,thefilmattemptstoengenderasenseofempathyand emotionalengagementbymeansofafeelingof‘beingthere’.Thisnotionof‘tele-presence’givesusers theperceptionthattheyareabletointeractwiththeirenvironmentandtherebystepintoanother’s shoesifonlyforamoment.Jones(2017)describesVRas“atooltogenerateempathyandconnection withthestory”(p.175).ToRyan(1994),“theultimatefreedominthemovementofthesensorsis theadoptionofaforeignidentity”(p.17).Withinnarrativesofmigrationanddisplacement,such freedomofthesensescanbreakdownthesenseof“otherness”thathasdominatedmediadiscourses onimmigration.
Immersion, Empathy and Emotional Intensity
ThereisasceneinThe DisplacedwhereVRusersfindthemselvesinthemiddleofafieldinSudan waitingforanaidagencyplanetodropfood.Whenthesoundofanaircraftisheardoverheadthe VRuser,incommonwithrefugeesontheground,instinctivelylooksuptotheskytodiscoverwhere thesoundiscomingfrom.Itisanemotionalanduncomfortablemomentfortheuserwhoisboth insideandoutsidetheactionsimultaneously.Themechanismofvirtualrealitymakesitdifficult toturnawayfromtheexperience.“Allofasuddenyoufeellikeyou’rethere”,saysImraanIsmail, “that’spowerfulbecauseitforcesyoutointeractwiththemedium.Itforcesyoutorespondtowhat’s infrontofyou.Youcan’twalkawaybecauseyou’restillinthatworld.Itforcespeopletobemore engaged”.TheVRheadsetisanti-social:itputsauserinanimmersiveworld,removesanyoutside distractionsandmakesithardtoleave.PimentelandTeixeira(1993)describetheVRexperienceas “thedisappearingcomputer”.TheimmersivenatureofVRcaptures(andcaptivates)theaudience. AccordingtoImraanIshamil,“Interactivityforcesyoutostayinthereandgivesyouanotherreason tokeeplisteningtothestory.” Duringtheyearsoftheso-calledmigrationcrisis,anumberofnewsoutletsproducedvirtualreality filmsalongsidetheirothercoverage.InNovember2015,SkyNewsreleaseda4minute360-degree filmcalledMigrant Crisis: The Whole Picture(SkyNews,2015).Thereport,bycorrespondentAlistair
Bunkall,isverysimilartoaconventionalTVnewsstory.Itdoesn’tseektosimulatetheexperience ofarefugeebutinsteadgivesviewersanimmersivesenseofwhatitwouldbelikeasaTVreporter standingonthebeachinGreecewhenarefugeeboatlands.AnotherVRfilm,madeincollaboration betweenRYOTandAP,putstheviewerintheheartoftherefugeecampinCalaiswhichwasknown as‘TheJungle’.Thefilm,Calais Migrant Camp: Seeking Home(RYOT/AP,2015)givesviewers aninsightofthestreetsandinsidethetentsofthiscommunity.AswithThe Displacedfilm,refugees narratetheirownstoriesfromthecamp.Thereisnoreportervoice-overguidingtheviewerattention andtellingthemwhatisimportant.ThisaspectofconventionalnewsreportingiswhatHeath(2012) describesasthe‘VoiceofGod’anditisnotablyabsentineachofthecasestudiesforgoodreason. Jones(2017)arguesthatimmersivejournalism“isrevokedwhenthereisareporterwhobecomesthe barrierbetweentheaudienceandthesubject”(p.181).Instead,inrelationtoauthorship,successful VRexperiencescomeclosertotransmediastorytellingpractices.AsGiovagnoli(2011)observes: ‘intransmediaprojects,theauthorshipisoftenmorehiddenthanshown,andtheresponsibilityfor thetaleisdisguisedinthestoryanditsdifferentuses’(p.19). Theabsenceofanexplicit‘storyteller’isoneaspectthatunitesallthecasestudiesexploredinthis research.However,beyondThe Displaced,cananyoftheothermigrationcasestudiesstakeaclaimto beimmersive?Thereisanargumentthattheprocessofinteractingwithcontentmovestheuseraway fromasenseofimmersion.Ryan(2015)makesacleardistinctionbetweenVRandotherinteractive forms:“InVRweactwithinaworldandexperienceitfromtheinside’,shesays,‘butininteractive textsoftheselectivevarietywechooseaworld,moreorlessblindly,outofanyalternatives,andwe arenotimaginativelycommittedtoanyoneofthem”(p.12).It’simportanttomakeadistinction betweentheimmersionofthesenses(tele-presence)andbeingcaughtupinanarrative(temporal immersion).Inthisway,usersmightgetimmersedinTwo Billion Milesbecausetheywanttoknow howtheirdecisionswillshapetheoutcomeofanimaginaryrefugee’svirtualjourney. Toheightentheemotionalimpact,eachmediaprojectfocusesontheeveryday:thenormality withinanabnormalcrisis.NoneofthecasestudiesattempttoconveythevastscaleoftheRefugee Crisis.Insteadtheyseektotelltherealityofthesituationbyconcentratingonthepersonaland intimate.“Ithelpedtoconveyachild’struth”saysImraanIsmail,“thiswasmoreaboutconveyingthe humanityofit,ratherthansimplyplacinganevent.”TheteambehindRefugee Republicturnedaway fromthestereotypicalnewsimagesofrefugeecampsandrefusedtoportrayrefugeesasvictims.Jan Rothuizenstates“Iwaskeentogetreallyclosetopeople,nottoportraythemassuch,butinorder toshowdailylife.Ifyouareaproperjournalistyouhavetosticktothefacts,butIcanreallyplay withmyownemotions”.OneofthedrawingsheproducedforRefugee Republicshowstheinsideof oneofthetentsinthesinglesquarteroftheDomizcamp.Itisfullofpersonal,everydayitemsandis surroundedbyshortquotesdetailingthehopesandfrustrationsofthepersonlivingthere.“Thetent isreallyintimate”,saysRothuizen,“it’saboutdailylife…andsharingyourroom.”Phillipsdescribes transmediastorytellingofthistypeas‘therealmofdeepexperiencesandcompletelyimmersive stories,anditcanevokeemotionsthatsimplycan’tbereplicatedinasinglenovelorfilm’.(2013,p. 5).ThisisthelastofRyan’simmersiveformswhichshedescribesas“emotionalparticipationinthe fateofimaginarycharacters”(2015,p.148).Thisisoneaspectofimmersionthatallthesesimulated experiencesshare,eventhoughtheydeploydifferenttechnologiesandnarrativedevicestodoit. Triandafyllidou(2017)arguesthattraditionalmediaroutines“tendtoignoretheperspectiveofmigrants andrefugeesthemselves”(p.2).Theseprojects,inabandoningsuchconventionalmedianarrative techniques,haveattemptedtore-establishtheindividualperspectivesandexperiencesofrefugees. Gameplay and the Limits to Interaction and Immersion
TheinteractivenatureofprojectslikeTwo Billion MilesandFortress Europe,hasre-ignitedthe debatearoundthecompatibilityofnarrativeformsandinteractivegameplay(Pimentel&Teixeira, 1993;Ryan1994,Murray,1997;Juul,2001).Anumberofscholarsmaintainthatgenuineinteractivity withinanarrativeis“animpossibility”(Elsaersser,2014).However,oldboundarieshaveblurredas
manycomputergameshavebecomemoreplot-drivenand,bycontrast,onlinestories(bothfactual andfictional)haveembeddeduseragencywithintheirstructure.Transmedianarratives,inparticular, havebeeninspiredbydigitalgameplayinteractionstocreatenewhybridmediaforms.Accordingto Dowdetal.(2013),“theopportunitiesforvideogamesascomponentsofthetransmediapropertyare tremendousintermsofextendingandexpandingthestorytelling”(p.155).JohnDomokosagrees withrespecttoCan You Break into Fortress Europe?:“Ithadanelementofgamingaboutit’,he says,‘butIhesitatetousethatwordbecausesomepeoplemisunderstanditandthinkthatyouare trivialisingthings.Notintheslightest.Gaming,atbest,canputpeopleintheshoesofthemigrants ortherefugeesattheheartofthestory”. Userinteractionwithinmeditateddigitalenvironmentswillalwaysbesubjecttolimitations.To date,theinteractiveopportunitiesinmostvirtualrealityfactualvideoexperiencesfacesignificant restrictions.Userscanlookaroundsimulatedworlds,buttheycan’teasilymovewithinthevirtual spacenorcanthey‘touch’anyobjectwithinthemediatedworld(withoutthehelpofhapticgloves). Agencyandinteractionfacesignificantrestrictionsintheothermigrationprojectstoo.WithinRefugee Republicviewersarefreetovirtuallyexplorethecampbutonlywithinstrictparameters:theycan’t gointoanytenttheychoose,forexample,orapproachanypersonfeaturedinthecamp.InbothTwo
Billion MilesandFortress Europe,usersarepresentedwithchoicesbutaregivenonlytwoorthree
optionsateachstageoftheirjourney.Thereare,ofcourse,goodreasonsfortheboundariesinherent inthesimulatedworld:themigrantjourneyscanonlyrepresentanaggregateexperiencebasedonreal refugeejourneysintoEurope.Beyondthis,thescaleoftheinteractiveprojectislimitedbyboththe scopeofthetechnologicalsystemsandtheexistingdigitalcontentusedtosteerthenarratives.The outcomesofthejourneys-althoughvariedandmultiple–arerestrictedandbuiltintothestructure ofthesystems.Theyshouldbeconsidered‘embedded’narrativeexperiencesand,asaresult,the scopeofinteractionandthesenseofuseragencyislimited. CoNCLUSIoN Despitetheselimitations,whatissignificantintheseprojectsistheperceptionofagencyanduser involvementwithinthenarrativesofmigrationanddisplacement.Theseexperiencesengenderthe ‘prospective,anticipatoryattitudeofthegameplayer’(Ryan,2001).Thefourprojectshaveproved popularbecausetheyenableuserstofeelaconnectionwiththelivesofotherpeoplefleeingtheir homes.InthecaseoftheVRfilmThe Displaced,thisinvolvesaformofsensoryimmersion.With theothertransmedianarratives,usersfeelaconnectiontothepersonalstoriesofrefugeesbecause interactionenablesthemtofeelliketheyareexperiencing,atleastinasmallway,theemotional journeyofarefugee.Itisimportanttostressthatnotoneoftheintervieweessuggestedthatthese interactiveformscanorshouldreplacetraditionalnewsreportingordocumentaryfilmmaking.Instead, interactiveandimmersiveformshavebeenusedasaadditionalmethodtogenerateempathyand breakdownthesocialandpsychologicalbarriersthatframemigrantsas“others”.Inthisway,they seekthechallengethenegativepoliticisationofimmigrationinpublicdiscourse. FUNDING Thisresearchreceivednospecificgrantfromanyfundingagencyinthepublic,commercial,ornot-for-profitsectors.
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James Blake is an Associate Professor and the Head of Screen and Media at Edinburgh Napier University. His book: “Television and the Second Screen” was published by Routledge in October 2016. His research focuses on the evolution of interaction and immersive storytelling in TV. For 10 years before joining Edinburgh Napier University James worked in the TV news industry at the BBC, Channel 4 News, ITV News and STV.
